Electrical Systems

And
Electric Energy Management

Eng H Chingosho
PhD (cand), B.Eng (Hons), MSc (Ren-Eng), MZweIE (ZIE), E.C.Z (ZIM), CEM ®,
AEE (USA).

+263 0773 192 734 / chingoshorus@gmail.com

Main Topics Discussed
• Electric Rates
• Electrical system utilization
• Power quality
• Harmonics
• Power factor (Cos phi) improvement
DC vs AC
• Direct Current
– Electron flow is continuously in one direction

• Alternating Current
– Electron flow changes direction
– Frequency – 50 times per second = 50 Hz
AC
• The usual waveform of alternating current in most electric power
circuits is a sine wave, whose positive half-period corresponds with
positive direction of the current and vice versa.
Basic Electrical Terms & Formulas
Basic Electrical Terms & Formulas

Ohms Law for Voltage (resistive load)

V=IxR
For a fixed resistance, doubling V results in a doubling of I
Basic Electrical Terms & Formulas
Basic Electrical Terms & Formulas
Basic Electrical Terms & Formulas
Basic Electrical Terms & Formulas
Basic Electrical Terms & Formulas
Ohms Law for Power

• For a fixed R, doubling I → in P increase by factor of four

• To reduce distribution losses in a facility, higher voltages
• are used to supply large loads
Power & energy – resistive circuit
• Energy is the capacity for action or work
• Power (p) is the rate of energy conversion
• p = v x i where p, v, i are instantaneous values
Power & energy – inductive circuit (1 Ph)
• P = v x I cos Ø where p, v, i are instantaneous values
Single to three phase systems
• Combination of three separate single phase systems
• Power from generator produces 3 separate, equal voltages each out of
phase by 120° phase angle.

• Why 3 phase:
– Lower mass of the conductors
– Permit more flexibility in the choice of voltages
– Can be used for single phase load
– 3 phase equipment smaller in size, lighter
– Higher efficiency than single phase
3 Phase delta connection
3 Phase delta connection
3 Phase Wye (Y) connection
3 Phase Wye (Y) connection
3 Phase power (Y = Δ)
• Total Power = V I …….
• For balanced load phase impedances have equal currents
• Power per phase Pp = Vp * Ip * Cos Ø
• Total real power P = 3 * (Vp * Ip * Cos Ø) = 3 * (Vline * √3 Iline/3 * Cos
Ø)

Active Power = √3 Vline * Iline * Cos Ø

Power in 3 Phase systems
Power Computation Formulas
• Single‐phase system
P = V x I x Cos phi
• Where Cos phi = power factor

• Three‐phase system
Pa = 1.732 x V x I x Cos phi
• Where Cos phi = power factor
Electric Rates
• Utility Rate Structure Incentives
– Demand Reductions
– Time of day rate or real time pricing
– Seasonal rate
– Power Factor (Cos phi) Correction
– Primary vs. secondary metering
– Rebates and Rate riders (electric heat, etc)
• Potential approaches
– High efficiency equipment
– Scheduling uses off‐peak
– Demand limiting (demand response)
– Duty cycling
Load profile
Facility Electric Load Factor
• Load Factor = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑑Τ𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑘𝑊 ×𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Example: Compute monthly load factor

Peak kW = 1,250 kW
Energy use = 500,000 kWh
Time = 720 hours

LF = 500,000 𝑘𝑊ℎൗ1,250 ×𝑘𝑊 720 ℎ =55.6%

Note: Higher load Factor will reduce unit kWh costs (more kWh per kW i.e. kW‐ fixed costs,
kWh variable costs.)
Example of Demand Control Savings
• A production facility has four large machines with a demand of 200
kW each. The machines could be controlled by a computer which
would limit the total demand to 400 kW at any one time. This
company limits the use of the machines by operational policy which
states that no more than two machines should be turned on at any
given time. This room is separately metered from the rest of the
facility.
• One morning at 8:00 am, a new employee turned on the two idle
machines. At 8:30 am the plant foreman noticed that too many
machines were running and quickly shut down the extra two
machines. Assuming a demand rate of $7.02/kW and an energy rate
of $0.043/kWh determine the cost to the facility of this mistake.
Immediate Cost of Mistake
• The immediate cost on the month's electric bill has two components.
Assuming a demand rate of $7.02/kW and an energy rate of
$0.043/kWh, the immediate cost is calculated as:

• Demand cost increase = 400 kW x $7.02/kW

= $2808
• Energy cost increase = 400kW x 0.5hr x $.043/kWh
= $8.60
Electric Motor Equations
kW = √3 x kV x I x Cos φ

kVA = √3 x kV x I

Cos φ (PF) = kW/kVA

𝑘𝑊𝑛𝑝 𝑥 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

kWin = ൗ𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
Power Quality
• Power Quality is related to how well a bus voltage—usually our
facility load bus voltage—maintains a pure sinusoidal waveform at
rated voltage and frequency.
• PQ issues involve all momentary phenomena including spikes,
notches and outages; as well as harmonics and power factor.
• Modern electronic equipment both causes and is affected by the
problem.
• Power Quality is becoming one of the most important issues in
energy management today.
Harmonics
• Harmonics are a multiple of the fundamental frequency. If the
fundamental frequency is 50 hertz, the 2nd harmonic is 100 Hz, the
3rd is150 Hz, the 4th is 200 Hz, etc.
• The presence of harmonics in electrical systems means that current
and voltage are distorted and deviate from sinusoidal waveforms.
Harmonic currents are caused by non-linear loads connected to the
distribution system
• Harmonics are usually generated by solid‐state‐based equipment
such as switching power supplies in PCs, DC drives, variable frequency
drives (VFDs), electronic ballasts, arc welders and ovens.
Actual Harmonic Graph
Importance of Grounding
• Up to 80 percent of PQ problems in facilities today may be caused by
wiring and grounding systems that met the NEC/IEC at the time, but
do not meet the needs of today's sensitive electronic equipment.
• The first step taken to deal with PQ problems should be to inspect the
wiring and grounding, and clean and tighten all connections.
• Loose connections come from vibration, oxidation, corrosion, and
age.
Importance of Grounding
• In a typical delta‐wye main load centre for a facility, the supply system
ground, the neutral connection of the wye, and the equipment
ground must all be bonded together in that enclosure.

• Each piece of equipment should be fed separately, and with a ground

that directly returns to the single ground point at the load centre
(Frame steel grounds are not acceptable for good PQ systems).

• Note that ground leads must be run in the same cable or raceway as
the power leads
Typical Facility Electrical Distribution System
Voltage Imbalance
• Problems can occur because of voltage imbalance between the three
phases. This can be a serious problem in motors, and is discussed in
the motor section.
• Percent voltage imbalance is found as the ratio of the largest phase
voltage difference from average, divided by the average voltage.

• For example, if we have 220, 215 and 210 volts, the voltage imbalance
is 5/215 = .023, or 2.3 percent.
Upgrade Neutrals
• Many neutrals were not designed to carry any significant amount of
current, and are simply too small.
• Unbalanced loads, harmonics, and especially triplen harmonics cause
neutral current to increase—can be up to 1.73 to 3.0 times the phase
current.
• Solution is to:
• Add neutrals—run a separate neutral for each single phase load.
• Oversize the neutral, or run parallel neutrals to several large loads.

NOTE: Over sizing Neutrals amounts to “treating the symptoms” it does

not reduce the intensity of the harmonics.
Harmonics Problems

• Circuit breakers tripping

• Relays malfunctioning
• Neutrals overheating (smoke, fire)
• Panel or transformer overheating
• RFI – Radio Frequency Interference
• Errors/damage in Electronic Equipment
• Digital clocks running fast
• Failures in power factor correction capacitors
Motor problems also occur
• Increased motor losses and overheating
• Power Factor decrease (from wave distortion as compared to wave
displacement )
• Reduced torque and torque pulsation
• Negative sequence harmonics ‐ like the 5th and 11th ‐try to force the
motor to rotate in the reverse direction and cause torque pulsation. The
5th harmonic seriously reduces motor torque.
• Vibration & overheating
• Reduces motor life, damages bearings and insulation ‐ extreme cases can
result in motor “cogging” which destroys couplings, shafts, and driven
loads.
Mitigation of Harmonic Problems
• Derate equipment (symptom treatment)
– 50% Transformers
– 70% Load centres
– Circuit breakers
– Neutrals
• Install preventive equipment
– Inductors
– Harmonic filters
– Isolation transformers
• Locate near drive if possible
• Connect back to "strongest" point of power system – the load centre
Power Factor (Cos φ) Considerations

• What is the power factor?

• How is the power factor computed?
• What does a low power factor mean to electric costs (i.e.‐ tariff costs,
I^2R losses, affect on PF)?
• How can power factor be improved?
• How will power factor correction affect the system (Harmonics,
capacity restoration, resonance, etc)?
Warning on Power Factor Correction
• Before installing power factor (Cos φ) correction equipment‐especially
capacitors‐in your facility, make sure you perform a power quality test
to determine if there is little/no harmonics present which could
adversely affect the electrical system.
• Harmonic resonance effects can greatly increase the current through
the power factor correction capacitors.
• Make sure to measure “true power factor” which accounts for
harmonics.
Power Factor Example

• A facility is operating with a demand of 2000 kW. The 2500kVA

transformer is fully loaded. How many kVARS are required to bring the
power factor (Cos φ) back to unity?
Power Factor Solution

• A facility is operating with a demand of 2000 kW. The 2500kVA

transformer is fully loaded. How many kVARS are required to bring the
power factor (Cos φ) back to unity?
Problem 1
• During my last energy audit I saw a 100 kW electric motor that had
the following full load information on the nameplate: 380 volts; 182
amps; three phase; 95% efficient What is the power factor of this
motor?
kVAR Correction Calculation
• Essential data needed at a given load
– Real power
– Power factor
• Use a table such as the one on the next slide
– Go down the left side to the original power factor
– Read the table factor under the desired power factor
Formular:
Δ kVAR = Real Power {tan cos‐1 (OLD) – tan cos‐1 (NEW)}
= Real Power {Table Factor}
Problem 2
• A facility is operating at a power factor (Cos φ) of 70% with a real
power load of 2000 kW. How much corrective capacitance in kVAR is
needed to improve the facility power factor to 90%?
Problem 3
• A facility has a motor that draws 200 kVA and has a power factor (Cos
φ) of 70.7%. How many kW and how many kVAR does it draw?
Where to Put Power Factor Correction
Capacitors
Problem 4
• If power factor (Cos φ) correction capacitors are located at the utility
meter, but on the customer’s side of the meter, the power factor out in
the customer’s facility will not be improved. (True or False)

• A facility has a 100 kW electric resistance oven for drying parts. What
is the power factor (Cos φ) of the oven?
Problem 5
• Determine the power available for work for a facility operating a ball
mill powered by an inductive 3 phase electrical motor that is rated at
550 kVA given that the facility has a power factor (Cos φ) of 80%.
Recommend the reactive power to be supplied by the capacitor bank
to achieve unit power factor.
• Given that the facility then decides to just improve the power factor
to 95% .Determine the corrective capacitance in kVAR needed to
achieve this decision.