LESSON 12: Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory  Superordinate learning.

 Superordinate learning. Imagine that a child was well acquainted with banana, mango,
dalandan, guava etc., but the child did not know, until she was taught, that these were all
examples of fruits. In this case, the child already knew a lot of examples of the concept,
Ausubel’s but did not know the concept itself until it was taught to her.
Subsumption
Theory  Combinatorial learning it describes a process by which the new idea is derived from
another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy, but at the same level (in a
different, but related, “branch”).

Types of advance organizers

Meaningful Four Processes for Advance 1. Expository- describes the new content.
Reception of Meaningful Learning Organizers
Information
2. Narrative-presents the new information in the form of a story to students.
3. Skimming-is done by looking over the new material to gain the basic overview.
4. Graphic organizer-visuals to set up or outline the new information. This may include
Derivative Expository pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns, concept maps.
subsumption
Learner’s
Cognitive LESSON 13: Bruner’s Constructivist Theory
Structure
Correlative Narrative
subsumption Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A major theme in the theory
of Brunner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or
Use of concepts based upon their current /past knowledge.
Advance Superordinate Skimming
Graphic subsumption
Bruner’s
Spiral Constructivist Theory Discovery
Combinatorial Graphic Curriculum (Main Concepts) Learning
Subsumption subsumption Organizers

Representation of Theory Categorization

Focus on Ausubel’s Theory
Knowledge of Instruction
1. The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and
organization of the learner’s knowledge. This present knowledge consists of facts,
concepts, prepositions, theories and raw perceptual data that the learner has available Predisposition to
to him/her at any point in time. This comprises his/her cognitive structure. Enactive Learn
2. The way to strengthen the student’s cognitive structure is by using advance
organizers that allow students to already have a bird’s eye view or to see the
“big picture” of the topic to be learned even before going to the details. Structure of
Iconic
Knowledge
Subsumption: a process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing
cognitive structure.
Symbolic Effective
 Derivative subsumption. This describes the situation in which the new information you Sequencing
learn is an example of a concept that you have already learned.
 Correlative subsumption In a sense, you might say that this is more “valuable” learning
than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level concept. Reinforcement
These three stages also become the three ways to represent knowledge.
1. Enactive representation- At the earliest ages, children learn about the world through actions
on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions.
2. Iconic representation-this second stage is when learning can be obtained through using
models and pictures.
3. Symbolic representation-In this third stage, the learner has developed the ability to think in
abstract terms. This uses symbol system to encode knowledge.
individual.” It is based on Vygotsky’s theory. Here, construction of knowledge is shared by two
or more people. According to social constructivists, the opportunity to interact and share among
learners help to shape the refine their ideas. Knowledge construction becomes social, not
individual.
Constructivism

In a spiral curriculum, teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content
in different ways depending on student’s developmental levels. Views of Characteristics of Organizing Knowledge
Constructivism Constructivism
Discovery learning refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. The teacher plans and arranges
activities in such a way that students search, manipulate, explore and investigate.

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address for major aspects: Individual
Constructivism
Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for learning”. Bruner believed
that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in a way that fits the child‘s
cognitive abilities. Social Constructivism
Structure of Knowledge. This refers to the ways in which a body of knowledge can be
structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner.
Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, the lesson can Characteristics of Constructivism
be presented in increasing difficulty. 1. Learners construct understanding.
Reinforcement. Rewards and punishments should be selected and paced appropriately. 2. New learning depends on current understanding.
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction.
Categorization 4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks.
Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the construction of
internal cognitive maps.He believed that perception, conceptualization, learning, decision Organizing Knowledge
making and making inferences all involved categorization. Categories are “rules” that specify Concepts. A concept is a way of grouping or categorizing objects or events in our
four thing about objects. mind. A concept of “teach” includes a group of tasks such as model, discuss, illustrate, explain,
assist, etc.
There are several kinds of categories: Concepts as Feature Lists. Learning a concept involves learning specific features that
1. Identity categories- categories include objects based on their attributes or features. characterize positive instance of the concept.
2. Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories). Concepts as Prototypes. A prototype is an idea or a visual image of a “typical” example.
3. Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory input. Concepts as Exemplars. Exemplars represent a variety of examples. It allows learner to know
that an example under a concept may have variability.
LESSON 14: Constructivism: Knowledge Construction/Concept Learning
Making Concept-learning Effective.
• Provide a clear definition of the concept
Two Views of Constructivism • Make the defining features very concrete and prominent
Individual Constructivism. This is also called cognitive constructivism. It emphasizes
• Give a variety of positive instances
individual, internal construction of knowledge. It is largely based on Piaget’s theory. Proponents
of this type choose child-centered and discovery learning. They believe the learners should be
Schemas and scripts. A schema is an organized body of knowledge about something. It is like
allowed to discover principles though their own exploration rather than direct instruction by the
a file of information you hold in your mind about something. Like a schema of what a teacher is.
teacher.
A script is a schema that includes a series of predictable events about a specific activity.
Social constructivism. This view emphasizes that “knowledge exists in a social context
and is initially shared with others instead of being represented solely in the mind of an
Examples would include knowing the series of steps done when we visit a doctor, or what The Original Bloom’s Taxonomy
transpires at the beginning of the class when the teacher arrives.
 Six levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy
Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning
• Give varied examples.
• Provide opportunities for experimentation
• Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction. The Revised Taxonomy

LESSON 15: Transfer of Learning  Two Dimensions of the Revised Taxonomy

Teachers want their students to apply the knowledge and skills they learn in class to other
situations. When one recognizes a situation as something similar in a way to what he has
experienced before, his tendency is to use the knowledge and skills he has learned to this new
situation. This is what transfer of learning is about. Practical Guide to the Revised Taxonomy

Transfer of Learning

Bloom’s taxonomy was a model that described the different levels of learning outcomes that target
what skills and competencies the teachers aim to develop in the learners. The taxonomy in the
Types of Transfer Conditions and Principles of Transfer
cognitive domain contains the levels from knowledge to evaluation. The six levels progress from simple
to more complex levels of thinking, the last three being referred to as “higher-order thinking skills” or
Transfer of learning happens when learning in one context or with one set of materials affects
HOTS!
performance in another context or with other related materials. Simply put, it is applying to
KNOWLEDGE- teaching with facts, stating memorized rules, principles or definitions
another situation what was previously learned.
Types of Transfer COMPREHENSION- lead to understanding concepts, rules and principles
Positive transfer. Positive transfer occurs when learning in one context improves APPLICATION- A proof of the comprehension of the concepts and principles I using them in real-life
performance in some other context. For instance, a speaker of Spanish would find it easier to situations
learn Mexican language than Japanese. ANALYSIS- For an in-depth understanding and mastery of these applied concepts, rules and principles,
Negative transfer. Negative transfer occurs when learning in one context impacts these are broken down into parts
negatively on performance in another. For example, learners commonly assimilate a new SYNTHESIS- A still higher level of thinking is when students put together elements of what has been
language’s phonetics to crude approximations in their native tongue and use word orders learned on new way.
carried over from their native tongue. Example, there may be a tendency for a Visayan- EVALUATION- With a full grasp of what was learned, the students can now assess or judge, based on
speaking child to frequently interchange the /e/ and /i/ sound when speaking in English. With set of standards, on what they learned.
experience however, learners correct the effects of negative transfer.
Near transfer. Near transfer refers to transfer between very similar contexts. This is After 45 years since the publication of Bloom’s taxonomy, Lorin Anderson (Bloom’s former student) and
also referred to as specific transfer; for example, when student answer types of algebra word David Krathwohl lead a new group of experts to work together. The result was what is now called the
problems in an exam which are similar to what they had in their seat works. Or when a student revised taxonomy.
is learning to use a new cellphone that is somehow similar to the one she had before.
Far transfer. Far transfer refers to transfer between contexts that, on appearance, Cognitive Dimensions Knowledge Dimensions
seem remote and alien to one another. This is also called general transfer. For example 1. Remember Factual
Stephen Covey applied the lesson of the Aesop’s Fable of “The Goose That Lays the Golden 2. Understand Conceptual
Eggs” to managing corporations. He said we should take care of the goose rather than kill it. To 3. Apply Procedural
be successful in business we should take care of our workers not burden them. 4. Analyze Metacognitive
5. Evaluate
LESSON 16: The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 6. Create