Mauryan Art and Architecture

I. Introduction to Mauryan Art

• Mauryan art is a culmination of a long movement that began indigenously and flourished
over time.
• No extant examples of pre-Mauryan sculpture or architecture exist.
• Mauryan art belongs predominantly to Ashoka's reign.
• Mauryan artists departed from the use of wood, sun-dried brick, clay, ivory, and metal,
instead employing stone on a large scale.
II. Influence of Woodworking Traditions
• Mauryan artists replicated the art of working with wood, which had existed in India for
centuries.
• Details of ornamentation in stupa railings, gateways, and chaitya facades were derived from
wooden prototypes.
• The execution in stone by the Mauryans surpassed the technical skill and finesse achieved in
woodwork.
III. Achaemenid Connection
• Mauryan dominions under Chandragupta Maurya extended to Afghanistan, which was
previously part of the Achaemenid Empire.
• Mauryan kings had close relationships with the Hellenistic court, which had been influenced
by Achaemenid art traditions.
• Scholars suggest that Mauryas' contact with the Hellenistic east indirectly exposed them to
Achaemenid art and culture.
• Remains of the city of Pataliputra bear similarities to Susa and Ekbatana, while the Pillared
Hall at Kumrahar compares to the Hall of Hundred Columns at Persepolis.
• Ashokan pillars and their inscriptions show inspiration from Achaemenid practice.
IV. Indigenous Origins of Mauryan Art
• Mauryan art is believed to be a combination of folk and court elements.
• The petrification of the folk wooden shafts contributed to the distinctive features of Mauryan
art.
• The famous Mauryan polish had its beginnings before the Mauryan period.
• Motifs such as the bull, lion, lotus, and geese used in Ashokan pillars have indigenous roots.
• Mauryan art is seen as a continuation of an ancient tradition rather than a distinct episode in
art history.
V. Evolution of Stambha Architecture
• Stambha architecture, originating in wood, transformed into stone as a new medium.
• Over time, pillars acquired capitals and bases, with the shafts becoming eight or sixteen-
sided.
• Examples of these changes can be seen in pillars found in the caves of Karle, Bedsa, Nasik,
Kanheri, Ajanta, and Ellora.
• Some pillars retained Mauryan features while incorporating new architectural elements.
VI. Bell Capitals and Persepolitan Inspiration
• Campanile Ashokan pillars and bell capitals are considered to be inspired by Persepolitan
art.
• However, some scholars argue that both Persian and Ashokan examples have a common
West Asian ancestor, the Aryans.
• The bell capitals feature various figures such as female figures with bovine bodies, elephants
and horses, and addorsed lions.
• While these capitals resemble Persepolis, they also have strong roots in Indian culture, just
like the lotus and swastika motifs.

17.5.1 Examples of Mauryan Art

Section 1: The Most Important Examples of Mauryan Art
• Remains of the royal palace and the city of Pataliputra
• Pataliputra was about 15 kilometers long and 2.5 kilometers wide.
• Surrounded by a moat measuring about 200 meters wide and 15 meters deep.
• Excavations have revealed a small portion of the ancient city.
• Monolithic railing at Sarnath
• Made of polished Chunar sandstone.
• Copied from contemporary wooden originals.
• Consists of the plinth, uprights, horizontal bars, and coping stone carved from a
single monolithic stone.
• Excavated chaitya halls or cave dwellings in the Barabar-Nagarjuni group of hills in Gaya
• Three caves in Barabar hills have dedicatory inscriptions of Ashoka.
• Three caves in Nagarjuni hills have inscriptions of Ashoka's successor, Dasaratha.
• Sudama cave is the earliest and consists of an ante-chamber and a separate circular
cell.
• Lomas Rishi cave is the latest and features relief carvings on the doorway, including
a chaitya arch and elephants approaching stupas.
• Non-edict bearing and edict bearing pillars with their capitals
• Mauryan pillars are tall, well-proportioned, and monolithic.
• Made of sandstone quarried at Chunar.
• Capital in the shape of an inverted lotus, often referred to as the bell capital.
• Capitals of different pillars depict animals such as lions, elephants, and bulls.
• Front half of an elephant carved in round from a live rock in Dhauli, Odisha
• Rock sculpture at Dhauli portrays the front part of an elephant.
• Elephant's trunk curls gracefully inwards, with naturalistic stance and powerful
portrayal.
• Gives the feeling that the elephant is walking out of the rock.
• Common elements shared by Mauryan art examples
• Monumental in conception and design.
• Made of grey sandstone, chiseled beautifully, and displaying a high polish.
 • Associated more with Emperor Ashoka and his successors.
Section 2: Pataliputra - The Mauryan Capital
• Description of Pataliputra's size and features
• According to Megasthenes, the city was 15 km long and 2.5 km wide.
• Surrounded by a moat, had 64 gates, and about 570 towers.
• Excavated remains at Bulandibagh and Kumrahar
• Bulandibagh: Mauryan wooden stockade and fortification walls found.
• Kumrahar: Mauryan Palace complex remains with 80 stone columns and wooden
superstructure.
• Similarities and differences between Mauryan and Achaemenid pillars and palaces
• Differences in design and ornamentation, such as the simplicity of Mauryan pillars.
• Mauryan pillars made of one piece, while Achaemenid pillars consisted of multiple
blocks.
• Both cultures had a tradition of lustrous polish in their columns.
Section 3: Monolithic Railing at Sarnath
• Description and significance of the monolithic railing
• Made of polished Chunar sandstone.
• Copied from contemporary wooden originals.
• Served as a protective boundary around the Stupa.
• Symbolized the boundary between the sacred and the secular.
• Design and carvings on the railing
• Railing consisted of the plinth, uprights, horizontal bars, and coping stone.
• Elaborate carvings depicting various scenes and motifs.
• Scenes include Jataka tales, events from the life of Buddha, and celestial beings.
• Motifs include lotus petals, medallions, and other floral and animal motifs.
• Significance of the carvings and motifs
• Depicted the life and teachings of the Buddha.
• Symbolized the path to enlightenment.
• Demonstrated the influence of Buddhist narratives and symbols.
Section 4: Chaitya Halls in the Barabar-Nagarjuni Hills
• Introduction to the chaitya halls
• Located in the Barabar-Nagarjuni group of hills in Gaya.
• Excavated cave dwellings used by monks.
• Reflect the architectural developments of the Mauryan period.
• Description of the caves in the Barabar hills
• Sudama cave: Earliest cave with an ante-chamber and a circular cell.
• Karan Chaupar cave: Consists of a rectangular hall with a central nave.
• Lomas Rishi cave: Latest cave with an elliptical shape and magnificent facade.
• Description of the caves in the Nagarjuni hills
 • Gopika cave: Rectangular cave with a porch and a single-cell structure.
• Vadithi cave: Rectangular cave with an open courtyard and cells on three sides.
• Vapiya-kaubha cave: Small cell-like structure with two stone beds.
• Significance of the chaitya halls
• Reflect the architectural skills and religious practices of the Mauryan era.
• Indicate the importance of Buddhism during Ashoka's reign.
Section 5: Mauryan Pillars and Their Capitals
• Description and significance of Mauryan pillars
• Tall, well-proportioned, and monolithic structures.
• Made of sandstone quarried at Chunar.
• Served as markers of important locations and edicts.
• Design and symbolism of the capitals
• Capitals in the shape of an inverted lotus, known as the bell capital.
• Carved with animal motifs such as lions, elephants, and bulls.
• Symbolized power, strength, and authority.
• Examples of Mauryan pillars and their capitals
• Ashoka pillar at Sarnath: Capital with four lions, now the national emblem of India.
• Ashoka pillar at Vaishali: Capital with a single lion.
• Sankissa pillar: Capital with an elephant.
Section 6: Other Notable Examples of Mauryan Art
• Description of the front half of an elephant at Dhauli
• Carved from a live rock in Dhauli, Odisha.
• Portrays the front part of an elephant.
• Trunk curls gracefully inwards, giving a sense of movement.
• Significance and interpretation of the elephant sculpture
• Symbolizes power, strength, and grandeur.
• Represents the royal authority and might of the Mauryan Empire.
• Indicates the influence of wildlife in Mauryan art.
• Common elements and characteristics of Mauryan art
• Monumental in size and conception.
• Made of grey sandstone and meticulously chiseled.
• Associated predominantly with Emperor Ashoka and his successors.

Post-Mauryan Phase (c.200 BCE-200 CE)

1. Introduction to Post-Mauryan Art
• Emergence of social groups as patrons of art, leading to widespread art activities
• Shift towards using non-perishable materials like stone for creative expression
• Interaction with art forms beyond the Indian subcontinent, resulting in diverse
influences
 • Development of various schools of art across India
2. Architecture in the Post-Mauryan Period A. Stupas
• Definition and significance: Mounds enshrining relics of the Buddha and disciples
• Early building plan: Hemispherical mound with chhatri, harmika, and vedica
• Later modifications under different patronage:
• Enlargement of hemispherical dome and addition of terrace medhi
• Decorated lintel gateways (toranas) with Buddhist motifs and iconography
• Notable examples: Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi, Amravati
B. Rock Cut Architecture
• Conversion of caves into architectural structures
• Influence from contemporary buildings, resulting in added elements like pillars
• Types of cave buildings:
• Caityas (prayer halls) with central stupas (Hinayana sect) or Buddha images
(Mahayana sect)
• Viharas (living quarters) with main hall and surrounding cells for monks
• Design features:
• Caitya: Large apse-shaped pillared hall with central stupa or Buddha image
• Vihara: Main hall with optional veranda and surrounding small monk cells
• Notable examples: Barabar and Nagarjuni hills (Mauryan period), Western and
Eastern Ghats (Maharashtra)
C. Royal Shrines of Kushanas
• Establishment of shrines as part of a cult to worship deceased rulers
• Notable shrines discovered in Mathura and Surukh Kotal
• Description of statues:
• Seated figure of Vima Kadphises, wearing Scythian clothes and seated on a
throne with lion supports
• Standing figure of Kanishka, depicted with military attributes and carrying a
sword and mace
• Significance: Symbolic representation of the emperor's authority and military
prowess
D. Sunga Pillars
• Exemplified by the Heliodorus pillar at Besnagar near Vidisha
• Commissioned by Greek ambassador Heliodorus, a convert to Hinduism
• Inscription in Brahmi script highlighting devotion to the Bhagavata cult
• Distinct features compared to Mauryan lion-capitals:
• Smaller size, less smooth shaft appearance
• Decorative motifs such as garlands and geese
• Additional discovery of a banyan tree-shaped capital, suggesting the presence of
more pillars in the region
Section 1: Sculpture
1.1 Sculptural Art in the Post-Mauryan Period
 • Sculptural art developed on a large scale, mainly associated with the decoration of religious
buildings.
• Three distinct schools emerged: Gandhara, Mathura, and Amravati.
• The schools produced images of the Buddha, Jaina tirthankaras, and Brahmanical gods,
inspired by Yaksha images of the Mauryan period.
1.2 Sculpture under the Sungas
• Stone sculptures, small terracotta figurines, and bas-relief sculptures were created.
• Stone sculptures were found in Vidisha, Mathura, Ahichchhatra, Kausambi, Ayodhya, and
Pataliputra, depicting Yakshas and Yakshis/Yakshinis.
• Relief sculptures became integral to stupa decoration, with examples found at Sanchi stupa
2, Bharhut, Amaravati, and Jaggayyapeta.
• Symbolic representation of the Buddha through sacred ladder, sacred tree, or sacred altar.
1.3 Gandhara School of Art
• Developed in the north-west region, influenced by Indian, Greek, and West Asian idioms.
• Main theme is Buddhism, with sculptures of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
• Depiction of the Buddha in both standing and seated poses, influenced by Greek and Indian
elements.
• Bodhisattvas depicted in seated and standing variety, wearing dhoti and shawl with elaborate
hairstyles and heavy jewelry.
• Relief sculptures depicting the life of the Buddha, contrasting with other Indic schools that
emphasize Jatakas.
1.4 Mathura School
• Developed in the city of Mathura, influenced by Kushanas.
• Sculptures found belonging to Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Jainism.
• Jaina sculptures depicted Jina in seated or standing pose, similar to Buddhist sculptures with
minor differences.
• Buddhist images shown wearing dhoti and shawl, with facial features inspired by Yaksha
images of the Mauryan era.
• Sculptures of Karttikeya (son of Siva) and Surya found, along with few representations of
Vishnu and Balarama.
1.5 Amravati School of Art
• Developed under Satavahanas and Iksavakus patronage.
• Bas-reliefs and free-standing sculptures were produced.
• Satavahana reliefs found at Amaravati depict the stupa, Jataka tales, scenes from the life of
the Buddha, and Buddhist symbols.
• Improvement in technique and natural appearance compared to Sunga specimens, possibly
influenced by Roman art.
• Ikshavaku reliefs from Nagarjunkonda show further advancements in space usage and lively
figures.
• Free-standing sculptures of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas discovered from Goli, Amaravati,
and Nagarjunakonda, with distinctive features influenced by Mathura.
 Gupta Phase (c. 300-600 CE)
Art and Architecture of the Gupta Period (c. 300-600 CE)
• Golden Age or Classical period celebrated by nationalist historians and art historians.
• Marked by political stability and prosperity, allowing for the emergence of exquisite
indigenous art forms.
• Art characterized as self-possessed, urbane, exuberant, and formal.
• Influenced Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
Section 1: Architecture
1.1 Temples
• Gupta temples divided into two styles: Early Gupta style and Late Gupta style.
1.1.1 Early Gupta Style (3rd to 5th century CE)
• Includes cave temples and free-standing temples.
• Notable Udayagiri Cave Complex in Madhya Pradesh with around 20 caves.
• Three caves bear Gupta period inscriptions.
• Temples have single-roomed structures with a pillared porch for entrance.
• Plain interiors with rich decoration on doorways.
• Porch built separately with square base pillars and vase-shaped capitals.
• Vishnu temple at Tigawa with a small square chamber and pillared porch.
• Temple no. 17 at Sanchi follows a similar plan.
1.1.2 Late Gupta Style (5th to 6th century CE)
• Increased complexity in architectural plans.
• Temples built on platforms with staircases.
• Flat roofs replaced by pyramidal or curvilinear towers.
• Construction with stones and dowels or bricks with mud mortar.
• Elaborate decoration on doorways and walls with depictions of gods, goddesses, and floral
patterns.
• Examples: Vishnu temple at Deogarh and Bhitargaon, Parvati temple at Nachna-Kuthara,
Shiva temple at Bhumara.
1.2 Buddhist Cave Buildings
• Continued construction under Gupta and Vakataka patronage.
• Notable sites: Ajanta and Bagh.
1.2.1 Caitya Halls
• Ajanta caves consist of 30 caves, including caitya halls (prayer halls) and viharas (monastic
cells).
• Mahayana sect predominantly occupied these caves during the Gupta age.
• Rich sculptural representations of the Buddha and bodhisattvas.
• Cave 19 at Ajanta, an older building with Harishena's inscription.
• Entrance designed as a pillared portico with an ogee-curved arch and sun-window.
 • Sculptural representations of the Buddha enclosed within pilasters.
• Interior includes a covered courtyard surrounded by four cells.
• Apsidal hall divided into nave and side aisle by a colonnade of pillars.
• Pillars decorated with fluted patterns and cushion capitals.
• Center of the hall: stupa with harmika and chhatris.
• Dome of the stupa carved with a standing Buddha, harmika with seated Buddha carving.
• Barrel-vaulted roof with beams and miniature paintings of the seated Buddha between them.
• Side aisle has plain walls.
Sculpture
Subsection: Udayagiri and Eran Sculptures
• Udayagiri cave temples: Oldest Hindu cave temples in India with well-preserved sculptural
representations of Hindu deities.
• Siva in Udayagiri cave 4: Ekamukhalingam form with fuller face, almond-shaped eyes, and
fleshy lips influenced by late-Kushana Mathura art.
• Standing Karttikeya in Udayagiri cave 3: Facial features similar to Siva, standing pose
resembling Mathura images.
• Ganesha in Udayagiri: Carved on the left wall outside cave 6.
• Varaha at Udayagiri: Colossal relief depicting Varaha rescuing earth from the ocean. Nagas
paying respect, rishis and celestial beings praising Varaha. Scene spreads to adjacent walls
with reliefs of Ganga, Yamuna, and the ocean.
• Vishnu in Udayagiri cave 13: Presented in anantashayana form, head not well preserved.
• Eran sculptures: Outstanding sculptures of Vaishnava deities found in Eran, Madhya
Pradesh.
• Varaha at Eran: Sandstone sculpture, one from Samudragupta period and another from the
time of Huna invader Toramana. Earth goddess hanging from tusk in both sculptures.
Samudragupta's Varaha has a sash, Toramana's Varaha stands on four feet.
• Narasimha sculpture at Eran: Strong physique with four arms, wide shoulders, flat head, and
wearing a sash.
• Free-standing pillar at Eran: Commissioned in 485 CE, square shaft with bell-shaped capital,
lions on each side of the abacus, male figures representing Garuda.
Section: Sarnath School of Art
• Sarnath school of art: Developed in the last quarter of the 5th century during the Gupta era.
• Standing Buddha images donated by Abhayamitra: Facial features with downward-cast eyes,
sharp nose, curved lips, reflecting tranquillity and enlightenment.
• Abhanga pose: Body tilted left or right, drapery with transparent appearance, characteristic
hand gestures.
• Halos in Sarnath school: Circular or elongated, often adorned with intricate floral designs,
sometimes depicting vidhyadharas and attendants.
Section: Gandhara and Mathura School of Art
 • Gandharan sculptures: Found mainly in Hadda, Afghanistan. Increasing use of stucco
instead of blue schist or green phyllite. Soft facial features influenced by Sarnath school,
continuity in robe and hair style.
• Mathura school of art: Gupta influence. Standing Buddha dated to 434 CE. Red sandstone,
slim and graceful body, relaxed pose, slight bend in right leg, drapery with folds similar to
Gandhara school, round halo.

Post-Gupta Phase
Subsection: Pallavas
• Emerged around 600 CE in Tamil Nadu.
• Controlled large parts of Tamil Nadu, at times including parts of Deccan and Odisha.
• Mostly patronized Hindu temples.
• Temples were mostly dedicated to Brahmanic deities, possibly influenced by Bhakti saints
Alvars and Nayanars.
• Introduced the usage of stone in buildings in South India.
• Constructed both cave-temples and free-standing structures.
• Developed a new artistic idiom under their patronage.
• Pioneered the Dravida architectural style.
• Prominent architectural marvels of the Pallavas found in Tamil Nadu.
Subsection: Chalukyas of Badami
• Rose to power in 543 CE under Pulakesin I.
• Initially controlled Karnataka and later expanded their rule over Maharashtra and Andhra.
• Andhra region was handed over to Pulakesin II's brother Vishnuvardhana, who founded the
collateral branch of the Chalukyas of Vengi in 624 CE.
• Faced frequent conflicts with the Pallavas.
• Constructed both cave-temples and free-standing temples.
• Built temples in both nagara and dravida styles.
• The amalgamation of nagara and dravida styles led to the development of the vesara style.
• Temples in Badami showcase architectural structures in nagara, dravida, and vesara styles.
• Chalukya temples occupy a unique position in the evolution of Hindu temple architecture.

15.4.1 Pallava Architecture

Section: Cave Temples
Subsection: Pallava Cave Temples
• Introduction:
• Built under two Pallava monarchs: Mahendravarman I (590-630 CE) and
Narasimhavarman I (630-668 CE).
• Simple design with a mandapam (hall/pavilion/porch) and a cubical garbha-griha
(sanctum sanctorum).
• Entrance made of pillars or pilasters.
 • Cave Temples under Mahendravarman I:
• Lakshitayatana temple at Mandagappattu.
• Lalitankura temple at Tiruchirapalli.
• Simple decoration scheme with reliefs of dvarapalas and lightly decorated pillars or
pilasters.
• Cave Temples under Narasimhavarman I in Mamallapuram:
• Varaha cave temple:
• Lavishly decorated with reliefs of Varaha, Trivikrama, Gaja-Lakshmi, and
Durga.
• Entrance with pillars and pilasters featuring seated lions as bases.
• Introduction of a water tank near the entrance.
• Trimurti cave temple:
• Three cubical shrines dedicated to Siva, Vishnu, and Brahma.
• Reliefs of dvarapalas and Durga.
• Yali (lion) cave:
• Located in Saluvakuppam village, shaped like a seated lion.
• Pillared porch with pillars shaped as seated lions.
• Purpose of its creation is not understood.
Subsection: Structural Temples
• Introduction:
• Free-standing temples built with stone blocks or bricks under Narasimhavarman II
(700-728 CE).
• Notable examples: Shore temple at Mamallapuram and Kailashanatha temple at
Kanchipuram.
• Shore Temple at Mamallapuram:
• Located within a walled complex overlooking an ancient port.
• Three shrines: Two dedicated to Siva and one to Vishnu.
• Oldest shrine is dedicated to Vishnu, while the two Siva shrines have pyramidal
roofs.
• Ruins suggest the presence of minor shrines, halls, and a ritual ablution tank.
• Kailashanatha Temple at Kanchipuram:
• Located within a rectangular enclosure.
• Main shrine square in shape, housing a Siva-linga.
• Roof with a pyramidal shape topped with a stupika.
• Decorated with barrel-vaulted structures.
• Nine small shrines surrounding the main shrine.
• Separate mandapam for the congregation of devotees.
Section: Pallava Relief Sculpture
• Introduction:
• Sculptural art mainly in the form of reliefs.
• Used for temple decoration, depicting deities and mythological stories.
 • Influenced by the post-Mauryan Amravati school of art.
• Figures characterized by slenderness, animation, and deep carving.
• Features of Pallava Relief Sculpture:
• Figures have the same scale, emphasizing the centrality of the main figure.
• Figures placed centrally on thrones or pedestals.
• Depiction of dvarapalas, seated lions, and dwarves.
• Open-air Relief at Mamallapuram:
• Natural fissure in the rock divides it into left and right portions.
• Depicts an elephant flock, Krishna lifting Govardhana, nagas, and penance scenes.
• Allegorical representation of Bhagiratha's penance and the end of drought and flood.
• Emphasizes irrigation works undertaken by the Pallavas.

15.4.3 Architecture under the Chalukyas

Section: Cave Temples
• Cave Temples under Western Chalukyas:
• Location: Badami and Aihole.
• Three cave temples at Badami: two dedicated to Vishnu and one to Siva.
• Similar plan:
• Entrance: Open courtyard leading to a closed veranda.
• Mandapa: Contains a cubical garbha-griha (sanctum).
• Beautiful decoration:
• Veranda pillars: Square-shaped, adorned with medallions and garlands.
• Mandapa pillars: Round-shaped with cushion capitals.
• Relief sculptures on the walls depict stories related to the chief deity.
• Near the entrance, reliefs of dvarapalas (doorkeepers) and dwarves can be seen.
Section: Structural Temples
• Structural Temples by Western Chalukyas:
• Clusters of temples at Pattadakal, Mahakuteshwar, and Aihole.
• Construction:
• Built with large stone blocks, set together without mortar.
• Architectural styles:
• Nagara and Dravida style temples.
• Unique specimens that cannot be classified as either nagara or dravida.
• Introduction of new elements:
• Open porch, balcony slabs, and carving of auspicious motifs and figures on
pillars.
• These elements became regular features of temple architecture.
• Temples at Aihole:
• Oldest temples of the Chalukyas.
• Notable temples:
 • Gaudara Gudi: Has a unique plan with an open mandapa and a square garbha-
griha.
• Chiki and Ladhkhan temples: Mandapa is closed, and the temples are built on
a platform with a staircase.
• Some temples have a slightly slanted roof.
• Ladhkhan temple has a small shrine on its roof, accessible via a staircase below.
• Believed to have originally been assembly halls that were later converted into
temples.
• Nagara Style Temples:
• Found at Aihole, Pattadakal, Alampur, and Mahakuteshwar.
• Alampur temples built by the Chalukyas of Vengi (collateral branch).
• Evolution of the nagara style:
• Beginning of the cruciform ground plan.
• Example: Huchchappayya temple in Aihole.
• Components: Garbha-griha, mandapa, and ardhamandapa.
• Cruciform ground plan: Components built one after another.
• Garbha-griha features the typical nagara-shikhara (curvilinear roof).
• Ardhamandapa designed as an open porch.
• Other nagara temples by the Chalukyas follow a similar plan.
• Variation: Jambulinga temple in Pattadakal has a closed ardha-mandapa.