7.1 - Discrete Energy & Radioactivity Notes

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YOUR NOTES
IB Physics DP 
7.1 Discrete Energy & Radioactivity
CONTENTS
7.1.1 Discrete Energy Levels
7.1.2 Calculating Discrete Energies
7.1.3 Emission & Absorption Spectrum
7.1.4 Isotopes & Radioactive Decay
7.1.5 Background Radiation
7.1.6 Alpha, Beta & Gamma Particles
7.1.7 Decay Equations
7.1.8 Half-Life
7.1.9 Investigating Half-Life
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7.1.1 Discrete Energy Levels YOUR NOTES


Discrete Energy Levels
The Photon Model
Photons are fundamental particles that make up all forms of electromagnetic radiation
A photon is a massless “packet” or a “quantum” of electromagnetic energy
What this means is that the energy is not transferred continuously but as discrete packets
of energy
In other words, each photon carries a specific amount of energy, and transfers this energy
all in one go
Calculating Photon Energy
The energy of a photon can be calculated using the formula:
E = hf
Using the wave equation, energy can also be equal to:
Where:
E = energy of the photon (J)
h = Planck's constant (J s)
c = the speed of light (m s-1)
f = frequency (Hz)
λ = wavelength (m)
This equation tells us:

The higher the frequency of EM radiation, the higher the energy of the photon
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength
A long-wavelength photon of light has a lower energy than a shorter-wavelength
photon
Atomic Energy Levels
Electrons in an atom can have only certain specific energies
These energies are called electron energy levels
They can be represented as a series of stacked horizontal lines increasing in energy
Normally, electrons occupy the lowest energy level available, this is known as the ground
state
Electrons can gain energy and move up the energy levels if it absorbs energy either by:
Collisions with other atoms or electrons
Absorbing a photon
A physical source, such as heat
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This is known as excitation, and when electrons move up an energy level, they are said to YOUR NOTES
be in an excited state 
If the electron gains enough energy to be removed from the atom entirely, this is known as
ionisation
When an electron returns to a lower energy state from a higher excited state, it releases
energy in the form of a photon
Electron energy levels in atomic hydrogen. Photons are emitted when an electron moves
from a higher energy state to a lower energy state
 Worked Example
Explain how atomic spectra provide evidence for the quantisation of energy in
atoms.
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Step 1: Outline the meaning of atomic spectra YOUR NOTES

Atomic spectra show the spectrum of discrete wavelengths emitted or absorbed by a 
specific atom
Step 2: Describe the relationship between energy and wavelength
hc
Photon energy is related to frequency and wavelength by E = hf =
λ
Therefore, photons with discrete wavelengths have discrete energies equal to the
difference between two energy levels or ∆ E = E 2 − E 1
Step 3: Explain how atomic spectra give evidence for the quantisation of energy
Photons arise from electron transitions between energy levels
This happens when an electron is excited or de-excited from one energy level to
another, by either emitting or absorbing light of a specific wavelength
Since atomic spectra are made up of discrete wavelengths, this shows that atoms
must contain discrete, or quantised, energy levels
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7.1.2 Calculating Discrete Energies YOUR NOTES


Transitions Between Energy Levels
Difference in discrete energy levels
The difference between two energy levels is equal to a specific photon energy
The energy (hf) of the photon is given by:
ΔE = hf = E2 - E1
Where:
E1 = Energy of the higher level (J)
E2 = Energy of the lower level (J)
h = Planck's constant (J s)
f = Frequency of photon (Hz)
Using the wave equation, the wavelength of the emitted, or absorbed, radiation can be
related to the energy difference by the equation:
This equation shows that the larger the difference in energy of two levels ΔE (E2 - E1) the
shorter the wavelength λ and vice versa
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Some electron energy levels in atomic hydrogen are shown below.
The longest wavelength produced as a result of electron transitions between two

of the energy levels is 4.0 × 10–6 m.
a) Draw and mark:
The transition giving rise to the wavelength of 4.0 × 10–6 m with letter L.
The transition giving rise to the shortest wavelength with letter S.
b) Calculate the wavelength for the transition giving rise to the shortest
wavelength.
Part (a)
Photon energy and wavelength are inversely proportional

Therefore, the largest energy change corresponds to the shortest wavelength (line S)
The smallest energy change corresponds to the longest wavelength (line L)
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Part (b) YOUR NOTES


 Worked Example
Given the following electron energy levels in an atom shown below, what is the
number of possible wavelengths that can be produced from an electron moving
between the fourth excited state and the ground state?
Consider the different ways that the electron may become less excited and emit
photons
Step 1: Consider first the case where the electron goes directly from the fourth energy
level (n = 4) to the ground state (n = 1)
This is the first way that the electron may move between these energy levels
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Therefore, this is the highest energy photon that could be emitted since it has the YOUR NOTES
highest energy change 
Each arrow downwards represents a different wavelength of photon released
Step 2: Consider the cases where two energy level changes are used
The first is from the fourth energy level (n = 4) to the third energy level (n = 3) and then on
to the ground state (n = 1)
The second is from the fourth energy level (n = 4) to the second energy level (n = 2) and
then on to the ground state (n = 1)
These pathways produce four different photons of different wavelengths and energy
Step 3: Consider the case where all possible energy level changes are used
In this final case, the electron could move down through every energy level, the fourth
level to third, then second and ground state. (n = 4 to 3 to 2 to 1).
While the energies of the photons from n = 4 to 3 and n = 2 to 1 are already accounted
for in the previous step, one new photon of a different wavelength is produced in the
transition from n = 3 to 2.
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YOUR NOTES

Step 4: State the final answer

There are six possible wavelengths that come from the different energy level
transitions
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7.1.3 Emission & Absorption Spectrum YOUR NOTES


Emission & Absorption Spectrum
Line Spectra
Line spectra is a phenomenon that occurs when excited atoms emit light of certain
wavelengths which correspond to different colours
This comes from differences in discrete energy levels when electrons move between
energy levels within an atom
The emitted light can be observed as a series of coloured lines with dark spaces in between
These series of coloured lines are called line or atomic spectra
Each element produces a unique set of spectral lines
No two elements emit the same set of spectral lines, therefore, elements can be identified
by their line spectrum
There are two types of line spectra: emission spectra and absorption spectra
Emission Spectra
When an electron transitions from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, this results in
the emission of a photon
Each transition corresponds to a different wavelength of light and this corresponds to a line
in the spectrum
The resulting emission spectrum contains a set of discrete wavelengths, represented by
coloured lines on a black background
Each emitted photon has a wavelength which is associated with a discrete change in
energy, according to the equation:
Where:
ΔE = change in energy level (J)
h = Planck’s constant (J s)
f = frequency of photon (Hz)
c = the speed of light (m s-1)
λ = wavelength of the photon (m)
Therefore, this is evidence to show that electrons in atoms can only transition between
discrete energy levels
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YOUR NOTES

Emission spectrum of Hydrogen gas

Absorption Spectra
An atom can be raised to an excited state by the absorption of a photon
When white light passes through a cool, low pressure gas it is found that light of certain
wavelengths are missing
This type of spectrum is called an absorption spectrum
An absorption spectrum consists of a continuous spectrum containing all the colours with
dark lines at certain wavelengths
These dark lines correspond exactly to the differences in energy levels in an atom
When these electrons return to lower levels, the photons are emitted in all directions, rather
than in the original direction of the white light
Therefore, some wavelengths appear to be missing
The wavelengths missing from an absorption spectrum are the same as their
corresponding emission spectra of the same element
Absorption spectrum of Hydrogen gas

The Hydrogen Spectrum
A larger version of the hydrogen spectrum from the infrared to the ultraviolet region looks
like this
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YOUR NOTES

The full hydrogen spectrum

In the spectrum, we can see sets or families of lines
Each element will have several series with electrons able to jump between specific energy
levels producing specific energy photons
The Lyman series converges on the ground state for electrons
The Balmer series converges on the second energy level n = 2
The Ritz - Paschen converges on the third energy level n = 3 and so on
The Lyman series photons will have the most energy since they have the shortest
wavelength
The Pfund series photons will have the least energy since they have the longest
wavelength
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YOUR NOTES

Electron jumps in the hydrogen spectrum

The discovery of these electron jumps helped scientists to understand how the movement
of electrons is able to produce photons of specific wavelength and energy
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7.1.4 Isotopes & Radioactive Decay YOUR NOTES


Isotopes
AZX Notation
A nuclide is a group of atoms containing the same number of protons and neutrons
For example, 5 atoms of oxygen are all the same nuclide but are 5 separate atoms
Atomic symbols are written in a specific notation called nuclide or AZX notation
Atomic symbols in AZX Notation describe the constituents of nuclei

The top number A represents the nucleon number or the mass number
Nucleon number (A) = total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
The lower number Z represents the proton or atomic number
Proton number (Z) = total number of protons in the nucleus
Note: In Chemistry, the nucleon number is referred to as the mass number and the proton
number as the atomic number. The periodic table is ordered by atomic number
Isotopes
Although all atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons (and
hence electrons), the number of neutrons can vary
An isotope is defined as:
An atom (of the same element) that has an equal number of protons but a different
number of neutrons
Hydrogen has two isotopes: deuterium and tritium
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YOUR NOTES

The three atoms shown above are all forms of hydrogen, but they each have different
numbers of neutrons
The neutron number of an atom is found by subtracting the proton number from the
nucleon number
Since nucleon number includes the number of neutrons, an isotope of an element will also
have a different nucleon / mass number
Since isotopes have an imbalance of neutrons and protons, they are unstable
This means they constantly decay and emit radiation to achieve a more stable form
This can happen from anywhere between a few nanoseconds to 100,000 years
Differences Between Isotopes
The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect the chemical properties of an atom,
such as its charge, but only its mass
This is because neutrons have no charge but do have mass
The charge of the nucleus of a particular element is always the same
In the periodic table, the mass number of Chlorine is often given as 35.5
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YOUR NOTES

This section of a periodic table shows Chlorine as having a mass number of 35.5, but other
elements have an integer mass number
The mass number of Chlorine is given as 35.5 because it has roughly equal numbers of
isotopes with a mass number of 35, and of 36
The number of electrons and protons in different isotopes remains the same
Isotopes tend to be more unstable due to the imbalance of protons and neutrons
Isotopic Data
Isotopic data is defined as:
The relative amounts of different isotopes of an element found within a substance
It is used to identify an isotopic signature within organic and inorganic materials
Isotopic data is often used for determining the age of archaeological findings and is used in
radioactive dating
Carbon–14 is a naturally occurring isotope most often used for this, since it is present in all
living beings and undergoes radioactive decay
When a plant or animal dies, the natural decay of this isotope means the concentration of
the carbon–14 in its tissue gradually reduces
Since carbon–14 has a long half-life of around 6000 years, the half-life can be used to
determine the age of the plant or animal when it died
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

One of the rows in the table shows a pair of nuclei that are isotopes of one another.
Which row is correct?
ANSWER: B
Step 1: Properties of isotopes
Isotopes are nuclei with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons
The nucleon number is the sum of the protons and neutron
Therefore, an isotope has a different nucleon number too
Step 2: Calculate protons in the first nucleus
Nucleon number: 37
Neutrons: 20
Protons = 37 − 20 = 17
Step 3: Calculate protons in the second nucleus
Nucleon number: 35
Neutrons: 18
Protons = 35 − 18 = 17
Step 4: Conclusion
Therefore, they have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
and are isotopes of each other
The correct answer is therefore option B
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Radioactive Decay YOUR NOTES

The Random Nature of Radioactive Decay 
Radioactive decay is defined as:
The spontaneous disintegration of a nucleus to form a more stable nucleus,
resulting in the emission of an alpha, beta or gamma particle
The random nature of radioactive decay can be demonstrated by observing the count rate
of a Geiger-Muller (GM) tube
When a GM tube is placed near a radioactive source, the counts are found to be
irregular and cannot be predicted
Each count represents a decay of an unstable nucleus
These fluctuations in count rate on the GM tube provide evidence for the
randomness of radioactive decay
The variation of count rate over time of a sample radioactive gas. The fluctuations show the
randomness of radioactive decay
Characteristics of Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is both spontaneous and random
A spontaneous process is defined as:
A process which cannot be influenced by environmental factors
This means radioactive decay cannot be affected by environmental factors such as:
Temperature
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Pressure YOUR NOTES

Chemical conditions 
A random process is defined as:
A process in which the exact time of decay of a nucleus cannot be predicted
Instead, the nucleus has a constant probability, ie. the same chance, of decaying in a given
time
Therefore, with large numbers of nuclei, it is possible to statistically predict the behavior of
the entire group
Nuclear Stability Graph
The most common elements in the universe all tend to have values of N and Z less than 20
(plus iron which has Z = 26, N = 30)
Where:
N = number of neutrons
Z = number of protons / atomic number
This is because lighter elements (with fewer protons) tend to be much more stable than
heavier ones (with many protons)
Nuclear stability becomes vastly clearer when viewed on a graph of N against Z
This nuclear stability curve shows the line of stable isotopes and which unstable isotopes
will emit alpha or beta particles
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A nucleus will be unstable if it has: YOUR NOTES

Too many neutrons 
Too many protons
Too many nucleons ie. too heavy
Too much energy
An unstable atom wants to become stable
For light isotopes, Z < 20:
All these nuclei tend to be very stable
They follow the straight-line N = Z
For heavy isotopes, Z > 20:
The neutron-proton ratio increases
Stable nuclei must have more neutrons than protons
This imbalance in the neutron-proton ratio is very significant to the stability of nuclei
At a short range (around 1–4 fm), nucleons are bound by the strong nuclear force
Below 1 fm, the strong nuclear force is repulsive in order to prevent the nucleus from
collapsing
At longer ranges, the electromagnetic force acts between protons, so more protons
cause more instability
Therefore, as more protons are added to the nucleus, more neutrons are needed to
add distance between protons to reduce the electrostatic repulsion
Also, the extra neutrons increase the amount of binding force which helps to bind the
nucleons together
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7.1.5 Background Radiation YOUR NOTES


Background Radiation
It is important to remember that radiation is a natural phenomenon
Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in outer space
However, human activity has added to the amount of radiation that humans are
exposed to on Earth
Background radiation is defined as:
Background radiation describes the low level of radiation present in the
surroundings at all times
There are two types of background radiation:
Natural sources
Man-made sources
Background radiation is the radiation that is present all around in the environment. Radon
gas is given off from some types of rock
Every second of the day there is some radiation emanating from natural sources such as:
Rocks
Cosmic rays from space
Foods
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Origins of Background Radiation YOUR NOTES

Background radiation can come from natural sources on Earth or space and man-made 
sources
Natural Sources
Radon gas from rocks and soil
Heavy radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, occur naturally in rocks in
the ground
Uranium decays into radon gas, which is an alpha emitter
This is particularly dangerous if inhaled into the lungs in large quantities
Cosmic rays from space
The sun emits an enormous number of protons every second
Some of these enter the Earth’s atmosphere at high speeds
When they collide with molecules in the air, this leads to the production of gamma
radiation
Other sources of cosmic rays are supernovae and other high energy cosmic events
Carbon-14 in biological material
All organic matter contains a tiny amount of carbon-14
Living plants and animals constantly replace the supply of carbon in their systems
hence the amount of carbon-14 in the system stays almost constant
Radioactive material in food and drink
Naturally occurring radioactive elements can get into food and water since they are in
contact with rocks and soil containing these elements
Some foods contain higher amounts such as potassium-40 in bananas
However, the amount of radioactive material is minuscule and is not a cause for
concern
Man-Made Sources
Medical sources
In medicine, radiation is utilised all the time
Uses include X-rays, CT scans, radioactive tracers, and radiation therapy
Nuclear waste
While nuclear waste itself does not contribute much to background radiation, it can be
dangerous for the people handling it
Nuclear fallout from nuclear weapons
Fallout is the residue radioactive material that is thrown into the air after a nuclear
explosion, such as the bomb that exploded at Hiroshima
While the amount of fallout in the environment is presently very low, it would increase
significantly in areas where nuclear weapons are tested
Nuclear accidents
Accidents such as that in Chernobyl contributed a large dose of radiation into the
environment
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While these accidents are now extremely rare, they can be catastrophic and render YOUR NOTES
areas devastated for centuries 
Corrected Count Rate
Background radiation must be accounted for when taking readings in a laboratory
This can be done by taking readings with no radioactive source present and then
subtracting this from readings with the source present
This is known as the corrected count rate
 Worked Example
A student is using a Geiger-counter to measure the counts per minute at different
distances from a source of radiation. Their results and a graph of the results are
shown here.
Determine the background radiation count.
Step 1: Determine the point at which the source radiation stops being detected
The background radiation is the amount of radiation received all the time
When the source is moved back far enough it is all absorbed by the air before reaching
the Geiger-counter
Results after 1 metre do not change
Therefore, the amount after 1 metre is only due to background radiation
Step 2: State the background radiation count
The background radiation count is 15 counts per minute
Detecting Radiation
When radiation passes close to an atom, it knocks out electrons, ionising the atom
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Radiation detectors work by detecting the presence of these ions or the chemical changes YOUR NOTES
that they produce 
Examples of radiation detectors include:
Photographic film (often used in badges)
Geiger-Muller (GM) tubes
Ionisation chambers
Scintillation counters
Spark counters
A Geiger-Muller tube (or Geiger counter) is a common type of radiation detector
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7.1.6 Alpha, Beta & Gamma Particles YOUR NOTES


Alpha, Beta & Gamma Particles
Some elements have nuclei that are unstable
This tends to be when the number of nucleons does not balance
In order to become more stable, they emit particles and/or electromagnetic radiation
These nuclei are said to be radioactive
There are three different types of radioactive emission:
Alpha (α) particles are high energy particles made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (the
same as a helium nucleus)
They are usually emitted from nuclei that are too large
Beta-Minus Decay
Beta (β−) particles are high energy electrons emitted from the nucleus
β− particles are emitted by nuclei that have too many neutrons
During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron

The electron is emitted and the proton remains in the nucleus
A completely new element is formed because the proton number changes
Beta-minus decay often happens in unstable nuclei that have too many neutrons. The
nucleon number stays the same, but the proton number increases by one
An electron has a mass number of 0
This is because electrons have a negligible mass, compared to neutrons and protons
Therefore, the nucleon number of the decaying nuclei remains the same
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Electrons have a proton number of -1 YOUR NOTES

This means that the new nuclei will increase its proton number by 1 in order to maintain 
the overall proton number before and after the decay
The following equation shows carbon-14 undergoing beta decay
It forms nitrogen-14 and a beta minus particle
Beta minus particles are written as an electron in this equation
The carbon nucleus emits a beta particle, and a neutron changes into a proton. This means
its proton number increases by +1 and it changes into a new element, nitrogen
Beta-Plus Decay
Beta (β+) particles are high energy positrons (anti-matter of electrons) also emitted from
the nucleus
β+ particles are emitted by nuclei that have too many protons
During beta plus (β+) decay a proton turns into a neutron emitting a positron (anti-
electron)
The positron is emitted and the neutron remains in the nucleus
A completely new element is formed because the proton number changes
Beta-plus decay often happens in unstable nuclei that have too many protons. The nucleon
number stays the same, but the proton number decreases by one
A positron has a mass number of 0
This is because the positrons have a negligible mass, just like the electron, compared
to neutrons and protons
Therefore, the nucleon number of the decaying nuclei remains the same
Positrons have an proton number of +1
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This means that the new nuclei will decrease its proton number by 1 in order to YOUR NOTES
maintain the overall atomic number before and after the decay 
Gamma (γ) rays are high energy electromagnetic waves

They are emitted by nuclei that need to lose some energy
If these particles hit other atoms, they can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
This can cause chemical changes in materials and can damage or kill living cells
When radiation passes close to atoms, it can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
The properties of the different types of radiation are summarised in the table below
Note that charge is often described as 'relative charge'
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YOUR NOTES

u is the atomic mass unit (see “Atomic Mass Unit (u)”)

e is the charge of the electron: 1.60 × 10-19 C
c is the speed of light: 3 × 108 m s-1
 Worked Example
ANSWER: D
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YOUR NOTES

Neutrino Emission
An electron neutrino is a type of subatomic particle with no charge and negligible mass
which is also emitted from the nucleus
The anti-neutrino is the antiparticle of a neutrino
Electron anti-neutrinos are produced during β– decay
Electron neutrinos are produced during β+ decay
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 One way to remember which particle decays into which depends on the type of beta

emission, think of beta ‘plus’ as the ‘proton’ that turns into the neutron (plus an
electron neutrino)
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7.1.7 Decay Equations YOUR NOTES


Decay Equations
Changes in N and Z by Radioactive Decay
There are four reasons why a nucleus might become unstable, and these determine which
decay mode will occur
Too many neutrons
Decays through beta-minus (β-) emission
One of the neutrons in the nucleus changes into a proton and a β- particle (an
electron) and antineutrino is released
The nucleon number is constant
The neutron number (N) decreases by 1
The proton number (Z) increases by 1
The general decay equation for β- emission is:
Too many protons

Decays through beta-plus (β+) emission or electron capture
In beta-plus decay, a proton changes into a neutron and a β+ particle (a positron) and
neutrino are released
In electron capture, an orbiting electron is taken in by the nucleus and combined with a
proton causing the formation of a neutron and neutrino
In both types of decay, the nucleon number stays constant
The neutron number (N) increases by 1
The proton number (Z) decreases by 1
The general decay equation for β+ emission is:
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YOUR NOTES
The equation for electron capture is: 
Too many nucleons

Decays through alpha (α) emission
An α particle is a helium nucleus
The nucleon number decreases by 4 and the proton number decreases by 2
The neutron number (N) decreases by 2
The proton number (Z) decreases by 2
The general decay equation for α emission is:
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Too much energy YOUR NOTES

Decays through gamma (γ) emission 
A gamma particle is a high-energy electromagnetic radiation
This usually occurs after a different type of decay, such as alpha or beta decay
This is because the nucleus becomes excited and has excess energy
In summary, alpha decay, beta decay and electron capture can be represented on an N–Z
graph as follows:
 Worked Example
A nucleus with 84 protons and 126 neutrons undergoes alpha decay. It forms lead,
which has the element symbol Pb.
Which of the isotopes of lead pictured is the correct one formed during the decay?
ANSWER: A
Step 1: Calculate the mass number of the original nucleus
The mass number is equal to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons
The original nucleus has 84 protons and 126 neutrons
84 + 126 = 210
The mass number of the original nucleus is 210
Step 2: Calculate the new atomic number
The alpha particle emitted is made of two protons and two neutrons
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Protons have an atomic number of 1, and neutrons have an atomic number of 0 YOUR NOTES
Removing two protons and two neutrons will reduce the atomic number by 2 
84 – 2 = 82
The new nucleus has an atomic number of 82
Step 3: Calculate the new mass number
Protons and neutrons both have a mass number of 1
Removing two protons and two neutrons will reduce the mass number by 4
210 – 4 = 206
The new nucleus has a mass number of 206
 Worked Example
Plutonium-239 is a radioactive isotope that contains 94 protons and emits α
particles to form a radioactive isotope of uranium. This isotope of uranium emits α
particles to form an isotope of thorium which is also radioactive.
Write two equations to represent the decay of plutonium-239 and the subsequent
decay of uranium.
Step 1: Write down the general equation of alpha decay
Step 2: Write down the decay equation of plutonium into uranium
Step 3: Write down the decay equation of uranium into thorium
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

ANSWER: C
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YOUR NOTES

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A radioactive substance with a nucleon number of 212 and a proton number of 82
decays by β-plus emission into a daughter product which in turn decays by further
β-plus emission into a granddaughter product.
Which letter in the diagram represents the granddaughter product?
ANSWER: A
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7.1.8 Half-Life YOUR NOTES


Half-Life
It is impossible to know when a particular unstable nucleus will decay
But the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases can be known
This is known as the half-life
Half-life is defined as:
The time taken for half the undecayed nuclei to decay or the activity of a source to
decay by half
In other words, the time it takes for the activity of a sample to fall to half its original level
Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction of a
second to billions of years in length
Using Half-life
Scientists can measure the half-lives of different isotopes accurately:
Uranium-235 has a half-life of 704 million years
This means it would take 704 million years for the activity of a uranium-235 sample to
decrease to half its original amount
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years
So after 5700 years, there would be 50% of the original amount of carbon-14
remaining
After two half-lives, or 11 400 years, there would be just 25% of the carbon-14
remaining
With each half-life, the amount remaining decreases by half
Graph showing how the activity of a radioactive sample changes over time. Each time the
original activity halves, another half-life has passed
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The time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease from 100 % to 50 % is the half- YOUR NOTES
life 
It is the same length of time as it would take to decrease from 50 % activity to 25 % activity
The half-life is constant for a particular isotope
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Decay Curves YOUR NOTES

To calculate the half-life of a sample, the procedure is: 
Measure the initial activity, A0, of the sample
Determine the half-life of this original activity
Measure how the activity changes with time
The time taken for the activity to decrease to half its original value is the half-life
 Worked Example
The radioisotope technetium is used extensively in medicine. The graph below
shows how the activity of a sample varies with time.
Determine the half-life of this material.
Step 1: Draw lines on the graph to determine the time it takes for technetium to drop to
half of its original activity
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YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Read the half-life from the graph

In the diagram above the initial activity, A0, is 8 × 107 Bq
The time taken to decrease to 4 × 107 Bq, or ½A0, is 6 hours
The time taken to decrease to 2 × 107 Bq is 6 more hours
The time taken to decrease to 1 × 107 Bq is 6 more hours
Therefore, the half-life of this isotope is 6 hours
 Worked Example
A particular radioactive sample contains 2 million un-decayed atoms. After a year,
there is only 500 000 atoms left un-decayed.
What is the half-life of this material?
Step 1: Calculate how many times the number of un-decayed atoms has halved
There were 2 000 000 atoms to start with
1 000 000 atoms would remain after 1 half-life
500 000 atoms would remain after 2 half-lives
Therefore, the sample has undergone 2 half-lives
Step 2: Divide the time period by the number of half-lives
The time period is a year
The number of half-lives is 2
1 year divided by 2 is half a year or 6 months
Page 41 of 49
Therefore, the half-life is 6 months YOUR NOTES


 Worked Example
A radioactive sample has a half-life of 3 years. What is the ratio of decayed : original
nuclei, after 15 years?
Step 1: Calculate the number of half-lives

The time period is 15 years
The half-life is 3 years
15 ÷ 3 = 5
There have been 5 half-lives
Step 2: Raise 1/2 to the number of half-lives
(1/2)5 = 1/32
So 1/32 of the original nuclei are remaining
Step 3: Write the ratio correctly
If 1/32 of the original nuclei are remaining, then 31/32 must have decayed
Therefore, the ratio is 31 decayed : 32 remaining, or 31:32
Page 42 of 49
7.1.9 Investigating Half-Life YOUR NOTES


Investigating Half-Life
Aim of the Experiment
The aim of the experiment is to investigate the half-life of a decaying radioactive sample
This can be done with a live sample if safe access is available
This can also be done through an online simulation
Variables
Independent variable = time, t
Dependent variable = radioactive activity, A
Control variables:
Size of sample
Same distance from detector to sample
Same material for sample
Equipment List
Resolution of equipment:
Page 43 of 49
Metre ruler = 1 mm YOUR NOTES

Stopwatch = 0.01 s 
Method
1. Measure the background radiation for 30 second intervals using a Geiger-Muller tube
without the radiation source in the room, take several readings and find an average
2. Next, put the radiation source at a set starting distance appropriate for the ionizing strength
of the radiation (e.g. 1 - 2 cm for an alpha source, 2 - 5 cm for a beta source and 15 - 30 cm
for a gamma source) from the GM tube
3. If graphing software is available to use with the Geiger-Muller tube, then that should be
started as soon as the source is placed in position, if not, then proceed to step 4
4. Once the sample is in place measure the number of counts in 30-second intervals for 10
minutes or until the activity greatly decreases from the beginning value
5. Remove sample and replace into a lead-lined box or safe storage container
6. Repeat this for several trials if possible using fresh same size samples
A suitable table of results might look like this:
Analysis of Results
What is important for this experiment is the initial count rate and the following decrease as
the radioactive source decays from the parent nuclei into the daughter nuclei.
The background rate must be subtracted from the data before analysis can begin.
This is true for both graphed and manual data
Page 44 of 49
In order to see the decrease and model it, the data should be graphed with the correct YOUR NOTES
count rate (background subtracted) on the y-axis and the time intervals on the x-axis. If 
graphing software is used then the graph should look similar to the following:
However, if the manual method is used, then there will be twenty data points rather than a
smooth curve with fluctuations
Using this curve, the half-life can be found by comparing the initial magnitude of the activity
with the time it takes to decay to half of the original activity.
This can be extended by finding the time taken for two half-lives to pass and the
activity to reach one quarter for quantitative comparison
Page 45 of 49
YOUR NOTES

Compare found half-life for the radioactive sample with the known value
Evaluation
Systematic errors:
The Geiger counter may suffer from an issue called “dead time”
This is when multiple counts happen simultaneously within ~100 μs and the counter
only registers one
This is a more common problem in older detectors, so using a more modern Geiger
counter should reduce this problem
If this experiment is done manually, there will be uncertainty in the time
This uncertainty in time intervals will mean variation in counting intervals, however, due
to the 30-second interval and the nature of this experiment this is not easily
accounted for
It is best to discuss what these uncertainties could mean for the results of this
experiment
Random errors:
Radioactive decay is random, so repeat readings are vital in this experiment
Measure the count over an appropriate time span such as 30 seconds
A larger count helps reduce the statistical percentage uncertainty inherent in smaller
readings
This is because the percentage error is proportional to the inverse-square root of the
count
However, a shorter count will mean that more data points are available to help make an
appropriate decay curve
Safety Considerations
For any radioactive source:
Reduce the exposure time by keeping it in a lead-lined box when not in use
Page 46 of 49
Handle with long tongs YOUR NOTES

Avoid physical contact and handle the source with care 
Do not point the source at anyone and keep a large distance (as activity reduces by an
inverse square law)
Safety clothing such as a lab coat, gloves and goggles must be worn
 Worked Example
A student measures the background radiation count in a laboratory and obtains the
following readings:
The student is trying to verify the half-life of a sample of Barium-137. He collects the
following data: Use this data to determine the half-life of the radioactive samples.
Step 1: Determine a mean value of background radiation
Step 2: Calculate C (corrected average count rate)
Step 3: Plot a graph of C against t (time in 30-sec intervals) and add a smooth-fitting
curve
Page 47 of 49
YOUR NOTES

Step 4: Map the first three half-lives use the curve

The first half-life took approximately 160 seconds to occur
The second half-life took approximately 150 seconds to be reached following the first
half-life
The third half-life took approximately 155 seconds to be reached following the second
half-life
Page 48 of 49
YOUR NOTES

Step 5: Average the half-lives

(160 + 150 + 155) ÷ 3 = 155 seconds
Step 6: State the final answer
The final found answer was 155 seconds for the half-life of this sample data
Page 49 of 49

7.1 - Discrete Energy & Radioactivity Notes

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7.1 Discrete Energy & Radioactivity

7.1.1 Discrete Energy Levels YOUR NOTES

This equation tells us:

Step 1: Outline the meaning of atomic spectra YOUR NOTES

7.1.2 Calculating Discrete Energies YOUR NOTES

The longest wavelength produced as a result of electron transitions between two

Photon energy and wavelength are inversely proportional

Part (b) YOUR NOTES

Step 4: State the final answer

7.1.3 Emission & Absorption Spectrum YOUR NOTES

Emission spectrum of Hydrogen gas

Absorption spectrum of Hydrogen gas

The full hydrogen spectrum

Electron jumps in the hydrogen spectrum

7.1.4 Isotopes & Radioactive Decay YOUR NOTES

Atomic symbols in AZX Notation describe the constituents of nuclei

Which row is correct?

Radioactive Decay YOUR NOTES

Pressure YOUR NOTES

A nucleus will be unstable if it has: YOUR NOTES

7.1.5 Background Radiation YOUR NOTES

Origins of Background Radiation YOUR NOTES

Determine the background radiation count.

A Geiger-Muller tube (or Geiger counter) is a common type of radiation detector

7.1.6 Alpha, Beta & Gamma Particles YOUR NOTES

During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron

Electrons have a proton number of -1 YOUR NOTES

Gamma (γ) rays are high energy electromagnetic waves

u is the atomic mass unit (see “Atomic Mass Unit (u)”)

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

7.1.7 Decay Equations YOUR NOTES

Too many protons

Too many nucleons

Too much energy YOUR NOTES

Step 1: Write down the general equation of alpha decay

Step 2: Write down the decay equation of plutonium into uranium

Step 3: Write down the decay equation of uranium into thorium

Which letter in the diagram represents the granddaughter product?

7.1.8 Half-Life YOUR NOTES

Decay Curves YOUR NOTES

Determine the half-life of this material.

Step 2: Read the half-life from the graph

Therefore, the half-life is 6 months YOUR NOTES

Step 1: Calculate the number of half-lives

7.1.9 Investigating Half-Life YOUR NOTES

Metre ruler = 1 mm YOUR NOTES

Handle with long tongs YOUR NOTES

Step 1: Determine a mean value of background radiation

Step 2: Calculate C (corrected average count rate)

Step 4: Map the first three half-lives use the curve

Step 5: Average the half-lives

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