Professional Documents
Culture Documents
With much appreciation, the authors acknowledge the contribution of Chapter 13,
“Construction Law,” by Christopher L. Noble, Esq., and Heather G. Merrill, Esq., of
Hill and Barlow, Boston, MA.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the following reviewers, who provided
insightful criticism:
Fourth edition: Lloyd A. Crask, P.E., California State University, Fresno; Samuel
Delgado, Gwinnett Technical College; Randy L. Engel, North Hennepin Community
College; and Benedict Ilozor, Eastern Michigan University.
Third edition: Paula J. Behrens, Community College of Philadelphia; Allan D. Chasey,
Arizona State University; Bobby Ensminger, University of Louisiana at Monroe; Henry
Gaus, Lamar Institute of Technology; Paul E. Harmon, University of Nebraska; David
Joswick, University of Houston; Daphene Cyr Koch, IUPUI; Kenneth J. Tiss, SUNY
College of Environmental Science and Forestry; and Wafeek Samuel Wahby, Eastern
Illinois University.
Second edition: Terry L. Anderson, University of Southern Mississippi; David Bilbo,
Texas A&M University; William W. Campbell, Montgomery College (retired); James A. S.
Fatzinger; and James J. Stein, Eastern Michigan University.
First edition: Terry L. Anderson, University of Southern Mississippi; Naryan
Bodapati, Southern Illinois University; and Joseph Gabriel, New York University and
New York Institute of Technology.
The authors especially acknowledge Professor Dave Pierce, Southern College of
Technology, for his early contribution to the format and content of the text.
Frederick Gould
Nancy Joyce
vii
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Contents
ix
x Contents
Chapter 4 Project Delivery Methods 73
Introduction 74
Managing Project Risks 75
Delivering a Project Fast 77
Assessing Project Risks 78
Seabrook Station 80
Minimizing Risk 83
Delivery Methods 84
Innovations in Project Delivery 94
Contract Types 97
Contract Changes 101
Conclusion 103
Index 347
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Chapt er
1 The Construction
Industry
1
2 chapter 1
Chapter Outline
Introduction
Type of Industry
Industry Sectors
Residential Sector
Commercial Building Sector
Infrastructure and Heavy Highway Sector
Industrial Sector
Public Profile
Construction Ethics
Demographics
Technology
Opportunities
Conclusion
Introduction
Although construction is principally defined by the concept of assembling materials
and products, it is in fact multitasked. The construction of a building or infrastructure
involves first an assembly of people, a definition of process, and the creation of a site-
specific work space. Just as divergent materials come together to form a structure, so,
too, do a diverse group of people come together to make the project possible. To bring
together numerous independent businesses and corporate personalities into one goal-
oriented process is the peculiar challenge of the construction industry. The organiza-
tional cultures of architects, engineers, owners, builders, manufacturers, and suppliers
may seem to work against the real need to forge a partnership that will ensure the
success of a project. Yet, despite these very real challenges in the industry, construction
projects do get completed. In fact, it is difficult to think of an industry that is more basic
to our economy and to our daily lives. The highways we drive on, the bridges we cross,
the water we drink, and the fuel we burn all are made possible by the activities of the
construction industry. Likewise, where we shop, where we work, where we worship and
learn, and where we live all exist because of the industry. Designers have visions; but
until the contractor builds, those visions are just dreams on a sheet of paper.
Construction is also interwined with other aspects of our lives. It affects and is
affected by developments in technology, computers, government policies, labor relations,
and economic and political practices. Take, for instance, the technological leap of the
skyscraper. Until the late 1800s, most buildings were four or five stories high. Masonry
The Construction Industry 3
s upported the structure from the ground. As the height of the building increased, the
massing at the ground level also increased to support the additional load. At some point,
the mass needed would make the lower levels impractical. Another limitation to height
was that people could only practicably climb four or five stories. Because floors on the
upper levels were difficult to rent, owners had no economic incentive to build any higher.
But with the development of cheap methods of producing iron and steel and the inven-
tion of the elevator, architects began designing higher buildings. This spurred construction
activity: landowners were motivated to develop these new buildings because the return
on their investment was higher. Over time, as technological advances have allowed, the
skyscraper has gotten taller. Figure 1.1 contrasts older and newer skyscrapers.
Innovations in robotics and computer modeling have also affected the construction
industry. By using computers for modeling structures and imitating wind and seismic
loads, architects and engineers can better anticipate nature’s constraints and create
better designs to counteract them. With robots directing equipment during construc-
tion, contractors can gain more control over processes that require precision for suc-
cess, such as the construction of the underwater tunnel between France and England.
The desire for such projects leads to the development of technologies to make them
possible, which in turn encourages similar projects to go forward.
s ophisticated, the industry has turned increasingly to specialty trades. Thus, the con-
tractor’s role has largely evolved from boss to manager. However, in other aspects
of the industry, the reverse is happening. While the technical complexities of projects
have strongly influenced the trend toward subcontractor specialization, these same
complexities are merging owners, contractors, and designers into more collaborative
units. In a very real way, this trend is leading constructors back to their roots—as the
master builders.
Industry Sectors
Most designers and builders concentrate their business and build expertise in a specific
sector of the construction industry, each of which is supported by separate material
and equipment suppliers, manufacturers, and subcontractors. These distinct types have
6 chapter 1
Private versus public construction Figure 1.3 Percentage
breakdown of construction put in
Public place in March 2010
36%
Source: Courtesy of U.S. Census Bureau,
2011.
Private
64%
Heavy
Residential
engineering
31%
35%
Industrial
6% Commercial
28%
evolved because major differences exist in how projects within each sector are funded;
in the building methods involved; and in the manner in which designers, builders, and
owners interact. These sectors are often separated into the following four categories:
• Residential
• Commercial building
• Infrastructure and heavy highway
• Industrial
Figure 1.3 shows the percentage breakdown of (a) private versus public construc-
tion and (b) the four industry sectors.
Residential Sector
The residential construction sector comprises individual homes, small condomini-
ums, and apartment complexes (see Figure 1.4). What all these building types have
in common (apart from the fact that they house people) are the conditions under
which they are constructed. Such projects tend to be privately funded by individual
owners for their own use or for speculation. They are typically designed by architects,
although the plan may come from a mass-produced catalog. In some instances, the
homeowner or the builder may design the structure. Within this sector, there has
been some movement toward premanufactured homes and products. But despite the
The Construction Industry 7
Figure 1.4 Residential sector projects are usually privately funded, designed by
architects, and strongly influenced by government housing policies and
interest rates
Source: Photo by Margot Balboni, Geoscapes.
Figure 1.5 The commercial building sector includes privately funded projects such
as retail malls and office towers as well as institutional buildings such
as hospitals and college dormitories. The Der Neue Zollhof building
in Düsseldorf, Germany, is one example—an office complex built
speculatively with three separate towers joined by a common parking
facility underground
Figure 1.6 Typically, infrastructure projects are publicly funded and designed by civil
engineers
Industrial Sector
Steel mills, petroleum refineries, chemical processing plants, and automobile produc-
tion facilities are all examples of industrial facilities (see Figure 1.7). These projects
are defined by the production activities within the facility rather than the facility
Figure 1.7 Industrial projects are characterized by the technological process housed
in each facility. These projects tend to be privately funded and fast moving
Hän soitti.
»Hyvä on.»
»Kyllä.»
Hanna tuli yhä levottomammaksi. Siis vielä kaksi tuntia, ellei hän
tulisi aikaisemmin. — — — Mutta nämäkin tunnit kuluivat. Kyyppari
kulki edestakaisin kattaen pöytää. Hän veti paksut verhot ikkunain
eteen estääkseen laskeutuvaa hämärää tunkeutumasta huoneeseen
ja sytytti sitten kahdet kuusihaaraiset kynttilänjalat. Sivupöydälle hän
oli käskemättä asettanut samppanjapulloja jäähdytysmaljaan.
Keskelle kahdelle hengelle katettua pöytää hän asetti kukkaruukun
sekä molemmille puolille kynttilänjalat, avasi viinipulloja ja erilaisia
säilykkeitä. Valmistukset olivat tehdyt.
Tulija oli sulkenut oven. Hanna ei katso häneen. Mitä hän nyt
tuntee, on liian voimakasta. Hän ei tiedä itsekään, onko se onnea vai
tuskaa. Vielä hetkinen ja hän on lepäävä hänen sylissään…
»Armollinen rouva…»
»Kun kreivi nostettiin ylös», jatkoi mies, »oli hän kuin kuollut.
Hänet vietiin lähimpään apteekkiin. Kutsuttiin lääkäri, mutta tämä
totesi vain kreivin kuolleen ja että hän oli kuollut heti.»
Vaunut…………… 2:—
Kynttilöitä………. 3:—
Aamiainen………… 2:—
2 päivällistä à 5:—.. 10:—
Viinejä………….. 18:—
Sanan viejä……….. 1:—
Huone 1 vuorokausi… 20:—
Aamiainen……….. 2:—
FL 58:—
»Sitä en tiedä.»
»Tietysti.»
»Ei.»
»Niin.»
Hanna taisteli hetkisen. Ei, se olisi liian kauheaa, eikä hänellä olisi
siihen voimia. Hän pidätti kyyneleensä ja sanoi:
»Kultaiseen omenaan?»
»Niin.»
»Kas niin, neiti, olkaa hyvä, tätä tietä. Ajuri maksaa kaksi
guldenia.»
»Entä muuta?»
»Mitä hyvänsä.»
»Kenties leikkele perunamuhennoksen kanssa ja olutta», ehdotti
tarjoilija.