Notes:

- Positive values correspond to stretching.

- Negative values correspond to compressing
- The (-) sign in -kx means that the force exerted by the spring opposes the spring’s displacement.
- The force that tries to restore the object to equilibrium is proportional to displacement of an object.

Horizontal Spring:
- At equilibrium, the spring doesn’t exert any force but at maximum speed
- When the object is compressed against the spring, the spring retaliates with force F opposing the
pushing.
- When the spring is released from being stretched, the ball springs to an equal distance on the
other side of the equilibrium point. The ball isn’t moving but a force act on it. F, starts going back
to the other direction.

Vertical Spring:
- Solving for x, gives you the distance the spring stretches due to the ball’s weight.
F=kx → mg=kx → x
Simple Harmonic Motion Simple Pendulum Derivation −F g sin ( θ )=
F=ma F=−kx ω=
x (t )= Acos ( ωt + ϕ )
√ k 2π
= =2 πf =
m T
2
v
r
a ( t )= A ω cos (ω ¿t+ ϕ) ¿
1 2π
T= =
f ω s̈=l θ̈ →−F g sin ( θ ) =ml θ̈ θ̈=
Simple Pendulum Solution
−g
l
θ

v ( t )=−ωAsin ( ωt +ϕ ) θ ( t )=θmax cos ( ωt +ϕ )

'
−π θ (t)=−ω θmax sin ( ωt+ ϕ )
conversion of sin to cos ¿−ω sin(ωt+ ϕ ¿ )¿
2 '' 2
θ (t)=−ω cos ( ωt +ϕ )

√ √ −g
2
k 2 k 2 v ox
''
θ ( t )=
2
sin ( θ )=−ω sin ( θ )
v max= Aω= a = A ω = A A= x o + 2
m
max
m ω L

Amplitude & Phase from initial condition ϕ=arctan(

−v ox
ωx o
)
2π
T = =2 π
ω
Physical Pendulum
√ L
g √ g
ω= ∨¿ ω 2=
L
∑ M =Iα
g
L
vt
Derivation of Phase ∴ θ= + ∅ (true as long as θ=0)
θ=ωt +ϕ
r θ¨' ' =
mgL
I
sin ⁡¿) ω=
√ mgL
I

√ √
2
d x 2 2π I 1 1 mgL
Ordinary Differential Equation m 2
+kx =0 →−ω x (t) T = =2 π f= =
dt ω mgL T 2π I
Vertical SHM m ẍ=mg−k ( x o + x ' ¿ → m ẍ ' =−kx '
'
Comparing stretches x=x o + x
1 2 1 2 2 2 Damped Oscillations x (t )= A eq +t + B e q−t
Kinetic Energy T =KE= m v → m ω A sin (ωt +ϕ )
2 2 2nd ODE m ẍ+ kx+ b ẍ=0

√
1 2 1 2 2 k ζ= b = b
Potential Energy U = k x →U = k A cos (ωt+ ϕ) Natural damped ω o=
2 2 m 2 √ mk 2 m ω
Conservation of Energy (mechanical energy) E=constant Overdamped ζ > 1
E=KE+ PE=T + U → T f +U f =T i +U i wo ζt
x (t )=e ¿
1 2
Total E in Horizontal SMH E= k A Critically Damped ζ =1 x ( t )=( A + B ) e w t o

2 Underdamped ζ < 1
1
[ ]
2 2
PE in Vertical Spring ∆ U = k A cos (ωt+ ϕ) x (t )=e
w ζt
o
cos ( ωo √ 1−ζ t + ∅ )
2
2
 √
mg 1 2 2 2 2
k b
2
PE in a Pendulum U = s → U=mω L θ θs=Lθ '
Damped w =ω o 1−ζ = √ 2
− ,
L 2 m 4 m2
KE max + PE max=Total Energy Energy in damped system must continuously
decrease.
−
1 1 1
E ≈ k ( A e−w ζt)2 ≈ k A 2 e−2 w ζt ≈ k A 2 e
o o

2 2 2
Forced Oscillation m ẍ=−kx−b ẍ + F o cos ( ωt ) Mechanical Waves Ψ (x, t) = A cos(kx − ωt)
Fo 1 v
Wavelength λ=
Resonance A= f
√
m (ω ¿ ¿ o2 −ω2 )2+ 4 ( ω ω ζ ) 2 ¿
o
Wavenumber k =
2π
ω=2 πf f=
c
ω r=ωo √ 1−2 ζ → 2 ζ ≤1 → ζ ≤ √ value
2
λ λ
String Waves General Equation for travelling Waves
m y +¿=Asin (kx−ωt +∅ ) ¿ or y −¿= Asin (kx−ωt +∅ ) ¿
Linear Density μ= ρ=
L
Asin ( 2λπ ( x−ct ) ) , Asin ( kx −kct ) , Asin (kx−
d λ ω
Speed of wave c= = = =fλ
t t k
General Form of Propagating Wave
2 2
∂ψ 1 ∂ψ
2
= 2 2
∂ x c ∂t
Maximum of Functions
y max = A v max= Aω a max= A ω
2
 1 λ
Relationship between frequency and period f= Wave speed v=λf =
T T
Position in SHM with𝜙=0.00 x (t )= Acos (ωt) mass of string m
Linear mass density μ= =¿
General position in SHM x (t )= Acos ( ωt + ϕ ) lenght of string L

√
General velocity in SHM v ( t )=−ωAsin ( ωt +ϕ ) FT
Speed wave or pulse string under tension|v|=
General acceleration in SHM a ( t )= A ω 2 cos (ω ¿t+ ϕ) ¿ μ

√
Maximum displacement (amplitude) of SHM x max =A B
Speed of a compression wave in a fluid v=
Maximum velocity of SHM |v max|=Aω=
√ k
m
k
ρ
Resultant wave from superposition of two sinusoidal waves that are
identical except for a phase shift
|amax|=A ω2 =¿ A m
Maximum acceleration of SHM

−v ox
(
y R (x ,t)= 2 Acos )2 sin (kx−ωt+ ∅2 )
∅

Amplitude & Phase from initial condition ϕ=arctan( ) 2π

ωx o / A Wave number k=
λ
vt

√ √
DerivationofPhase ∴ θ= + ∅ (true as long as θ=0 θ=ωt +ϕ d λ ω T B
r Wave speed c= = = = = =¿ fλ
2 t t k ρ ρ
d x 2
Ordinary Differential Equation m +kx =0 →−ω x (t) v
dt
2 Wavelength λ=
f
Vertical SHM m ẍ=mg−k ( x o + x ' ¿ → m ẍ ' =−kx ' Mechanical Waves Ψ (x, t) = A cos(kx − ωt)
Comparing stretches x=x o + x
' General Wave for sine wave ψ ( xt ) =Asin (kx ± ωt + ∅ )
Newton’s second law taking distance down the slope General Equation for travelling Waves
'
m ẍ=−k x + mgsinθ y +¿=Asin (kx−ωt +∅ ) ¿ or y −¿= Asin (kx−ωt +∅ ) ¿

Angular frequency of a mass-spring system in SHM ω=

√ k
m
Asin ( 2λπ ( x−ct ) ) , Asin ( kx −kct ) , Asin (kx−ωt )
√
2 2
m ∂ψ 1 ∂ψ
Period of a mass-spring system in SHM T =2 π General Form of Propagating Wave 2
= 2 2
k ∂ x c ∂t

√
1 k Maximum of Functions
Frequency of a mass-spring system in SHM f= y max = A v max= Aω a max= A ω
2
2π m
Energy in a mass-spring system in SHM 2L
Original String in propagation time∆ t= =T
1 2 1 2 1 2 c
Etotal = k x + m v = k A
2 2 2 Simple Pendulum Solution
The velocity of the mass in a spring-mass system in SHM θ ( t )=θmax cos ( ωt +ϕ )

√ k 2 2 '
v=± ( A −x ) θ (t)=−ω θmax sin ( ωt+ ϕ )
m '' 2
θ (t )=−ω cos ( ωt +ϕ )
The x-component of the velocity of the edge of a rotating disk
'' −g 2
v ( t )=−v max sin ( ωt +ϕ ) θ ( t )= sin ( θ )=−ω sin ( θ )
The x-component of the acceleration of the edge of a rotating disk
L
a ( t )=−amax cos ( ωt+ ϕ ) 1 2 1 2 2 2
Kinetic Energy T =KE= m v → m ω A sin (ωt +ϕ )
2 2 2
d θ −g
Force equation for a simple pendulum = θ 1 2 1 2 2
dt
2
L Potential Energy U = k x →U = k A cos (ωt+ ϕ)
2 2
Angular frequency for a simple pendulum ω=
g
L √ Conservation of Energy (mechanical energy) E=constant
E=KE+ PE=T + U → T f +U f =T i +U i

√
L 1 2
Period of a simple pendulum T =2 π Total E in Horizontal SMH E= k A
g 2

√
mgL 1 2 2
Angular frequency of a physical pendulum ω= PE in Vertical Spring ∆ U = k A cos (ωt+ ϕ)
I 2
mg 1 2
√
2 2 2
I PE in a Pendulum U = s → U=mω L θ θs=Lθ
Period of a physical pendulum T =2 π L 2
mgL KE max + PE max=Total Energy
Period of a torsional pendulum T =2 π
√I
k
2
d x dx
Damped Oscillations x (t )= A eq +t + B e q−t
2nd ODE m ẍ+ kx+ b ẍ=0
Newton’s 2nd law for harmonic motion m

Solution for underdamped harmonic motion

−b
t
dt
2
+b + kx=0
dt Natural damped ω =
o
m √
k ζ= b = b
2 √ mk 2 m ωo
General Equation for damped harmonic motion
2
x (t )= A o e 2m
cos ( ωt+ ϕ ) → ẍ +2 ωo ς ẋ +ω o x =0
 Acoustic Waves Beats

√ β Beats in phase A= A1 + A2
Speed of sound (liquid & gas) c=
ρ Beats out of phase A=| A 2−A 1|

√ √
elastic modulus Speed in string T a−b a+ b
Speed in solid c= c= cos a+cos b=2 cos ( )cos(
ρ μ 2 2
Force F mass m ω 1+ ω2 ω1−ω
Pressure & density p= = ρ= = ψ ( t ) =2 A cos ⁡( )cos ⁡(
Area A volume v 2 2
β=
−∆ ρ f beats =|f 2−f 1|
Bulk modulus v Doppler Effect
vo v + vo
f o=f s ( )
Pressure related to displacement p ( x , t )=Bk Aψ sin ⁡(kx−ωt +ϕ ) v−v s
Pressure amplitude A p =Bk A ψ =cρω Aψ v + vo
Pressure & Phase difference ( p↑ displacement 0) moving towards f o=f s ( )
v−v s
y ( x , t )= A cos ( kx−ωt ) p ( x , t )= AkBsin ( kx−ωt ) v−v o
Maximum pressure when AkBsin ( kx−ωt )=1 moving away f o=f s ( )
v + vs
2π
p max=AkB → k= → ω=ck c vs
λ Shock Waves sin θ= Mach Number =
Intensity
vs c
Standing Waves
p max2 pmax2
Intensity from pressure I = = Superposition: 2 waves travelling opposite dir
2 ρc 2 √ ρc ψ ( x , t )= Acos ( kx−ωt + ϕ )
Power Fv 1 2 B
When combined
Sound Intensity I = = I avg= B ω k A I =I 10 10
Area Area 2 o ψ ( x , t )= Acos ( kx−ωt + ϕ 1 ) + Acos ( kx +ω
Intensity( amplitude doubled, intensity quadrupled) Reflected Wave(inverted)
Power 1 Power P (W ) ψ ( x , t )= Acos ( kx−ωt + ϕ 1 ) + Acos ( kx−ω
= √ βρ ω A I =
2 2
I= =
Area 2 Surface Area 4 π r 2 (m2 ) ψ ( x , t )= Acos ( kx−ωt + ϕ 1 )− Acos ( kx +
2 2 2
I 2 r2 f 2 A 2 cos ( α− β ) =cos ( α ) cos ( β )+ sin ( α ) sin
= 2= 2= 2 ψ ( x , t )=2 Asin ( kx+ ϕ ) sin ⁡(ωt )
I 1 r1 f 1 A 1

√
Decibel Scale FT nλ
Speed of wave v=
β=( 10 dB ) log 10
( )
I
Io
β 2−β 1=( 10 dB ) log 10
( )
I2
I1
Frequency v=λf
m v=λf Length L= 2
L
Interference / Phase
2π 2π f v
∆ ϕ=k ∆ L= ∆ L= ∆ L ∆ L=|R2−R1|→ dsinθ Nth harmonic frequency fn=
λ c λn
Difference in Path Standing wave on a string fixed at both ends
∆ L=R 2−R1=( R +∆ R' )− ( R+∆ R' ) =2 ∆ R '
C
d
(
∆ L=2 ∆ R ' =2 sin θ =dsinθ
2 ) Lowest fundamental f 1=
Higher harmonic fn=nf 1
2L
Constructive Interference
∆ ϕ=2 nπ n=1,2,3,4..
Max ∆ ϕ=0 ± 2nπ sinθ=
nλ 2 nπ
d
=
kd
For a string fn=
n T
2L μ
v=
√ √
T
μ
λ1
Wavelength for any harmonic λ n= or λ=
Destructive Interference n
Open at both ends
 1 n λn 2 L λ1 fn= n
(n+ ) λ L= λ n= = fn=nf 1
∆ ϕ=nπ n=1,3,5,7.. or (2n+1) n=0,1,2,3 2 2 n n 2L
sinθ=
d Close at one end
1 nC (2 n−1)C
(n+ )λ f= n=1 , 3 ,5∨f = n=1 , 2 ,3
Max ∆ ϕ=π ,±(2n+1)π (2 n+1) π 2 4L 4L
sinθ= = Octave
kd d
1 1
General Equation for Mirror & Lens = +
Law of Reflection θ1=θ reflection f do
sin θR c 2 V (-) virtual image, f (-) convex mirror
Refraction = c1 speed of light in medium 1, c2 in medium 2 I −di
sinθ i c 1 Magnification M = =
O do
speed of light ∈vacuum co Focal Length f=R/2
Refraction Index n= =
ave speed of light ∈. medium c Concave
λ1 c 1 c o /n1 n2 sin θ2 n 1 Convex
= = = Snell’s Law of refraction =
λ2 c 2 c o /n2 n1 sin θ1 n 2
n2 n2 n2
Total Internal Reflection sin θi= sinθ R = sin 90 sin θcrit =
n1 n1 n1
n2
sin θ cant be larger than 1, ≤ 1meaning n2 ≤ n1
n1

1 ft=12 inch 1 km=100m 1m=100cm

1L=1 000ml 1 ml= 1cm^3
M mega 10^6 K kilo 10^3c
c centi 10^-2. m milli 10^-3 micro 10^-6