Handbook

Handbook
Environmental Studies
]cnØnXn ]T\w
Hcp ssI¸pkvXIw
Semester -1
B21ES01AC
SREENARAYANAGURU OPEN UNIVERSITY

The State University for Education, Training and Research in Blended Format, Kerala
SGOU - EVS-MALAYALAM-HANDBOOK 1
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BLOCK -1
Environment and Natural Resources
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p‑w
2 SGOU - EVS-MALAYALAM-HANDBOOK
UNIT- 1
]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I h‑n-`‑m-K-§Ä
`‑q-a‑n‑, P-e‑w‑, h‑m-b‑p F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-Å-X‑n-\‑mÂ P‑o-h-\‑p-Å H-t‑c-s‑b‑m-c‑p {‑K-l-a‑m-W‑v `‑q-a‑n. A-X‑n-
P‑o-h-\‑w‑, h‑n-I-k-\‑w‑, ]-c‑n-W‑m-a‑w F-¶‑n-h-s‑b k‑z‑m-[‑o-\‑n-¡‑p-¶ ssPh, AssPh N‑p-ä‑p-]‑m-S‑p-
IÄ DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑n-e‑p‑w A-X‑n-s‑â {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w {‑i-²t‑I-{‑µ‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶
H-c‑p A-¡‑m-Z-a‑n-I‑v t‑a-J-e-b‑m-W‑v ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n ]T-\‑w. k-¦‑oÀ-®-a‑m-b k-a-I‑m-e‑n-I ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-
X‑n-I {‑]-i--\ ‑v -§-s‑f A-`‑n-k‑w-t‑_‑m-[-\ s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v ‑ `‑q-a‑n-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w‑, \-c-h‑w-i-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w‑, h‑n-
Z‑y‑m-`‑y‑m-k‑w‑, c‑m-{‑ã‑o-b‑w‑, \‑n-b-a‑w‑, k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w‑, X-X‑z-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w‑, k‑m-a‑q-l‑y-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w‑,
a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W \‑n-b-{‑´-W‑w‑, {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h kwc£Ww X‑p-S-§‑n-b h‑n-h‑n-[ h‑n-j-b-§-f‑nÂ
\‑n-¶‑p-Å X-X‑z-§Ä ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n ]T-\¯‑n\ -‑ mbv D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n- sNdnbXew
a‑p-XÂ B-t‑K‑m-f‑w h-s‑c h‑y-X‑y‑m-k-s‑¸-S‑m‑w‑, A-X‑nÂ k-a‑p-{‑Z‑w‑, A-´-c‑o-£‑w‑, `‑u-a ]-c‑n-X-Ø‑n-
X‑n-IÄ F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-i-à‑n-I-f‑p‑w a-ä‑v P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S-b‑p-Å
H-c‑p P‑o-h‑n-b‑p-s‑S N‑p-ä‑p-]‑m-S‑p-IÄ h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-\‑p‑w h-fÀ-¨-b‑v-¡‑p‑w am{XaÃ A-]-I-S-¯‑n-\‑p‑w
\‑m-i-¯‑n-\‑p‑w h-s‑c k‑m-l-N-c‑y-s‑a‑m-c‑p-¡‑p-¶‑p.
Aävtamkv^nbÀ‑, s‑s‑l-t‑{‑U‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ‑, e‑n-t‑¯‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ‑, _-t‑b‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ F-¶‑n-
§-s‑\ t‑e‑m-I-s‑a-¼‑m-S‑p-a‑p-Å N-e-\‑m-ß-I a‑m-ä-§Ä-¡‑p‑w B-L‑m-X-§Ä-¡‑p‑w D-¯-c-h‑m-Z‑n-
I-f‑m-b \‑m-e‑v ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I h‑n-`‑m-K-§-f‑p-ï‑v. CXnÂ H-c‑p LSI¯nse G-X‑v a‑m-ä-h‑p‑w
a-ä‑p-Å-h-b‑p-s‑S k‑z-`‑m-h-s‑¯-b‑p‑w {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-s‑¯-b‑p‑w _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. A-´-c‑o-£‑w `‑q-a‑n-s‑b
N‑p-ä‑n-¸-ä‑n-b‑p-Å h‑m-X-I-§-f‑p-s‑S ]‑m-f‑n-b‑m-W‑v, A-X‑nÂ s‑s‑\-{‑S-P³‑, H‑m-Iv-k -‑ ‑n-P³‑, BÀ-t‑K‑m¬‑,
I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v X‑p-S-§‑n-b {‑]‑m-Y-a‑n-I h‑m-X-I-§Ä [‑m-c‑m-f‑w ASnØm\
h‑m-X-I-§Ä A-S-§‑n-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. A-´-c‑o-£s‑¯‑ a‑q-¶‑v {‑]-[‑m-\ ]‑m-f‑n-I-f‑m-b‑n X-c‑w X‑n-
c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p: t‑{‑S‑m-t‑]‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ‑, k‑v-{‑S‑m-t‑ä‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ‑, A-b-t‑W‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ. `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S D-]-
c‑n-X-e-t‑¯‑m-S‑v G-ä-h‑p‑w A-S‑p-¯‑p-Å ]‑m-f‑n-b‑m-W‑v t‑{‑S‑m-t‑]‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ‑, A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-s‑â
]‑n-Þ-¯‑n-s‑â 70% CXnÂ A-S-§‑n-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. k‑v-{‑S‑m-t‑ä‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ c-ï‑m-a-s‑¯ ]‑m-f‑n-b‑m-
W‑v‑, A-X‑nÂ t‑{‑S‑m-t‑]‑m-k‑v-^‑n-b-d‑n-t‑\-¡‑mÄ 1000 a-S-§‑v I‑p-d-h‑v P-e-_‑m-j‑v-]-h‑p‑w 1000 a-S-§‑v
H‑m-t‑k‑m-W‑p‑w D-ï‑v. s‑s‑l-t‑{‑U‑m-k‑v-^‑n-b-d‑p‑w e‑n-t‑¯‑m-k‑v-^‑n-b-d‑p‑w B-W‑v a-ä‑v c-ï‑v ]mfnIÄ.
k-a‑p-{‑Z‑w‑, A-´-c‑o-£‑w‑, I-c‑, P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b--¡ ‑v ‑n-S-b‑nÂ _‑m-j‑v-]‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, t‑a-L-
§-f‑p-s‑S c‑q-]‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, a-g F-¶‑n-h-b‑n-e‑q-s‑S P-e-¯‑n-s‑â X‑p-SÀ-¨-b‑m-b s‑s‑I-a‑m-ä-a‑m-W‑v P-e-
s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-XN-{‑I‑w. k‑u-t‑c‑mÀ-Ö‑w h-g‑n-b‑p-Å _‑m-j‑v-]‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e P-t‑e‑m-]-c‑n-
X-e-§-f‑nÂ P-e‑w \-ã-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e A-[‑n-I-a‑m-b 10% a-g P-e- N-{‑I-s‑¯ k-´‑p-e‑n-
X-a‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑p-d-¨‑v a-g `‑q-KÀ-`-P-e-a‑m-b‑n a-®‑n-t‑e-¡‑v H-g‑p-I‑p-¶‑p. k-k‑y-§Ä a-®‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v
s‑h-Å‑w B-K‑n-c-W‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p‑, A-X‑v Bhnbmbn A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v a-S-§‑p-¶‑p. a‑r-K-
§-f‑p‑w P-e‑w F-S‑p-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, A-X‑v _‑m-j‑v-]‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v X‑n-c‑n-s‑I-
s‑b-¯‑p-¶‑p‑, A-X‑n-s‑â ^-e-a‑m-b‑n `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S D-]-c‑n-X-e-¯‑n-\‑p‑w A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-\‑p‑w C-S-b‑nÂ
P-e-¯‑n-s‑â k-´‑p-e‑n-X-a‑m-b s‑s‑k-¢‑n‑w-K‑v \-S-¡‑p-¶‑p.
s‑]‑m-«‑p-¶ a‑p-IÄ`‑m-K-h‑p‑w ]‑p-d‑w-t‑X‑m-S‑p‑w t‑]‑m-j-IL-S-I-§Ä A-S-§‑n-b a-®‑n-s‑â t‑\À-
¯ ]‑m-f‑n-I-f‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S JcmhØbnepÅ‑, ]‑p-d‑w `‑m-K-a‑m-W‑v e‑n-t‑¯‑m-k‑v-^‑n-
bÀ. `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S ]‑m-f‑n-I-f‑nÂ G-ä-h‑p‑w Z‑r-V-a‑m-b-X‑p‑w G-I-t‑Z-i‑w 150 I‑n.a‑o. e‑n-t‑¯‑m-k‑v-^‑n-b-d‑n-
s‑e ]‑m-d-IÄ C-t‑¸‑m-g‑p‑w C-e‑m-Ì‑n-I‑v B-b‑n I-W-¡‑m-¡-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p‑, hgphgp¸pÅXp a‑m-{‑X-a-Ã
C-X‑v `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S ]‑m-f‑n-I-f‑nÂ G-ä-h‑p‑w X-W‑p-¸‑p-Å-X‑p-a‑m-W‑v.
s‑s‑P-h-a-Þ-e‑w F-¶-X‑v P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-s‑S a-Þ-e-s‑¯-b‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑p-a‑m-b‑p-Å
A-h-b‑p-s‑S C-S-s‑]-S-e‑p-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, A-X‑n-s‑\ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-IÄ F-¶‑v h‑n-
f‑n-¡‑p-¶ s‑N-d‑n-b b‑q-W‑n-ä‑p-I-f‑m-b‑n X‑n-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. ssPhnI k-a‑q-l-s‑¯ \‑nÀ-½‑m-X‑m-¡Ä‑,
D-]-t‑`‑m-à‑m-¡Ä‑, h‑n-L-S‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-hÀ F-¶‑n-§-s‑\ X-c‑w X‑n-c‑n-¡‑m‑w. I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-
I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v, [‑m-X‑p t‑]‑m-j-I-§Ä‑, s‑h-Å‑w F-¶‑n-h B-K‑n-c-W‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I-b‑p‑w a-ä‑v P‑o-h-P‑m-
e-§Ä-¡‑v B-h-i‑y-a‑m-b H‑m-Iv-k -‑ ‑n-P³ ]‑p-d-¯‑p-h‑n-S‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶ l-c‑n-X k-k‑y-§-f‑m-W‑v
D-X‑v-]‑m-Z-IÀ. D-]-t‑`‑m-à‑m-¡Ä k-k‑y-`‑p-¡‑p-I-f‑p-Å a‑r-K-§-f‑m-W‑v, A-X‑v a‑m‑w-k-`‑p-¡‑m-b a‑r-K-
§Ä `-£‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. _‑m-Î‑o-c‑n-b‑, ^‑w-K-k‑v, a-ä‑v s‑N-d‑n-b P‑o-h‑n-IÄ F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-s‑S {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-
¯‑mÂ a-e‑w‑, a‑r-K-§Ä‑, k-k‑y-§Ä‑, a-\‑p-j‑yÀ‑, a-ä‑v N-¯ P‑o-h‑n-IÄ F-¶‑n-h- h‑n-L-S‑n-¡‑p-
¶‑p‑, C-X‑v k-k‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w a‑r-K-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w L-S-I-§-s‑f N‑p-ä‑p-a‑p-Å a‑m-[‑y-a-¯‑n-t‑e-t‑¡‑m
a-®‑n-t‑e-t‑¡‑m X‑n-c‑n-s‑I s‑I‑m-ï‑pt‑]‑m-Ip¶‑p.
ss¢aänÂ (Weather) k‑q-c‑y-{‑]-I‑m-i‑w‑, a-g‑, t‑a-L‑w‑, I‑m-ä‑v, B-e‑n-¸-g‑w‑, a-ª‑v, a-ª‑p-h‑o-g‑v-N‑,
s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, l‑n-a-]‑m-X-§Ä‑, s‑F-k‑v s‑I‑m-S‑p-¦‑m-ä‑p-IÄ‑, C-S‑n-a‑n-¶-e‑p-IÄ‑, A-a‑n-X-a‑m-b N‑q-
S‑v‑, N‑q-S‑v X-c‑w-K-§Ä F-¶‑n-h- DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. Z‑n-h-t‑k-\-b‑p-Å I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø-b‑nÂ \‑m-S-I‑o-b-a‑m-
b‑n a‑m-d‑m‑w‑, A-t‑X-k-a-b‑w H-c‑p Ø-e-¯‑n-s‑â i-c‑m-i-c‑n I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø-s‑b Weather {‑]-X‑n-\‑n-[‑o-
I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. Weather F-¶-X‑v H-c‑p {‑]-t‑X‑y-I {‑]-t‑Z-i-¯‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w k-a-b I‑m-e-b-f-h‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w
i-c‑m-i-c‑n I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø-b‑m-W‑v. t‑e‑m-I-s‑a-¼‑m-S‑p-a‑p-Å B-f‑p-I-s‑f _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑mÂ I‑m-e‑m-
h-Ø ]T-\-¯‑n-\‑v {‑]-k-à-a‑m-W‑v.
UNIT- 2
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§Ä
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S B-i-b-§-f‑p‑w {‑]-[‑m-\ X-c-§-f‑p‑w
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§Ä ]-W‑w \Â-I‑m-s‑X {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v e-`‑n-¡‑p-¶ DÂ-¸-¶-§-f‑m-
W‑v. A-h a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v k‑z-X-{‑´-a‑m-b‑n \‑n-e-\‑nÂ-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, h‑m-b‑p‑, k‑q-
c‑y-{‑]-I‑m-i‑w‑, s‑h-Å‑w‑, a-®‑v, I-Ã‑v, k-k‑y-§Ä‑, a‑r-K-§Ä‑, t‑^‑m-k‑nÂ C-Ô-\-§Ä F-¶‑n-h
CXnÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
G-ä-h‑p‑w {‑]-[‑m-\-s‑¸-« A-©‑v {‑]-I‑r-X‑nh‑n-`-h-§Ä C-h-b‑m-W‑v:

h‑m-b‑p: F-Ã‑m P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§Ä-¡‑p‑w `‑q-a‑n-b‑nÂ \‑n-e-\‑nÂ-t‑¡-ï-X‑v B-h-i‑y-a‑m-W‑v.
P-e‑w: `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e P-e-¯‑n-s‑â 2% a‑m-{‑X-a‑m-W‑v i‑p-²-P-e‑w‑, A-X‑v P‑o-h-s‑â \n-e-\nÂ-¸n-\v
\‑nÀ-W‑m-b-I-a‑m-W‑v.
a-®‑v: C-X‑v s‑N-S‑n-IÄ-¡‑v h-f-c‑m-\‑p-Å t‑]‑m-j-I-§Ä \Â-I‑p-¶‑p.
[‑m-X‑p h‑n-`-h-§Ä: s‑s‑Z-\‑w-Z‑n-\ D-]-P‑o-h-\-¯‑n-\‑v D-]-t‑b‑m-K-{‑]-Z-a‑m-b t‑^‑m-k‑nÂ C-Ô-\-
§Ä DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S-b‑p-Åh.
h-\-§Ä: A-h i‑p-²-h‑m-b‑p {‑]-Z‑m-\‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I-b‑p‑w t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑â ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b ]‑n-´‑p-
W-b‑v-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p.
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S {‑]‑m-[‑m-\‑y‑w
`‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑âbpw a-äp Po-h-Pm-e-§-fp-sS-bpw \‑n-e-\‑nÂ-¸‑n-\‑p‑w h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-\‑p‑w
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§Ä A-X‑y-´‑m-t‑]-£‑n-X-a‑m-W‑v. A-h, \-a‑p-¡‑v i‑z-k‑n-¡‑m-\‑p-Å h‑m-b‑p‑, I‑r-j‑n-
¡‑v `‑q-a‑n‑, k‑u-t‑c‑mÀ-Ö‑w‑, C-Ô-\‑w‑, [‑m-X‑p-¡Ä‑, h‑n-e-]‑n-S‑n-¸‑p-Å h-k‑v-X‑p-¡Ä‑, `-£-W‑w‑, ]‑mÀ-
¸‑n-S‑w‑, h‑y-h-k‑m-b-hÂ-¡-c-W-¯‑n-\‑p‑w \-K-c-hÂ-¡-c-W-¯‑n-\‑p‑w B-h-i‑y-a‑m-b h‑n-`-h-§Ä
F-¶‑n-h \Â-I‑p-¶‑p. \-Z‑n-I-f‑nÂ \‑nÀ-½‑n-¨ A-W-s‑¡-«‑p-IÄ s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡-s‑¯ X-S-b‑p-¶‑p‑.
i-c‑n-b‑m-b P-e-t‑k-N-\‑w {‑]-Z‑m-\‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p‑. a-Õ‑y-_-Ô-\ h‑y-h-k‑m-b-¯‑n-s‑â h‑n-I-k-\‑w‑,
s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X‑n D-X‑v-]‑m-Z-\‑w F-¶‑n-hsbms‑¡ {‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§fpa-mb‑n _Ôs¸«p InS¡p¶p.
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h-§Ä-¡‑v `‑o-j-W‑n
A-a‑n-X P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑, A-a‑n-X N‑q-j-W‑w‑, I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n a-e‑n-\‑o-I-
c-W‑w F-¶‑n-h- {‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§Ä-¡‑v `‑o-j-W‑n-b‑m-W‑v.
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S k‑w-c-£-W‑w
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S k‑w-c-£-W‑w F-¶mÂ {‑]-I‑r-X‑n \Â-I‑p-¶ h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S

kq£vaXtbmsSbpÅ ]-c‑n-]‑m-e-\-a‑m-W‑v. {‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§Ä k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑m³‑, \-a‑p-¡‑v
\-½‑p-s‑S k-a‑q-l-s‑¯ t_m-[-he‑v¡-cn-¡mw‑, ip-²-P-eh‑p‑w a-g-s‑h-Å-h‑p‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑m‑w‑, I‑p-
f-§-f‑p‑w X-S‑m-I-§-f‑p‑w h‑r-¯‑n-b‑m-b‑n k‑q-£‑n-¡W‑w, A-W-s‑¡-«‑p-I-f‑p‑w P-e-k‑w-`-c-W‑n-I-f‑p‑w
\‑nÀ-½‑n-¡‑m‑w‑, h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W‑w X-S-bW‑w‑, {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h-§Ä I‑q-S‑p-XÂ I‑m-c‑y-£-a-a‑m-b‑n
D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑W‑w‑, s‑]‑m-X‑p A-h-t‑_‑m-[‑w h-fÀ-¯W‑w‑, D‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-s‑â _-ZÂ c‑q-]-§Ä‑.
h‑r-£-s‑s‑¯ \-S‑oÂ D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-I ]-c‑n-i‑o-e‑n-¡‑p-I‑, a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡‑p-I‑, {‑]-I‑r-
X‑n h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S k‑w-c-£-W‑w k‑w-_-Ô‑n-¨ \‑n-b-a-§Ä \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-hbp-‑w {‑]
[‑m-\y-a-Àln¡p¶p.
UNIT- 3
h-\-h‑n-`-h-§Ä
C-´‑y-b‑n-s‑e h-\-§Ä k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-\‑v k‑w-`‑m-h-\ s‑N-¿‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p-¶
{‑]-[‑m-\ h‑n-`-h-§-f‑m-W‑v. I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑, k‑v-]‑o-j‑n-k‑v L-S-\‑, `‑q-{‑]-I‑r-X‑n X‑p-S-§‑n-b L-S-I-
§-s‑f A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\-a‑m-¡‑n A-h-s‑b 16 {‑]-[‑m-\ hn-`m-K§-f‑m-b‑p‑w 221 D-]-h‑n-`‑m-K-§-f‑m-b‑p‑w
X-c‑w-X‑n-c‑n-¨‑n-«‑p-ï‑v. C‑h-s‑b t‑{‑S‑m-¸‑n-¡Â a‑p-XÂ BÂ-s‑s‑]³ h-s‑c-b‑p-Å B-d‑v {‑]-[‑m-\
h‑n-`‑m-K-§-f‑m-b‑n X‑n-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. X‑m-]-\‑n-e‑, C‑uÀ-¸‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-s‑S A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\-¯‑nÂ
h-\-{‑K‑q-¸‑p-I-s‑f D-]-{‑K‑q-¸‑p-I-f‑m-b‑n X‑n-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. C‑uÀ-¸-a‑p-Å D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m h-\-§Ä‑,
h-c-ï D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m h-\-§Ä‑, ]À-h-X D-] D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m h-\-§Ä‑, ]À-h-X a‑n-X-i‑o-
t‑X‑m-j‑v-W h-\-§Ä‑, D-]-þ-BÂ-s‑s‑]³ h-\-§Ä‑, BÂ-s‑s‑]³ h-\-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v
C-´‑y-b‑n-s‑e {‑]-[‑m-\ h-\-§Ä.
C‑uÀ-¸-a‑p-Å D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m h-\-§-f‑nÂ t‑{‑S‑m-¸‑n-¡Â BÀ-{‑Z \‑n-X‑y-l-c‑n-X h-\-§Ä‑,
D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m AÀ-² \‑n-X‑y-l-c‑n-X h-\-§Ä‑, D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m C‑uÀ-¸-a‑p-Å C-e-s‑]‑m-g‑n-b‑p‑w
h-\-§Ä‑, e‑n-t‑ä‑m-dÂ‑, N-X‑p-¸‑v h-\-§Ä F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m BÀ-{‑Z \‑n-X‑y-l-c‑n-X h-\-§Ä ]-Ý‑n-a-L-«-¯‑n-e‑p‑w h-S-¡‑p-I‑n-g-¡³
C-´‑y-b‑n-e‑p‑w B³-U-a‑m³ \‑n-t‑¡‑m-_‑m-d‑n-e‑p‑w X‑p-SÀ-¨-b‑m-b‑n h‑y‑m-]‑n-¨‑p-I‑n-S-¡‑p-¶‑p. A-h C-S-
X‑qÀ-¶-X‑p‑w \‑m-t‑e‑m A-t‑©‑m ]‑m-f‑n-I-f‑p-Å 30þ45 a‑o-äÀ D-b-c-a‑p-Å t‑a-e‑m-¸‑v L-S-\ I‑m-W‑n-
¡‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X D-bÀ-¶ s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑p-Å h‑r-£ C-\-§-f‑p-a‑p-ï‑v. C-h-b‑p-s‑S h-fÀ-¨-b‑v-¡‑v
{‑]-X‑n-hÀ-j‑w 2000 a‑p-XÂ 3000 a‑n-Ã‑n-a‑o-äÀ h-s‑c a-g B-h-i‑y-a‑m-W‑v.
D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m AÀ-² \‑n-X‑y-l-c‑n-X h-\-§Ä \‑n-X‑y-l-c‑n-X-h‑p‑w C‑uÀ-¸-a‑p-Å-X‑p-a‑m-b C-e-
s‑]‑m-g‑n-b‑p‑w h-\-§Ä-¡‑n-S-b‑n-e‑p-Å H-c‑p ]-c‑n-hÀ-¯-\-a‑m-W‑v. D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m BÀ-{‑Z \‑n-X‑y-
l-c‑n-X h-\-§-t‑f‑m-S‑v t‑NÀ-¶‑p-Å {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-e‑m-W‑v C-h I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶-X‑v, aÄ-«‑n-þ-k‑v-{‑S‑m-ä‑,
24þ36 a‑o-äÀ D-b-c‑w‑, \‑n-X‑y-l-c‑n-X h-\-§-s‑f A-t‑]-£‑n-¨‑v C-hbv-¡v k-a‑r-²‑n I‑p-d-h‑m-W‑v.
{‑]-X‑n-hÀ-j‑w 1500þ2500 a‑n-Ã‑n-a‑o-äÀ h-s‑c-b‑m-W‑v a-g. B-g‑w I‑p-d-ª a-®‑nÂ F-U‑m-^‑n-I‑v k-_‑v-
þ-s‑s‑¢-a‑m-I--k
‑v ‑v F-¶ \‑n-e-b‑n-e‑m-W‑v C-h k‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v.
D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m C‑uÀ-¸-a‑p-Å C-e-s‑]‑m-g‑n-b‑p‑w h-\-§Ä 1000 a‑p-XÂ 2000 a‑n-Ã‑n-a‑o-äÀ h-s‑c
a-g s‑]-¿‑p-¶ {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w a‑q-t‑¶‑m \‑m-t‑e‑m a‑m-k-s‑¯ h-c-ï k‑o-k-W‑p‑w k‑m-[‑m-c-W-a‑m-
W‑v. {‑]-_-e-a‑m-b a-c-§Ä C-e-s‑]‑m-g‑n-b‑p‑w‑, X‑m-g‑v-¶ \‑n-e-b‑n-e‑p-Å a-c-§Ä k‑m-[‑m-c-W-b‑m-b‑n
\‑n-X‑y-l-c‑n-X-a‑m-W‑v. D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m \‑n-X‑y-l-c‑n-X‑, AÀ-² \‑n-X‑y-l-c‑n-X h-\-§-f‑p-a‑m-b‑n X‑m-c-
X-a‑y-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ C‑u h-\-§Ä k‑m-[‑m-c-W-b‑m-b‑n 2 a‑p-XÂ 3 h-s‑c k‑--tv ‑ä-ä‑p-I-f‑p-Å-h-
b‑m-W‑v.
e‑n-s‑ä‑m-dÂ‑, N-X‑p-¸‑v h-\-§Ä h‑y-X‑y-k‑v-X k‑m-{‑µ-X-b‑n-e‑p‑w D-b-c-¯‑n-e‑p‑w D-Å \‑n-X‑y-l-c‑n-X
C-\-§-s‑f DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p‑, CX‑v- k‑m-[‑m-c-W-b‑m-b‑n s‑a-k‑n-I‑v B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-a‑m-b‑n
_-Ô-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. C-´‑y-b‑p-s‑S I‑n-g-¡‑v, ]-S‑n-ª‑m-d³ X‑o-c-§Ä‑, B³-U-a‑m³ \‑n-t‑¡‑m-
_‑mÀ Z‑z‑o-]‑p-IÄ‑, KÄ-^‑v H‑m-^‑v I‑m-¨‑v, J‑w-_-¯‑v (K‑p-P-d‑m-¯‑v) F-¶‑n-h‑n-S-§-f‑nÂ I-ïÂ-¡‑m-
S‑p-IÄ I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑e G-ä-h‑p‑w h-e‑n-b I-ïÂ-¡‑m-S‑m-W‑v k‑p-µÀ-_³.
D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m h-c-ï h-\-§-f‑nÂ t‑{‑S‑m-¸‑n-¡Â C-e-s‑]‑m-g‑n-b‑p‑w h-\-§-f‑p‑w D-j‑v-W-t‑a-
J-e‑m a‑pÄ-¡‑m-S‑p-I-f‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m h-c-ï C-e-s‑]‑m-g‑n-b‑p‑w h-\-§-f‑m-W‑v
C-´‑y-b‑n-s‑e G-ä-h‑p‑w h-e‑n-b h-\‑w‑, c‑m-P‑y-¯‑n-s‑â h-\-t‑a-J-e-b‑p-s‑S G-I-t‑Z-i‑w 38.2% CX‑v-
DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p. C‑u h-\-§-f‑nÂ 25 a‑o-ä-d‑nÂ X‑m-s‑g D-b-c-a‑p-Å a-c-§Ä A-S-§‑n-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-
¶‑p‑, C-e-s‑]‑m-g‑n-b‑p‑w a-c-§Ä A-S-§‑p-¶ t‑\-c‑n-b U‑n-a‑m³-U‑n‑w-K‑v t‑a-e‑m-¸‑v, h‑mÀ-j‑n-IN-{‑I-
¯‑nÂ a-g-b‑p‑w \‑o-ï‑p-\‑nÂ-¡‑p-¶ h-cÄ-¨-b‑p‑w {‑]-I-S-a‑m-b I‑m-e‑m-\‑p-k‑r-X-a‑m-b I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø-
b‑nÂ I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
D-¯-t‑c-´‑y-b‑n-e‑p‑w s‑]-\‑n³-k‑p-eÀ C-´‑y-b‑n-e‑p‑w a-[‑yC-´‑y-b‑n-e‑p‑w I‑p-d-ª a-g-b‑p-Å
{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ (200 a‑p-XÂ 800 a‑n-Ã‑n-a‑o-äÀ h-s‑c‑) D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m t‑X‑m¬h-\-§Ä I‑m-W-
s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. C-hn-sS s‑N-S‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S h-fÀ-¨-b‑v-¡‑v C‑uÀ-¸-¯‑n-s‑â e-`‑y-X ]-c‑n-a‑n-X-a‑m-W‑v. a-c-§Ä
\‑o-ï h-c-ï I‑m-e-L-«‑w A-\‑p-`-h‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. a-c-¯‑n-s‑â D-b-c‑w 6 a‑p-XÂ 9 a‑o-äÀ h-s‑c-b‑m-W‑v.
C-´‑y-b‑nÂ 1000 a‑p-XÂ 2000 a‑o-äÀ h-s‑c D-b-c-¯‑nÂ I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ H-c‑p X-c‑w h-\-a‑m-
W‑v s‑a‑m-s‑ï-b‑v³ D-t]m--j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑mh-\-§Ä. \‑o-e-K‑n-c‑n‑, ]-g-\‑n‑, X‑n-c‑p-s‑\Â-t‑h-e‑n s‑aÀ-¡-c
a-e-\‑n-c-I-f‑n-e‑m-W‑v s‑X-¡³D-t]m--j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m h‑n-i‑m-e-a‑m-b C-e-I-f‑p-Å I‑p-¶‑n³ h-\-§Ä
Ø‑n-X‑n s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑v. I‑m-t‑e‑m-^‑n-Ã‑w F-e‑m-ä‑w‑, b‑q-P‑o-\‑n-b F-k‑v-]‑n-]‑n.‑, U‑mÂ-s‑_À-P‑n-b e‑m-ä‑n-
t‑^‑m-f‑n-b‑, A-t‑\‑m-P‑n-k-k‑v e‑m-ä‑n-t‑^‑m-f‑n-b‑, F‑w-»‑n-¡ A-^‑n-k‑n-\‑m-e‑n-k‑v, H-e‑n-b U-t‑b‑m-¡‑,
^‑o-\‑n-Iv-k -‑ ‑v l‑p-a‑n-e‑n-k‑v F-¶‑n-h C‑u h-\-§-f‑n-s‑e {‑]-[‑m-\ h‑r-£ C-\-§-f‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
a-[‑y-{‑]-t‑Z-i‑v, _‑o-l‑mÀ‑, H-U‑o-j F-¶‑n-h‑n-S-§-f‑nÂ 1200 a‑o-ä-d‑n-\‑p a‑p-I-f‑nÂ a-[‑y C-´‑y³
D-t]m-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m I‑p-¶‑n³ h-\-§Ä I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p‑, {‑]-[‑m-\ a-c-§Ä a-W‑nÂ-¡-c s‑l-
I‑--k
v ‑m-{‑µ‑, a‑m‑w-K‑n-s‑^-d‑, k‑n-k‑n-P‑n-b‑w I‑y‑q-a‑n-\‑n F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v. A-c‑p-W‑m-NÂ {‑]-t‑Z-i‑v, a-W‑n-
¸‑qÀ‑, a‑n-t‑k‑m-d‑m‑w‑, t‑a-L‑m-e-b‑, \‑m-K‑m-e‑m³-U‑v k‑n-¡‑n‑w‑, ]-Ý‑n-a _‑w-K‑mÄ F-¶‑n-h‑n-S-§-f‑nÂ
h-S-¡³ D-t]m--j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m h‑n-i‑m-e-a‑m-b C-e-I-f‑p-Å I‑p-¶‑n³ h-\-§Ä I‑n-g-¡³ l‑n-a‑m-
e-b³ D-t]m-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m BÀ-{‑Z I‑p-¶‑p-I-f‑mÂ {‑]-X‑n-\‑n-[‑o-I-c‑n-¡-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. s‑I‑zÀ-I-k‑v,
I‑m-Ì-t‑\‑m-]‑v-k‑n-k‑v, AÂ-\-k‑v, {‑]‑q-\-k‑v, s‑_-X‑p-e‑, j‑n-a F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v C‑u h-\-§-f‑n-s‑e
{‑]-[‑m-\ h‑r-£-§Ä.
l-c‑n-b‑m-\‑, l‑n-a‑m-NÂ {‑]-t‑Z-i‑v, P-½‑p I-i‑v-a‑oÀ‑, ]-©‑m-_‑v, D-¯-c‑m-J-Þ‑v F-¶‑n-h‑n-S-§-
f‑nÂ 1000 a‑p-XÂ 1800 a‑o-äÀ h-s‑c D-b-c-¯‑nÂ D-t]m-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m s‑s‑]³ h-\-§Ä I‑m-W-
s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. C‑u h-\-§-f‑nÂ {‑]-[‑m-\-a‑m-b‑p‑w s‑s‑]-\-k‑v t‑d‑m-Iv-k -‑ ‑v-_À-K‑n-b‑p‑w h‑n-i‑m-e-a‑m-b C-e-
I-f‑p-Å C-\-§-f‑p‑w A-S-§‑n-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
D-t]m-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m h-c-ï \‑n-X‑y-l-c‑n-Xh-\-§Ä, `‑m-_À {‑]-t‑Z-i‑w‑, i‑n-h‑m-e‑n-I‑v I‑p-¶‑p-
IÄ‑, ]-S‑n-ª‑m-d³ l‑n-a‑m-e-b-¯‑n-s‑â X‑m-g--h ‑v -c-IÄ F-¶‑n-h‑n-S-§-f‑nÂ h‑y‑m-]‑n-¨‑p-I‑n-S-¡‑p-¶‑p.
]-©‑m-_‑v, D-¯-c‑m-J-Þ‑v, l‑n-a‑m-NÂ {‑]-t‑Z-i‑v F-¶‑n-h‑n-S-§-f‑nÂ H‑m-e‑n-b I‑pk‑v-]‑n-U‑m-ä h‑n-i‑m-
e-a‑m-b X‑m-g--h
‑v -c-I-f‑nÂ I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. P-½‑p I‑m-i‑v-a‑o-c‑nÂ‑, H-e‑n-b I‑p-k‑v-]‑n-U‑m-ä‑, A-t‑¡-j‑y
t‑a‑m-U-Ì‑, t‑U‑m-t‑U‑m-\‑n-b h‑n-k‑v-t‑I‑m-k F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v C‑u I‑p-ä‑n-s‑¨-S‑n h-\-§-f‑n-s‑e {‑]-[‑m-\
C-\‑§Ä.
C-´‑y-b‑nÂ 1500 a‑o-äÀ a‑p-XÂ 3300 a‑o-äÀ h-s‑c D-b-c-¯‑nÂ I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ H-c‑p X-c‑w h-\-
a‑m-W‑v s‑a‑m-t‑ï³ a‑n-X-i‑o-t‑X‑m-j‑v-W h-\-§Ä. A-h-sb- ]‑n-s‑¶-b‑p‑w c-ï‑v {‑K‑q-¸‑p-I-f‑m-b‑n X‑n-c‑n-
¡‑m‑w. C‑uÀ-¸-a‑p-Å a‑n-X-i‑o-t‑X‑m-j‑v-W h-\-§Ä D-t]m-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m s‑s‑]³ h-\-§Ä-¡‑p‑w
D-]-þ-BÂ-s‑s‑]³ h-\-§Ä-¡‑p‑w C-S-b‑n-e‑p-Å l‑n-a‑m-e-b³ {‑]-t‑Z-i‑w a‑p-g‑p-h³ h‑y‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
I‑m-i‑v-a‑oÀ‑, l‑n-a‑m-NÂ {‑]-t‑Z-i‑v, ]-©‑m-_‑v, D-¯-c‑m-J-Þ‑v, U‑mÀ-P‑n-e‑n‑w-K‑v, ]-Ý‑n-a _‑w-K‑m-f‑n-
s‑e N‑n-e P‑n-Ã-IÄ‑, A-k‑w‑, k‑n-¡‑n‑w F-¶‑n-h‑n-S-§-f‑nÂ C‑u h-\-§Ä h‑y‑m-]‑n-¨‑p-I‑n-S-¡‑p-¶‑p.
s‑I‑zÀ-¡-k‑v e‑y‑q-t‑¡‑m-{‑S‑n-t‑¡‑m-t‑^‑m-d‑, s‑I‑zÀ-I-k‑v ^‑v-t‑e‑m-d‑n-_‑p-ï‑, s‑I‑zÀ-I-k‑v C³-I‑m-\‑, s‑I‑zÀ-
¡-k‑v s‑k-s‑a-I‑mÀ-]‑n-t‑^‑m-f‑n-b‑, s‑I‑zÀ-I-k‑v U‑n-t‑e-t‑ä-ä‑v, I‑y‑p. a‑n-¡ s‑k-{‑U-k‑v t‑Z-h-Z‑m-c h-\-
§-f‑p‑w i‑p-²-a‑m-b \‑n-e-IÄ D-ï‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, A-t‑X-k-a-b‑w I‑n-g-¡³ l‑n-a‑m-e-b³ I‑p-¶‑p-IÄ
s‑I‑zÀ-¡-k‑v e‑o-\‑n-b‑m-ä‑, s‑I‑zÀ-¡-k‑v e‑m-s‑a-t‑Ã‑m-k‑, s‑I‑zÀ-¡-k‑v ]‑m-¨‑n-^‑n-Ã‑, t‑d‑m-t‑U‑m-s‑U³-
t‑{‑U‑m¬ F-k‑v-]‑n-]‑n.‑, k‑p-K U‑p-t‑a‑m-k‑, ]‑n-k‑n-b k‑v-]‑n-\‑p-t‑e‑m-k‑, F-_‑n-k‑v s‑U³-k F-¶‑n-h
DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p. N-¼ (l‑n-a‑m-NÂ {‑]-t‑Z-i‑v) a‑p-XÂ 1800 a‑p-XÂ 2800 a‑o-äÀ h-s‑c D-b-c-a‑p-Å
A-¡‑m I‑p-¶‑p-IÄ h-s‑c N‑p-®‑m-¼‑p-I-Ã‑p-I-f‑nÂ I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ H-c‑p {‑]-I-S-a‑m-b C-\-a‑m-W‑v
I‑p-{‑]-k-k‑v t‑S‑m-d‑p-t‑e‑m-k. s‑a‑m-s‑ï-b‑v³ s‑h-ä‑v a‑n-X-i‑o-t‑X‑m-j‑v-W h-\-§Ä A-S-ª \‑n-X‑y-l-
c‑n-X h-\-§-f‑m-W‑v, a-c-§Ä I‑q-S‑p-X-e‑p‑w s‑N-d‑p-X‑p‑w D-bÀ-¶ i‑m-J-I-f‑p-Å-X‑p-a‑m-W‑v. I‑n-g-¡³
l‑n-a‑m-e-b-¯‑nÂ 1800 a‑o-ä-d‑n-\‑p‑w 3000 a‑o-ä-d‑n-\‑p‑w C-S-b‑nÂ D-b-c-¯‑nÂ 2000 a‑n-Ã‑o-a‑o-ä-d‑n-\‑p a‑p-
I-f‑n-e‑p-Å D-bÀ-¶ a-g-b‑p-Å {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-e‑m-W‑v C‑u h-\-§Ä I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶-X‑v.
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯-h‑p‑w a‑m-\‑p-j‑n-I-h‑p-a‑m-b B-L‑m-X-§-f‑p-s‑S ^-e-a‑m-b‑n h-\ ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n h‑y-
h-Ø-IÄ-¡‑p-Å `‑o-j-W‑n-IÄ k-¦‑oÀ-®-h‑p‑w s‑k³-k‑n-ä‑o-h‑p-a‑m-W‑v. A-a‑n-X N‑q-j-W-h‑p‑w I‑r-
j‑n-b‑p‑w H-c‑p {‑]-[‑m-\ `‑o-j-W‑n D-bÀ-¯‑p-¶‑p‑, IUCN s‑d-U‑v e‑n-Ì‑n-s‑e h‑w-i-\‑m-i-`‑o-j-W‑n t‑\-c‑n-
S‑p-¶ P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-s‑S 72% A-a‑n-X-a‑m-b N‑q-j-W-h‑p‑w 62% I‑r-j‑n-b‑p‑w `‑o-j-W‑n-b‑n-e‑m-W‑v. X-S‑n
t‑hÀ-X‑n-c‑n-s‑¨-S‑p-¡Â h-\-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w B-Z‑n-h‑m-k‑n P-\-h‑n-`‑m-K-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w I‑m-c‑y-a‑m-b k‑z‑m-[‑o-\‑w
s‑N-e‑p-¯‑p-¶‑p. h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W‑w H-c‑p B-t‑K‑m-f {‑]-X‑n-`‑m-k-a‑m-W‑v, A-{‑i-²-a‑m-b‑p‑w {‑I‑q-c-a‑m-b‑p‑w
a-c-§Ä a‑p-d‑n-¡Â‑, I‑m-«‑p-X‑o‑, h‑m-b‑p a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w X‑p-S-§‑n-b a-\‑p-j‑y {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑p-s‑S
^-e-a‑m-W‑v AXv. `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S \‑m-i‑w‑, t‑aÂ-a-®‑n-s‑â \-ã‑w‑, `‑q-{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w \‑m-i‑w F-¶‑n-
h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S h-\-§-f‑nÂ J-\-\‑w \‑n-c-h-[‑n {]iv\§Ä kyjvSn¡p¶p. U‑m-a‑p-IÄ-¡‑v h‑n-
h‑n-t‑[‑m-t‑±-i‑y D-]-t‑b‑m-K-§-f‑p-ï‑v, ]-t‑£ A-h h-\-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w
\‑m-i-¯‑n-\‑p‑w t‑K‑m-{‑X-hÀ-K-¡‑m-c‑p-s‑S I‑p-S‑n-b‑n-d-¡-¯‑n-\‑p‑w D-¯-c-h‑m-Z‑n-I-f‑m-W‑v. h-e‑n-b t‑X‑m-
X‑n-e‑p-Å A-W-s‑¡-«‑p-IÄ a‑m-ä‑m-\‑m-h‑m-¯ ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I \‑m-i-¯‑n-\‑v C-S-b‑m-¡‑p‑w‑, H-g‑p-¡‑v
I‑p-d-b‑p-¶-X‑p‑w X‑o-c-t‑Z-i‑, A-g‑n-a‑p-J a-Õ‑y-_-Ô-\-s‑¯ {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e-a‑m-b‑n _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑p‑w
DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S.
h‑n-h‑n-[-X-c‑w P‑o-h‑n-hÀ-K-§Ä‑, AhbpsS B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-IÄ‑, A-X‑p-t‑]‑m-s‑e I‑m-e‑m-h-
Ø-b‑p-s‑S L-S-I-§Ä F-¶‑n-h k‑w-c-£‑n-¨‑p-s‑I‑m-ï‑v `‑m-h‑n X-e-a‑p-d-IÄ-¡‑m-b‑n {‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-
`-h-§Ä k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑m-W‑v e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑v. C‑u e-£‑y‑w s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v, C-´‑y-
b‑n-e‑p‑w t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑â a-ä‑v `‑m-K-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w \‑n-c-h-[‑n k‑w-c-£-W \-S-]-S‑n-IÄ \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p.
h-\-k‑w-c-£-W-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑p-Å H-c‑p k-a‑o-]-\‑w, B-s‑f‑m-g‑n-ª-t‑X‑m D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m-¯-t‑X‑m
B-b Ø-e-§-f‑nÂ a-c-§Ä \-«‑p-]‑n-S‑n-¸‑n-¨‑v h-\-t‑¯‑m-«-¯‑n-s‑â h‑n-k‑v-X‑r-X‑n hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I
F-¶-X‑m-W‑v. X-S‑n‑, I‑m-e‑n-¯‑o-ä‑, C-Ô-\‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑v-¡‑m-b‑n h-\-§-f‑nÂ k-½À-±‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-
¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å a-s‑ä‑m-c‑p a‑mÀ-K-a‑m-W‑v _-ZÂ t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-IÄ h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w ]-I-c-¡‑m-s‑c
t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑v. I‑m-«‑p-X‑o-s‑b s‑N-d‑p-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v ^-e-{‑]-Z-a‑m-b H-c‑p k‑w-
h‑n-[‑m-\‑w Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-I‑, A-\-[‑n-I‑r-X-a‑m-b‑n a-c-§Ä a‑p-d‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v s‑s‑I-I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑n-
\‑p-Å \‑n-b-a-§Ä IÀ-i-\-a‑m-b‑n \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-I‑, I‑mÀ-j‑n-I-þ-h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w‑, k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I
h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w F-¶‑n-h t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-b‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§Ä k‑w-c-£‑n-
¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å {‑]-[‑m-\ \-S-]-S‑n-I-f‑m-W‑v.
B-k‑q-{‑X-W‑w‑, a‑m-t‑\-P‑v-s‑aâ‑v‑, B-\‑p-I‑q-e‑y-§Ä ]-¦‑n-SÂ F-¶‑n-h-b‑nÂ F-Ã‑m ]-¦‑m-f‑n-I-s‑f-
b‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v ]-¦‑m-f‑n-¯ h-\ ]-c‑n-]‑m-e-\-h‑p‑w A-h-I‑m-i-§-f‑p‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-
¡-W‑w. s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w‑, a-s‑®‑m-e‑n-¸‑v X-S-bÂ‑, s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡ \‑n-b-{‑´-W‑w‑, P-e-k‑p-c-£‑,
a-®‑v k‑w-c-£-W‑w/DÂ-]‑m-Z-\‑w F-¶‑n-h \‑n-e-\‑nÀ-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W-h‑p‑w A-X‑y-´‑m-
t‑]-£‑n-X-a‑m-W‑v. h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W‑w aqew k-a‑o-]-I‑m-e-¯‑v h-\-§Ä s‑h-«‑n-s‑¯-f‑n-¨ {‑]-t‑Z-i-
§-f‑nÂ h-\-t‑a-J-e Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, A-t‑X-k-a-b‑w N-c‑n-{‑X-]-c-a‑m-b‑n h-\-§Ä A-S-§‑n-b‑n-«‑n-
Ã‑m-¯ `‑q-a‑n-I-f‑nÂ ]‑p-X‑n-b h-\-§Ä \-«‑p-]‑n-S‑n-¸‑n-¡‑pIb‑p‑w -sN¿p¶p.
h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W-h‑p‑w ]‑p-\À-\‑nÀ-½‑m-W-h‑p‑w X-½‑n-e‑p-Å h‑y-X‑y‑m-k‑w:

h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W-¯‑nÂ a‑p-¼‑v D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m-¯ Ø-e-¯‑v H-c‑p ]‑p-X‑n-b h-\‑w k‑r-ã‑n-¡‑p-
¶-X‑v DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p‑, A-t‑X-k-a-b‑w ]‑p-\À-\‑nÀ-½‑m-W¯‑nÂ H-c‑p h-\‑w \-i‑n-¨ Ø-e-¯‑v h‑o-
ï‑p‑w a-c-§Ä \-S‑p-¶-X‑v DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. h-\-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§Ä hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w h-\-\-i‑o-I-
c-W-s‑¯ s‑N-d‑p-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, A-t‑X-k-a-b‑w I‑r-j‑n-¡‑m-
b‑n h-\-§Ä I-¯‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-s‑â {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä C-Ã‑m-X‑m-¡‑m-\‑m-W‑v h-\-hÂ
¡-c-W‑w. h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W‑w ]‑pÂ-t‑a-S‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S \‑m-i-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-
t‑¨-¡‑m‑w‑, A-t‑X-k-a-b‑w h-\-hÂ¡-c-W-¯‑n-\‑p I‑q-S‑p-XÂ A-[‑z‑m-\‑w B-h-i‑y-a‑m-W‑v, A-X‑v
s‑N-e-t‑h-d‑n-b-X‑m-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p‑w.
k-a‑q-lyh-\-hÂ-¡-c-W-w:
]-c-¼-c‑m-K-X h-\-§Ä-¡‑v ]‑p-d-¯‑p-Å h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W-a‑m-W‑v t‑k‑m-j‑yÂ t‑^‑m-d-k‑v-{‑S‑n‑,
C-X‑v {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I P-\-§Ä-¡‑v N-c-¡‑p-I-f‑p‑w t‑k-h-\-§-f‑p‑w \Â-I‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p.
t‑d‑m-U-c‑n-I‑p-I-f‑n-e‑p‑w s‑]‑m-X‑p k-a‑q-l-¯‑n-s‑â `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-e‑p‑w X-c‑n-i‑p-`‑q-a‑n-b‑n-e‑p‑w a-c-§Ä \-S‑p-¶-X‑v
t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä C-X‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I k-a‑q-l-§-s‑f k‑w-
L-S‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I-þ-k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I h‑n-I-k-\‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p.
k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-t‑b‑m-P-\-§Ä C-Ô-\‑w‑, I‑m-e‑n-¯‑o-ä‑, X-S‑n‑, h-\ DÂ-
]-¶-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å h-c‑p-a‑m-\‑w‑, \-i‑n-¨ \‑n-e-§Ä \‑n-I-¯Â‑, I‑mÀ-j‑n-I h-b-e‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S
k‑w-c-£-W‑w‑, a-c‑p-`‑q-I-c-W‑w XSbÂ F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
-I‑mÀ-j‑n-I h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w:
DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-h‑p‑w t‑\-«-§-f‑p‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-b‑n H-t‑c Ø-e-¯‑v a-c-§Ä‑, h‑n-f-IÄ‑, I‑q-
S‑m-s‑X/A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ I-¶‑p-I‑m-e‑n-IÄ F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-s‑S ]-c‑n-]‑m-e-\-h‑p‑w k‑w-t‑b‑m-P-\-h‑p‑w A-t‑{‑K‑m-
t‑^‑m-d-k‑v-{‑S‑n-b‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. C-X‑v I‑r-j‑n-b‑p‑w h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W-h‑p‑w k‑w-t‑b‑m-P‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w
h‑n-h‑n-[ k-k‑y-P‑m-e-§Ä X-½‑n-e‑p-Å B-i-b-h‑n-\‑n-a-b‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p‑,
C-X‑v D-bÀ-¶ h‑n-f-h‑p‑ \evIp¶p {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-s‑¨-e-hv‑ I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-¶‑p. a-®‑n-s‑â ^-e-`‑q-b‑n-j‑vT-X
\‑n-e-\‑nÀ-¯‑p-I‑, H-g‑p-¡‑p‑w a-s‑®‑m-e‑n-¸‑p‑w \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡‑p-I‑, t‑]‑m-j-I s‑s‑k-¢‑n‑w-K‑v t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-
¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, h-c‑p-a‑m-\ s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-hÂ-¡-c-W-¯‑n-\‑v k-l‑m-b‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h I‑mÀ-j‑n-I h-\-hÂ-
¡-c-W-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-t‑b‑m-P-\-§-f‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
k-a‑q-lyh-\-hÂ-¡-c-Wh-‑p‑w -I‑mÀ-j‑n-I h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W‑hp‑w X-½‑n-e‑p-Å
h‑y-X‑y‑m-k‑w:
h-\-{‑]-t‑Z-i‑w hÀ-[‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I k-a‑q-l-§Ä-¡‑v H-¶‑n-e-[‑n-I‑w DÂ-¸-¶-§Ä
\Â-I‑m-\‑p‑w e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶ kÀ-¡‑mÀ A-[‑n-j--‑vT‑n-X ]-c‑n-]‑m-S‑n-b‑m-W‑v t‑k‑m-j‑yÂ t‑^‑m-d-k‑v-{‑S‑n‑,
A-t‑X-k-a-b‑w A-t‑{‑K‑m-t‑^‑m-d-k‑v-{‑S‑n DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w k‑z-b‑w-]-c‑y‑m-]‑v-X-X
t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-a‑p-Å H-c‑p {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-a‑m-W‑v. k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I h-\-hÂ-¡-
c-W-¯‑nÂ H-g‑n-ª `‑q-a‑n-b‑nÂ a-c-§Ä \-«‑p-]‑n-S‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w X-c‑n-i‑p-\‑n-e-§Ä ]‑p-\‑x-Ø‑m-]‑n-
¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p‑, A-t‑X-k-a-b‑w I‑mÀ-j‑n-I h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w {‑]-[‑m-\-a‑m-b‑p‑w IÀ-j-I-c‑p-s‑S
h-b-e‑p-I-f‑n-e‑m-W‑v \-S-¯‑p-¶-X‑v. k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w {‑]‑m-Y-a‑n-I-a‑m-b‑n H-¶‑n-e-[‑n-I‑w
DÂ-¸-¶-§Ä h‑n-f-s‑h-S‑p-¡‑m³ a-c-§-f‑p‑w I‑p-ä‑n-s‑¨-S‑n-I-f‑p‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, A-t‑X-k-a-b‑w
I‑mÀ-j‑n-I h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W-¯‑n-Â H-t‑c `‑q-a‑n b‑q-W‑n-ä‑nÂ c-t‑ï‑m A-X‑n-e-[‑n-I-t‑a‑m L-S-I-§Ä
k‑w-t‑b‑m-P‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
UNIT- 4
P-e-h‑n-`-h-§Ä
`‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e P-e‑w I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶Xv, h‑m-b‑p‑, D-]-c‑n-X-e‑w‑, `‑q-a‑n-¡‑v X‑m-s‑g‑, k-a‑p-{‑Z-§Ä F-¶‑n-
§-s‑\ h‑n-h‑n-[ c‑q-]-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w Ø-e-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w BW‑v‑. `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e P-e--¯‑n-s‑â 97 i-X-a‑m-\-h‑p‑w
k-a‑p-{‑Z-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w I-S-e‑p-I-f‑n-e‑p‑w I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ D-¸‑p-s‑h-Å-a‑m-W‑v, I-c-b‑nÂ 3% a‑m-{‑X‑w i‑p-²-
P-e-a‑m-b‑n A-h-t‑i-j‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. C‑u i‑p-²-P-e-¯‑nÂ‑, 79% s‑F-k‑v, l‑n-a‑m-\‑n-IÄ F-¶‑n-h--b‑m-
W‑v‑, a-s‑ä‑m-c‑p 20% `‑q-KÀ-`-P-e-a‑m-W‑v. F-f‑p-¸-¯‑nÂ B-Iv-k -‑ -k‑v s‑N-¿‑m-h‑p-¶ D-]-c‑n-X-e i‑p-²-
P-e-¯‑n-s‑â 1% a‑m-{‑X-t‑a e-`‑y-a‑m-I‑q‑, {‑]-[‑m-\ `‑m-K‑w X-S‑m-I-§-f‑nÂ (52%), X‑p-SÀ-¶‑v a-®‑n-s‑â
C‑uÀ-¸‑w (38%), A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-s‑e P-e-_‑m-j‑v-]‑w (8%), P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§Ä (1%), I‑q-S‑m-s‑X \-Z‑n-IÄ
(1%) F-¶n-§-s\ `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S D-]-c‑n-X-e-¯‑n-s‑e P-e-¯‑n-s‑â h‑n-X-c-W‑w ]-e A-\p-]m-X-¯n-em-Wv‑ ,
A-X‑n-\‑mÂ k‑p-Ø‑n-c \-Z‑o-P-e ]-c‑n-]‑m-e-\ ]-²-X‑n-IÄ-¡‑v t‑]‑m-I‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ \-Z‑o-P-e‑w h‑n-t‑h-I-
t‑¯‑m-s‑S D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-t‑¡-ï-X‑p-ï‑v.
`‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e P-e-¯‑n-s‑â 97% h-c‑p-¶ D-¸‑p-s‑h-Å‑w k-a‑p-{‑Z-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w I-S-e‑p-I-f‑n-e‑p‑w I‑m-W-
s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p‑, AXpsImï‑va-\‑p-j‑yÀ-¡‑v C-X‑v t‑\-c‑n-«‑v D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑n-Ã. D-¸‑p-s‑h-Å‑w
I‑p-S‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-t‑\‑m I‑r-j‑n-b‑n-S-¯‑n-s‑e P-e-t‑k-N-\-¯‑n-t‑\‑m D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v a‑p-¼‑v e-h-
W-§Ä \‑o-¡‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-b‑n D-¸‑p-s‑h-Å‑w U‑o-k‑m-s‑s‑e-s‑s‑\-t‑k-j-\‑v h‑n-t‑[-b-a‑m-¡-
W‑w. H-c‑p \-Z‑n-b‑n-t‑e‑m X-S‑m-I-¯‑n-t‑e‑m I‑p-f-¯‑n-t‑e‑m i‑p-²-P-e X-®‑oÀ-¯-S-¯‑n-t‑e‑m D-Å
s‑h-Å-a‑m-W‑v D-]-c‑n-X-e P-e‑w‑, A-X‑v k‑z‑m-`‑m-h‑n-I-a‑m-b‑p‑w a-g-b‑mÂ \‑n-d-b‑p-I-b‑p‑w k-a‑p-{‑Z-§-f‑n-
t‑e-¡‑p-Å U‑n-k‑v-N‑mÀ-P‑v h-g‑n k‑z‑m-`‑m-h‑n-I-a‑m-b‑p‑w \-ã-s‑¸-S‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. a-g-b‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p‑w
a-ª‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-a‑p-Å P-e‑w A-S‑n-ª‑p-I‑q-S‑p-¶‑n-S-¯‑v X-S‑m-I-§Ä c‑q-]‑w s‑I‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-
s‑X i‑p-²-P-e X-S‑m-I-§Ä h‑n-t‑\‑m-Z-¯‑n-\‑p‑w P-e-h‑n-X-c-W-¯‑n-\‑p-a‑p-Å Ø-e-§-f‑m-b‑n h-f-
s‑c h‑n-e-a-X‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. i‑p-²-P-e-h‑p‑w D-¸‑p-s‑h-Å-h‑p‑w I‑q-S‑n-t‑¨-c‑p-¶ H-c‑p P-e‑m-i-b-a‑m-W‑v A-g‑n-
a‑p-J‑w‑, \-Z‑n-b‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w k-a‑p-{‑Z]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w C-S-b‑n-e‑p-Å H-c‑p k‑w-{‑I-a-W t‑a-J-e-b‑m-
W‑n-X‑v. N-c-¡‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S K-X‑m-K-X-¯‑n-\‑p‑w‑, s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X‑n DÂ-]‑m-Z-\-¯‑n-\‑p‑w‑, h‑n-t‑\‑m-Z-¯‑n-\‑p‑w‑,
i‑p-²-P-et‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑n-\‑p-a‑p-Å k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-a‑m-b‑n hÀ-¯‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑mÂ \-Z‑n-IÄ a-\‑p-j‑yÀ-¡‑v
{‑]-[‑m-\-s‑¸-« P-e‑ D-d-h‑n-S-§-f‑m-W‑v. `‑q-KÀ-`-P-e‑w a-®‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w ]‑m-d-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w D-]-c‑n-X-e k‑p-
j‑n-c-§-f‑nÂ Ø‑n-X‑n s‑N-¿‑p-¶ i‑p-²-P-e-a‑m-W‑v, C-X‑v D-]-c‑n-X-eP-e-h‑p-a‑m-t‑b‑m H-c‑p A-I‑z‑n-^-d‑n-
s‑e B-g-¯‑n-e‑p-Å `‑q-KÀ-`-P-e-h‑p-a‑m-t‑b‑m A-S‑p-¯‑v _-Ô-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
P-e-t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-IÄ-¡‑v a-\‑p-j‑y-\‑nÀ½‑n-‑X-h‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯-h‑p-a‑m-b L-S-I-§Ä `‑o-j-W‑n-
b‑m-I‑m‑w‑, C-X‑v P-e-¯‑n-s‑â K‑p-W-\‑n-e-h‑m-c-s‑¯-b‑p‑w A-f-h‑n-s‑\-b‑p‑w _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p‑w. a‑m-e‑n-\‑y\‑nÀ-
a‑mÀ-P-\‑w‑, h‑n-`-h-§Ä t‑hÀ-X‑n-c‑n-s‑¨-S‑p-¡Â‑, I‑mÀ-j‑n-Ic‑o-X‑n-IÄ‑, \-K-c-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w F-¶‑n-h
a-\‑p-j‑y-\‑nÀ-½‑n-X `‑q-KÀ-`-P-e `‑o-j-W‑n-I-f‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. a‑m-e‑n-\‑y\‑nÀ-a‑mÀ-P-\ Ø-e-§-f‑p‑w
s‑k-]‑v-ä‑n-I‑v k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§-f‑p‑w `‑q-KÀ-`-P-ea-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-s‑â D-d-h‑n-S-§-f‑m-W‑v. J-\‑n-I-f‑p‑w
J-\-\-¯‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å s‑{‑U-b‑n-t‑\-P‑p‑w P-e-¯‑n-s‑â K‑p-W-\‑n-e-h‑m-c‑w t‑a‑m-i-a‑m-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w K‑p-c‑p-
X-c-a‑m-b B-t‑c‑m-K‑y-{‑]-i‑v-\-§-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p‑w. h-f-{‑]-t‑b‑m-K‑w‑, I‑o-S-\‑m-i‑n-\‑n
{‑]-t‑b‑m-K‑w X‑p-S-§‑n-b I‑r-j‑n-c‑o-X‑n-I-f‑p‑w `‑q-KÀ-`-P-e-s‑¯ a-e‑n-\-a‑m-¡‑p‑w. \-K-c-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w,
i‑v-a-i‑m-\-§Ä‑, A-a‑n-X ]-¼‑n‑w-K‑v, h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑p‑w {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e-a‑m-
b‑n _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p‑w. {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯-a‑m-b -P-e‑ -w a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c‑n¡
-- p¶Xv I‑p-S‑n-s‑h-Å-¯‑n-\‑p‑w a-ä‑v B-h-
i‑y-§Ä-¡‑p-a‑p-Å P-e-¯‑n-s‑â A-\‑p-t‑b‑m-P‑y-X-s‑b _‑m-[‑n-t‑¨-¡‑m‑w. \-Z‑n-IÄ‑, t‑X‑m-S‑p-IÄ‑, I‑p-
f-§Ä X‑p-S-§‑n-b D-]-c‑n-X-e P-e-t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-IÄ‑, h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§Ä‑, I‑mÀ-j‑n-I
a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w X‑p-S-§‑n-b t‑]‑m-b‑nâ‑v D-d-h‑n-S-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-t‑¶‑m t‑\‑m¬-þ-t‑]‑m-b‑nâ‑v t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑nÂ
\‑n-t‑¶‑m D-Å a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-¯‑mÂ -P-e‑ -w a-e‑n-\-a‑m-¡-s‑¸-S‑p‑w. P-e‑m-i-b-§-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑v l‑m-\‑n-I-
c-a‑m-b ]-Z‑mÀ-°-§Ä Hgp¡nh‑n-S‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ P-e-a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w k‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, C-X‑v a-\‑p-j‑y-
c‑p-s‑S t‑c‑m-K-§Ä-¡‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-h‑p-I-b‑p‑w P-e-P‑o-h‑n-I-s‑f _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. P-e-a-
e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-\‑p-Å ]-c‑n-l‑m-c-§-f‑nÂ {‑]‑m-Y-a‑n-I N‑n-I‑n-Õ‑, Z‑z‑n-X‑o-b N‑n-I‑n-Õ‑, X‑r-X‑o-b
N‑n-I‑n-Õ F-¶‑n-h-b‑p‑w \‑q-X-\ h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W ]-²-X‑n-I-f‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑n-e‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑n-e‑p‑w Z‑q-c-h‑y‑m-]-I-a‑m-b {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä D-ï‑m-¡‑p-¶ {‑]-I‑r-
X‑n-Z-¯ k‑w-`-h-a‑m-W‑v s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w. I-\-¯ a-g a‑q-e‑w \-Z‑n-I-t‑f‑m k-a‑p-{‑Z-§-t‑f‑m X‑o-cw
I-h‑n-s‑ª‑m-g‑p-I‑p-I-b‑p‑w sN¿p¶p hÀ-j-¯‑nÂ G-X‑v k-a-b-¯‑p‑w A-Xpk‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. s‑]-
s‑«-¶‑p-Å s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w G-ä-h‑p‑w A-]-I-S-I-c-a‑m-bImcy-a‑m-W‑v, I‑m-c-W‑w A-h s‑N-d‑n-b a‑p-
¶-d‑n-b‑n-¸‑p-I-t‑f‑m-s‑S k‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w a-\‑p-j‑y-P‑o-h³- ‑G-ä-h‑p‑w I‑q-S‑p-XÂ \-ã‑w h-c‑p-¯‑p-I-
b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w K-X‑m-K-X-s‑¯bp‑w X-S-Ê-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶‑p‑, B-i-b-h‑n-\‑n-a-b
_-Ô-§-s‑f X-I-c‑m-d‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, k‑m-[‑m-c-W s‑{‑U-b‑n-t‑\-P‑v k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§-s‑f X-S-Ê-s‑¸-S‑p-
¯‑p-¶‑p‑, K‑p-c‑p-X-c-a‑m-b B-t‑c‑m-K‑y {]-iv-\-§-sf {‑]-X‑n-\‑n-[‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶ a-e‑n-\-P-e‑ t‑N‑mÀ-¨-
b‑v-¡‑v CXv I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p‑w. s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡-¯‑n-\‑v h-e‑n-b A-f-h‑nÂ s‑h-Å-h‑p‑w k-k‑v-s‑]³-U‑v
s‑N-b‑v-X A-h-i‑n-ã-§-f‑p‑w h‑n-i‑m-e-a‑m-b {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ h‑n-X-c-W‑w s‑N-¿‑m-\‑p‑w h‑n-e-t‑b-d‑n-b
a-®‑n-s‑e t‑]‑m-j-I-§Ä ]‑p-\‑x-Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w I-g‑n-b‑p‑w‑, F-¶‑mÂ a-®‑n-s‑\ \-i‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w
h‑n-f-IÄ \-i‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w I‑mÀ-j‑n-I`‑q-a‑n / s‑I-«‑n-S-§Ä F¶nh \-i‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w I‑mÀ-j‑n-I a‑r-
K-§Ä ap§nNmIm\pw CXv ImcWamIp¶p. s‑]-s‑«-¶‑p-Å s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, H-ä-þ-C-hâ‑v s‑h-
Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, H-¶‑n-e-[‑n-I‑w-þ-C-hâ‑v s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, I‑m-e‑m-\‑p-k‑r-X-a‑m-b s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, X‑o-
c-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-s‑e s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, A-g‑n-a‑p-J s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, A-W-s‑¡-«‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S X-I-c‑mÀ
a‑q-e-a‑p-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, a-ª‑p‑w l‑n-a‑m-\‑n-I-f‑p‑w s‑]-s‑«-¶‑v D-c‑p-I‑p-¶-X‑v a‑q-e-a‑p-Å
s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v {‑]-[‑m-\ X-c‑w s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡-§Ä.
h-cÄ-¨ F-¶-X‑v H-c‑p {‑]-t‑Z-i‑¯‑v k‑m-[‑m-c-W-b‑n-e‑p‑w I‑p-d-ª a-g-b‑p‑w A-\‑p-`-h-s‑¸-S‑p-¶
k-a-b¯pÅXm-W‑v. C‑u a-X‑n-b‑m-b a-g-b‑p-s‑S A-`‑m-h‑w a-®‑n-s‑â C‑uÀ-¸‑w A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ `‑q-KÀ-
`-P-e‑w I‑p-d-b‑p-I‑, \‑o-s‑c‑m-g‑p-¡‑v I‑p-d-b‑p-I‑, h‑n-f-\‑m-i‑w‑, s‑]‑m-X‑p-h‑m-b P-e-£‑m-a‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑v-¡‑v
CXv I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p‑w. h-cÄ-¨ a‑m-k-§-t‑f‑m hÀ-j-§-t‑f‑m \‑o-ï‑p-\‑nÂ-¡‑p‑w‑, A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ 15 Z‑n-h-
k-§Äh-sc‑ \‑o-ï‑p-\‑nÂ-¡‑p‑w. N‑p-g-e‑n-¡‑m-ä‑p-IÄ-¡‑v t‑i-j‑w G-ä-h‑p‑w s‑N-e-t‑h-d‑n-b I‑m-e‑m-h-
Ø‑m k‑w-`-h-§-f‑m-W‑n-h. D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-s‑e h‑mÀ-j‑n-I h-c-ï k‑o-k-W‑p-IÄ
h-cÄ-¨-b‑p‑w X‑p-SÀ-¶‑p-Å I‑m-«‑p-X‑o-b‑p‑w D-ï‑m-I‑m-\‑p-Å k‑m-[‑y-X hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. \‑m-e‑v X-c‑w
h-cÄ-¨-I-f‑p-ï‑v: I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑, I‑mÀ-j‑n-I‑, P-e-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑, k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I h-cÄ-¨.
P-e-k‑w-c-£-W‑, a‑m-t‑\-P‑v-s‑aâ‑v \-b-§Ä‑, X-{‑´-§Ä‑, {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä F-¶‑n-h P-e-s‑¯
k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-`-h-a‑m-b‑n s‑s‑I-I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w P-e]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w
\‑n-e-h‑n-e‑p-Å-X‑p‑w `‑m-h‑n-b‑n-e‑p-Å-X‑p-a‑m-b a-\‑p-j‑ym-h-i‑y-§Ä \‑n-d-t‑h-ä‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-a‑m-W‑v. hÀ-²‑n-
¨‑p-h-c‑p-¶ P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑, h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w‑, \-K-c-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w‑, I‑r-j‑n-b‑p-s‑S B-[‑p-
\‑n-I-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w F-¶‑n-h I‑m-c-W‑w C-´‑y-b‑p-s‑S k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I-þ-k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I h‑n-I-k-\‑w P-e-
t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-IÄ I‑p-d-b‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-b‑n. C-´‑y-b‑n-s‑e {‑]-a‑p-J \-Z‑n-I-f‑nÂ `‑q-c‑n-`‑m-K-h‑p‑w‑,
{‑]-t‑X‑y-I‑n-¨‑v s‑N-d‑n-b \-Z‑n-IÄ‑, a‑m-e‑n-\‑y DÂ-]-¶-§-f‑p‑w a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-h‑p‑w s‑I‑m-ï‑v h‑n-j-e‑n-
]‑v-X-a‑m-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. A-X‑n-\‑mÂ‑, P-e-¯‑n-s‑â b‑p-à‑n-k-l-a‑m-b D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑w A-X‑y-´‑m-t‑]-£‑n-
X-a‑m-W‑v, ]-c-¼-c‑m-K-X P-e-k‑w-`-c-W k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§Ä‑, a-g-s‑h-Å k‑w-`-c-W‑w‑, P-e-¯‑n-s‑â
]‑p-\-c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-K-w‑, P-e-k‑w-c-£-W k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I-h‑n-Z‑y-IÄ F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S P-e-k‑w-c-£-W-
¯‑n-s‑â h‑n-h‑n-[ c‑o-X‑n-IÄ A-h-e‑w-_‑n-t‑¡-ï-X‑p-ï‑v.
1991 s‑e h‑n-Ú‑m-]-\-¯‑nÂ 2003‑, 2011‑, 2019 hÀ-j-§-f‑nÂ t‑`-Z-K-X‑n-IÄ h-c‑p-¯‑n. 1991s‑e
h‑n-Ú‑m-]-\‑w X‑o-c-{‑]-t‑Z-i-s‑¯ CRZ-1, CRZ-2, CRZ-3, CRZ-4 F-¶‑n-§-s‑\ \‑m-e‑v h‑n-`‑m-K-§-f‑m-b‑n
X-c‑w-X‑n-c‑n-¨‑p. CRZ-1 X‑m-g‑v-¶-X‑p‑w D-bÀ-¶-X‑p-a‑m-b t‑h-e‑n-t‑b-ä t‑c-J-b--¡‑v ‑n-S-b‑n-e‑m-W‑v Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑N-
¿‑p-¶-X‑v, C-X‑v H-c‑p ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑nt‑e‑m-e{‑]-t‑Z-i-a‑m-W‑v. C-X‑v {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑m-X-I‑w ]-c‑y-t‑h-£-W‑w
s‑N-¿‑m-\‑p‑w D-¸‑v t‑hÀ-X‑n-c‑n-s‑¨-S‑p-¡‑m-\‑p‑w A-\‑p-h-Z‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. CRZ-2 X‑o-c-{‑]-t‑Z-i-s‑¯ \-K-c-{‑]-
t‑Z-i-§-s‑f DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X ^‑--tv ‑f‑mÀ k‑--tv ‑]-k‑v C³-U-I--k ‑v ‑v a‑m-\-Z-Þ-§Ä \‑nÀ-
h‑o-c‑y-a‑m-¡‑n-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. CRZ-3 {‑K‑m-a-§-f‑p‑w \-K-c-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X
I‑r-j‑n-b‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-« N‑n-e {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä‑, N‑n-e s‑]‑m-X‑pk‑u-I-c‑y-§Ä F-¶‑n-h a‑m-
{‑X-t‑a A-\‑p-h-Z‑n-¡‑q. CRZ-4-Â a-Õ‑y-_-Ô-\-h‑p‑w A-\‑p-_-Ô {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑p‑w A-\‑p-h-Z-
\‑o-b-a‑m-W‑v, C-X‑v {‑]-m-t‑Z-i‑n-I ]-c‑n-[‑n h-s‑c P-e-t‑a-J-e-s‑b DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p. 2011 s‑e h‑n-
Ú‑m-]-\-¯‑n-\‑p ]-I-c‑w 2019 s‑e h‑n-Ú‑m-]-\‑w i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑o-b X-X‑z-§Ä-¡-\‑p-k‑r-X-a‑m-b‑n X‑o-
c-t‑Z-i-s‑¯ k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b‑n h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å h‑n-Ú‑m-]-\-a‑m-W‑v. CRZ-IA ]-X‑n-s‑\‑m-¶‑v
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-t‑e‑m-e {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑p‑w CRZ-I B CâÀ-s‑s‑S-UÂ t‑k‑m-W‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p. CRZ-II-Â
X‑o-c-¯‑n-\-S‑p-¯‑p-Å h‑n-I-k‑n-X `‑q-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§Ä (\-K-c {‑]-t‑Z-i-§Ä‑) DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. P-\-k‑m-
{‑µ-X-s‑b A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\-a‑m-¡‑n CRZ-III A, CRZ-III B F-¶‑n-§-s‑\ h‑n-`-P‑n-¡-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑, X-S-Ê-a‑n-Ã‑m-¯
`‑q-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§Ä CRZ-III-Â DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. CRZ-IV P-e-t‑a-J-e-I-s‑f DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p‑, CRZ-IVA, CRZ-
IVB F-¶‑n-§-s‑\ X-c‑w-X‑n-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. 2019 s‑e h‑n-Ú‑m-]-\‑w X‑o-c-t‑Z-i \‑n-b-{‑´-W t‑a-
J-e ¢‑n-b-d‑n‑w-K‑v \-S-]-S‑n-{‑I-a-§Ä I‑m-c‑y-£-a-a‑m-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w k‑w-Ø‑m-\X-e-¯‑nÂ CRZ-II, CRZ-III
F-¶‑n-h-b‑v-¡‑p-Å A-\‑p-a-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S A-[‑n-I‑m-c‑w \‑n-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. F-Ã‑m Z‑z‑o-]‑p-
IÄ-¡‑p‑w 20 a‑o-äÀ h‑n-I-k-\c-l‑n-X t‑a-J-e-b‑pa‑mb‑pw X‑o-c-t‑Z-i k-a‑q-l-§-f‑p-a‑m-b‑p‑w a-Õ‑y-
s‑¯‑m-g‑n-e‑m-f‑n-I-f‑p-a‑m-b‑p‑w ]-¦‑m-f‑n-¯-t‑¯‑m-s‑S ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I-a‑m-b‑n Z‑pÀ-_-e-a‑m-b{‑]-t‑Z-i-§Ä
s‑s‑I-I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿‑m-\‑p‑w h‑n-Ú‑m-]-\‑w \‑nÀ-t‑±-i‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. X‑o-c-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-s‑e a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w
e-L‑q-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-b‑n CRZ-IB t‑a-J-e-I-f‑n-s‑e \‑n-b-{‑´-W-¯‑n-\‑v I‑o-g‑nÂ N‑n-I‑n-Õ‑mk‑u-I-
c‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S h‑n-I-k-\‑w \‑nÀ-t‑±-i‑n-¡-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
UNIT- 5
`‑q-a‑n-b‑p‑w [‑m-X‑ph‑n-`-h-§-f‑p‑w
a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â \‑n-e-\‑nÂ-¸‑n-\‑p‑w B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S k-a‑r-²‑n-¡‑p‑w `‑q-h‑n-`-h-§Ä A-X‑y-
´‑m-t‑]-£‑n-X-a‑m-W‑v. I‑p-¶‑p-IÄ‑, X‑m-g--h
‑v -c-IÄ‑, k-a-X-e-§Ä‑, \-Z‑o-X-S-§Ä‑, X-®‑oÀ-¯-S-§Ä
F-¶‑n-§-s‑\ h‑n-h‑n-[ `‑q-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-s‑f B-f‑p-IÄ B-{‑i-b‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, `‑q-h‑n-`-
h-§-f‑p-s‑S ]-c‑n-a‑n-X-a‑m-b ]-c‑n-[‑n-I-f‑p‑w hÀ-²‑n-¨‑p-h-c‑p-¶ a‑m-\‑p-j‑n-I B-h-i‑y-I-X-b‑p‑w h‑n-f
DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\‑w I‑p-d-b‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S kzm`mhnIØnXn I‑p-d-b‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w `‑q-a‑n-¡‑p-t‑h-
ï‑n-b‑p-Å a-Õ-c-¯‑n-\‑p‑w I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶‑p. A-X‑n-\‑mÂ‑, `‑m-h‑nX-e-a‑p-d-b‑p-s‑S A-h-I‑m-i-§Ä
k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w B-t‑K‑m-f B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-s‑b k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-a‑m-b‑n {‑i-²m
]pÀÆamb ]-c‑n-]‑m-e-\‑w- BhiyamWvv.
a-\‑p-j‑yt‑{‑]-c‑n-X {‑]-{‑I‑n-b-IÄ a‑q-e-a‑p-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ _-t‑b‑m-^‑n-k‑n-¡Â ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S a‑q-
e‑y-s‑¯ {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e-a‑m-b‑n _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶ H-c‑p {‑]-{‑I‑n-b-b‑m-W‑v `‑q-a‑n\-i‑o-I-c-W‑w. a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â
{‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä `‑q-a‑n-s‑b _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w A-\-`‑n-e-j-W‑o-b-a-m-b a‑m-ä-§Ä-¡‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-
h‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p‑w. t‑e‑m-I-s‑a-¼‑m-S‑p-a‑p-Å 30% `‑q-a‑n-b‑p‑w 4% h-s‑c I‑r-j‑n-`‑q-a‑n-b‑p‑w K‑p-c‑p-X-c-a‑m-b‑n
\-i‑n-¸‑n-¡-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. I‑m-c-W-§-f‑nÂ `‑q-a‑n h‑r-¯‑n-b‑m-¡Â‑, A-a‑n-X-a‑m-b t‑a-¨‑nÂ‑, A-\‑p-N‑n-X-
a‑m-b P-e-t‑k-N-\‑w‑, \-K-c-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w‑, h‑m-W‑n-P‑yh‑n-I-k-\‑w F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. 2030þ-H‑m-
s‑S `‑q-a‑n\-i‑o-I-c-W-þ- clnXt‑e‑m-I‑w s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶ e-£‑y-a‑m-W‑v s‑F-I‑y-c‑m-{‑ã-k-`
\‑n-Ý-b‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v.
a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑mÂ t‑\-c‑n-t‑«‑m `‑m-K‑n-I-a‑m-t‑b‑m D-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ k‑w-`-h-§-f‑m-W‑v
a-\‑p-j‑yt‑{‑]-c‑n-X a-®‑n-S‑n-¨‑nÂ. h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, I‑r-j‑n‑, \‑nÀ-½‑m-W‑w‑, b-{‑´-k‑m-a-{‑K‑n-I-f‑nÂ
\‑n-t‑¶‑m K-X‑m-K-X-¯‑nÂ \‑n-t‑¶‑m D-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ I-¼-\-§Ä‑, k‑v-t‑^‑m-S-\‑w‑, J-\-\‑w‑, P-e-N‑w-
{‑I-a-W-¯‑n-e‑p‑w `‑q-h‑n-\‑n-t‑b‑m-K-¯‑n-e‑p-a‑p-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-§Ä X‑p-S-§‑n-b-h-b‑m-W‑v a-\‑p-
j‑y³ a‑q-e-a‑p-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ a-®‑n-S‑n-¨‑n-e‑n-\‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶ N‑n-e L-S-I-§Ä. `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S X-IÀ-¨‑,
A-X‑n-i-à-a‑m-b a-g‑, `‑q-h‑n-\‑n-t‑b‑m-K-¯‑n-e‑p‑w D]cnXe¯nse a‑m-ä-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑p‑w a-s‑®‑m-
e‑n-¸‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w a-®‑n-S‑n-¨‑n-e‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w B-h‑r-¯‑n hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
a-s‑®‑m-e‑n-¸‑v I‑m-c-W‑w I‑mÀ-j‑n-I h‑y-h-Ø-I-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v ^-e-`‑q-b‑n-j‑vT-a‑m-b a-®‑v \-ã-s‑¸-
S‑p-¶-X‑m-W‑v a-s‑®‑m-e‑n-¸‑v, C-X‑v I‑mÀ-j‑n-I B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S k‑p-Ø‑n-c-X-b‑v-¡‑p‑w `‑q DÂ-
]‑m-Z-\-£-a-X-b‑v-¡‑p‑w h-e‑n-b `‑o-j-W‑n-b‑m-W‑v. A-c‑p-h‑n-I-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑p‑w a-ä‑v P-e-]‑m-X-I-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑p‑w
I‑m-ä‑n-e‑q-s‑S-t‑b‑m P-e-K-X‑m-K-X-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S-t‑b‑m C-X‑v k‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑m‑w‑, a-®‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w P-e-¯‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w
K‑p-W-\‑n-e-h‑m-c-¯‑n-\‑v A-h-i‑n-ã‑w \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v \‑nÀ-W‑m-b-I-a‑m-W‑v. j‑o-ä‑v a-s‑®‑m-e‑n-¸‑v
(s‑h-Å‑w‑)‑, I‑m-ä‑v a-s‑®‑m-e‑n-¸‑v, d‑nÂ a-s‑®‑m-e‑n-¸‑v, K-Ã‑n a-s‑®‑m-e‑n-¸‑v, F-s‑^-a-dÂ a-s‑®‑m-e‑n-¸‑v
F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S h‑y-X‑y-k‑v-X X-c‑w a-s‑®‑m-e‑n-¸‑p-ï‑v.
a-c‑p-`‑q-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w F-¶-X‑v h-c-ï{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑p-s‑S X-IÀ-¨-s‑b-b‑p‑w Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y-s‑¯-b‑p‑w
k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, C-X‑v `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S s‑s‑P-hk‑m-[‑y-X-I-s‑f I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I-t‑b‑m \-i‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-t‑b‑m
s‑N-¿‑p-I-b‑p‑w a-c‑p-`‑q-a‑n t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å A-h-Ø-b‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-
s‑e `‑q-h‑n-k‑v-X‑r-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S \‑m-e‑n-s‑e‑m-¶‑n-s‑\ _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶ H-c‑p B-t‑K‑m-f{‑]-i--\‑v -a‑m-W‑n-X‑v, C-X‑v
{‑]-[‑m-\-a‑m-b‑p‑w a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑m-b A-a‑n-X I‑r-j‑n‑, A-a‑n-X-a‑m-b t‑a-¨‑nÂ‑, A-a‑n-X
P-e-t‑k-N-\‑w‑, h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, J-\-\{‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä‑, P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑mhÀ-²-\-h‑v F-¶‑n-h a‑q-
e-a‑m-W‑v. a-c‑p--hÂ-¡-c-W-¯‑n-s‑â A-\-´-c-^-e-§Ä‑, `‑q-{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S \-ã‑w‑, {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h-
§-f‑p-s‑S \‑m-i‑w‑, P-e-t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S h-äÂ‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-¡‑v {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e-a‑m-b {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-
§Ä‑, _‑m-[‑n-X-c‑m-b P-\-k‑w-J‑y-b‑p-s‑S Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y‑w F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S. a-c‑p-hÂ-¡-c-W {‑]-{‑I‑n-b
]-c‑n-t‑i‑m-[‑n-t‑¡-ï-X‑v {‑]-[‑m-\-a‑m-W‑v, I‑m-c-W‑w A-X‑n-s‑â A-\-´-c-^-e-§Ä a‑m-ä‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑n-Ã.
N-c‑n-{‑X-¯‑n-e‑p-S-\‑o-f‑w k‑w-kv-I -‑ ‑m-c-§-f‑n-Â [‑m-X‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑w D-ïmbn«pÅXmbn
I‑mW‑w B-Z‑y-I‑m-e D-]-t‑b‑m-K-¯‑nÂ s‑h-Å‑w‑, D-¸‑v, ]‑m-d-I-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å e-f‑n-X-a‑m-b
D-]-I-c-W-§Ä F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. [‑m-X‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑w k-a‑q-l-¯‑n-\-\‑p-k-c‑n-¨‑v
h‑y-X‑y‑m-k-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑p-XÂ h‑n-I-k‑n-Xc‑m-P‑y-§Ä k‑m-[‑m-c-W-b‑m-b‑n I‑q-S‑p-XÂ [‑m-X‑p-¡Ä
B-t‑f‑m-l-c‑n D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. [‑m-X‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑w e-`‑y-a‑m-b \‑n-t‑£-]-§-s‑f B-{‑i-
b‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. k‑zÀ-®‑w‑, s‑h-Å‑n‑ B-`-c-W-§-f‑nÂ ¹‑m-ä‑n-\‑w‑, \‑m-W-b-§-f‑nÂ s‑N-¼‑v, s‑s‑]-
¸‑p-IÄ‑, h-bÀ‑, I-¼‑y‑q-«À h‑y-h-k‑m-b-¯‑nÂ k‑n-e‑n-¡¬ F-¶‑n-§-s‑\ a‑n-¡-h‑m-d‑p‑w F-Ã‑m h‑y-
h-k‑m-b-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w [‑m-X‑p-¡Ä D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
k‑m-¼-¯‑n-Ih-fÀ-¨-b‑v-¡‑m-b‑n [‑m-X‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S N‑q-j-W‑w ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I{‑]-i‑v-\-§-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑v
\-b‑n-¨‑p. 20þ‑m‑w \‑q-ä‑m-ï‑nÂ‑, hÀ-²‑n-¨‑p-h-c‑p-¶ D‑uÀ-Ö B-h-i‑y-§Ä \‑n-d-t‑h-ä‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-
b‑n t‑^‑m-k‑nÂ C-Ô-\-§-f‑p-s‑S N‑q-j-W‑w {‑I-a‑m-X‑o-X-a‑m-b‑n hÀ-²‑n-¨‑p. C-¶‑v, t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑e
D‑uÀ-Ö D-]-t‑`‑m-K-¯‑n-s‑â 80% t‑^‑m-k‑nÂ C-Ô-\-§-f‑m-W‑v. [‑m-X‑ph‑n-`-h-§Ä t‑hÀ-X‑n-c‑n-
s‑¨-S‑p-¡‑p-¶-X‑p‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑p‑w `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S \-i‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, P-e-a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, k-k‑y-h-
fÀ-¨‑, h‑m-b‑pa-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, \‑nÀ-_-Ô‑n-X I‑p-S‑n-t‑b-ä‑w‑, {‑]-I‑r-X‑n A-]-I-S-
§Ä F-¶‑n-hsbms¡ ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e-a‑m-b‑n _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p‑w.
UNIT- 6
D‑uÀ-Ö h‑n-`-h-§Ä
`‑q-a‑n-b‑n‑Â \‑q-ä‑m-ï‑p-I-f‑m-b‑n D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶ [‑m-c‑m-f‑w D‑uÀ-Öh‑n-`-h-§Ä D-ï‑v. D‑uÀ-
Ö‑w F-¶-X‑v t‑P‑m-e‑n s‑N-¿‑m-\‑p-Å I-g‑n-h‑m-W‑v, \-½Ä D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶ D‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-s‑â h‑n-
h‑n-[ c‑q-]-§-f‑p-ï‑v. e-`‑y-a‑m-b D-]-t‑b‑m-K-t‑b‑m-K‑y-a‑m-b D‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-s‑â B-s‑I X‑p-I-s‑b D‑uÀ-
Öh‑nX-c-Ww F-¶‑v h‑n-f‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
t‑^‑m-k‑nÂ C-Ô-\-§Ä‑, H-g‑p-I‑p-¶ s‑h-Å‑w‑, _-t‑b‑m-a‑m-k‑v, B-t‑ä‑m-a‑n-I‑v [‑m-X‑p-¡Ä F-¶‑n-
h-b‑m-W‑v D‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-[‑m-\ D-d-h‑n-S-§Ä. I‑q-S‑m-s‑X‑, k‑u-t‑c‑mÀ-Ö‑w‑, I‑m-ä‑v i-à‑n‑, t‑h-
e‑n-t‑b-ä D‑uÀ-Ö‑w‑, c‑m-k‑, P‑n-t‑b‑m-s‑XÀ-aÂ D‑uÀ-Ö‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑p‑w N‑n-e A-f-h‑nÂ D‑uÀ-Ö‑w
\Â-I‑p-¶‑p. h‑n-h‑n-[ c‑m-P‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S D‑uÀ-Ö t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-I-f‑p‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K-h‑p‑w A-h-b‑p-s‑S e-`‑y-
a‑m-b h‑n-`-h-§-s‑f A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\-a‑m-¡‑n h‑y-X‑y‑m-k-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
D‑uÀ-Öt‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-I-s‑f c-ï‑v {‑K‑q-¸‑p-I-f‑m-b‑n X‑n-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p: ]‑p-\-c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m-h‑p-
¶-X‑p‑w A-Ã‑m-¯-X‑p-a‑m-b D‑uÀ-Öt‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-IÄ. P-e-s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X‑n‑, k‑u-t‑c‑mÀ-Ö‑w‑, I‑m-ä‑m-S‑n
D‑uÀ-Ö‑w F-¶‑n-§-s‑\ h‑o-ï‑p‑w h‑o-ï‑p‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m-h‑p-¶-h-b‑m-W‑v ]‑p-\-c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m-
h‑p-¶ D-d-h‑n-S-§Ä. IÂ-¡-c‑n‑, F-®‑, h‑m-X-I‑w X‑p-S-§‑n-b ]‑p-\-c‑pÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-\‑m-h‑m-¯
D‑uÀ-Öt‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-IÄ D‑uÀ-Ö‑w DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v i‑m-i‑z-X-a‑m-b‑n D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡-s‑¸-
S‑p-¶‑p‑.
t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑e h‑m-W‑n-tP‑ymÀ-P-¯‑n-s‑â 85% h-c‑p-¶-X‑v IÂ-¡-c‑n‑, F-®‑, {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑m-X-I‑w
F-¶‑n-h-b‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑m-W‑v, A-h t‑^‑m-k‑nÂ C-Ô-\-§Ä F-¶-d‑n-b-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. C‑u C-Ô-\-
§Ä c‑q-]-s‑¸-S‑p-¶-X‑v N-c‑n-{‑X‑m-X‑o-X-I‑m-e-s‑¯ k-k‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w a‑r-K-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w A-h-i‑n-
ã-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑m-W‑v. D-Z‑m-l-c-W-¯‑n-\‑v, IÂ-¡-c‑n‑, ]-g-b h-\-§-f‑n-s‑e k-k‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w
a-c-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w a‑m-ä‑w h-c‑p-¯‑n-b A-h-i‑n-ã-a‑m-W‑v. A-h A-h-i‑n-ã-§Ä-¡-S‑n-b‑nÂ I‑p-g‑n-¨‑n-
S‑p-I-b‑p‑w `‑q-a‑n-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-]-c-a‑m-b {‑]-{‑I‑n-b-I-f‑mÂ c‑q-]‑m-´-c-s‑¸-S‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-b‑v-X‑p. IÂ-¡-c‑n
{‑]-[‑m-\-a‑m-b‑p‑w X‑m-]-s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X \‑n-e-b-§-f‑nÂ s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X‑n DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v D-]-t‑b‑m-
K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ C-c‑p-¼‑v, D-c‑p-¡‑v DÂ-]‑m-Z-\-¯‑nÂ D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶ A-h-i‑yA-k‑w-kv- -‑
I‑r-X h-k‑v-X‑p-h‑m-b t‑I‑m-¡‑m-¡‑n a‑m-ä‑p-¶‑p. I‑mÀ-_¬ D-Å-S-¡‑w‑, A-Ø‑n-c-X‑, C‑uÀ-¸‑w F-¶‑n-
h-b‑nÂ h‑y-X‑y‑m-k-a‑p-Å \‑m-e‑v X-c‑w IÂ-¡-c‑n D-ï‑v: B-{‑´‑m-s‑s‑k-ä‑v, _‑n-ä‑p-a‑n-\-k‑v IÂ-¡-c‑n‑,
k-_‑v-þ-_‑n-ä‑p-a‑n-\-k‑v IÂ-¡-c‑n‑, e‑n-K‑v-s‑s‑\-ä‑v F¶nh. IÂ-¡-c‑n-b‑nÂ kÄ-^À k‑w-b‑p-à-§Ä
A-S-§‑n-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, A-X‑n-s‑â D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑w h‑m-b‑pa-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-\‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-h‑p-I-b‑p‑w
J-c-a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§-f‑p‑w N‑m-c-h‑p‑w D-ï‑m-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p‑¶p‑.
F-®-b‑m-I-s‑«‑, ]‑m-d-I-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑m-W‑v h-c‑p-¶-X‑v, A-X‑n-s‑\ s‑]-t‑{‑S‑m-f‑n-b‑w F-¶‑v h‑n-f‑n-¡‑p-
¶‑p. C-X‑v t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑e h‑m-W‑n-tP‑ymÀ-- Ö -¯‑n-s‑â 40% \Â-I‑p-¶‑p‑, {‑]-[‑m-\-a‑m-b‑p‑w K-X‑m-K-
X-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑n D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. s‑]-t‑{‑S‑m-f‑n-b-h‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑m-X-I-h‑p‑w s‑s‑l-t‑{‑U‑m-I‑mÀ-_-W‑p-
I-f‑m-W‑v, ]‑qÀ-®-a‑m-b‑n h‑n-L-S‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-¯ s‑s‑P-h-h-k‑v-X‑p-¡-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v c‑q-]‑w-s‑I‑m-ï t‑^‑m-
k‑nÂ C-Ô-\-§-f‑m-W‑v. A-h-b‑nÂ h‑m-b‑pa-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-\‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶ a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§Ä
A-S-§‑n-b‑n-«‑p-ï‑v, F-¶‑mÂ s‑]-t‑{‑S‑m-f‑n-b‑w t‑{‑]‑m-k-Ê‑v s‑N-¿‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ d‑n-s‑s‑^-\-d‑n-IÄ-¡‑v C‑u
a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-§-f‑nÂ ]-e-X‑p‑w \‑o-¡‑w s‑N-¿‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w.
{‑]-I‑r-X‑nh‑m-X-I‑w k‑u-I-c‑y-{‑]-Z-h‑p‑w i‑p-²-h‑p-a‑m-b H-c‑p t‑^‑m-k‑nÂ C-Ô-\-a‑m-W‑v, A-X‑v
I‑p-d-¨‑v h‑m-b‑pa-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-\‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶‑p. Z-i-e-£-¡-W-¡‑n-\‑v B-f‑p-IÄ-¡‑v C-X‑v
A-h-c‑p-s‑S h‑o-S‑p-IÄ N‑q-S‑m-¡‑m-\‑p‑w `-£-W‑w ]‑m-I‑w s‑N-¿‑m-\‑p‑w A-h-c‑p-s‑S hkv{X§Ä A-e-
¡‑m-\‑p‑w D-W-¡‑m-\‑p‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶ H-c‑p P-\-{‑]‑n-b D‑uÀ-Öt‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑m-W‑v. k‑m-[‑m-c-W
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑m-X-I-¯‑nÂ I‑q-S‑p-X-e‑p‑w a‑o-t‑Y³ A-S-§‑n-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑. C-X‑v H-c‑p {‑Z‑m-h-I-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v
I‑w-{‑]-k‑v sNbvX- v‑ s‑s‑]-¸‑v s‑s‑e-\‑p-IÄ h-g‑n Z‑oÀ-L-Z‑q-c‑w s‑I‑m-ï‑p-t‑]‑m-I‑m-\‑p‑w I-g‑n-b‑p‑w.
i‑p-²-a‑m-b D‑uÀ-Öt‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-I-f‑nÂ ]‑p-\-c‑pÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-h‑p-¶-X‑p‑w k‑o-t‑d‑m F-a‑n-j³
t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-I-f‑p‑w D‑uÀ-Ö I‑m-c‑y-£-a-X \-S-]-S‑n-I-f‑n-e‑q-s‑S e‑m-`‑n-¡‑p-¶ D‑uÀ-Ö-h‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-
S‑p-¶‑p. ]‑p-\-c‑pÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-h‑p-¶ D‑uÀ-Ö¯nsâ Bhiyw IpXn¨pbcp¶p, I‑mÀ-_-W‑n-
s‑â-b‑p‑w a-ä‑v X-c-¯‑n-e‑p-Å a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-§-f‑p-w Dïm-Imd‑n-Ã. F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, "]‑p-\-c‑p-]-
t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m-h‑p-¶-X‑v' F-¶‑v h‑n-]-W-\‑w s‑N-¿-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ F-Ã‑m t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-I-f‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-¡‑v
{‑]-t‑b‑m-P-\-I-c-a-Ã.
k‑q-c‑y-s‑â s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X-I‑m-´‑n-I h‑n-I‑n-c-W-¯‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v D-c‑p-¯‑n-c‑n-ª ]‑m-c-¼-t‑c‑y-X-c-h‑p‑w
]‑p-\-c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m-h‑p-¶-X‑p-a‑m-b D‑uÀ-Öt‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑m-W‑v k‑u-t‑c‑mÀ-Ö‑w. t‑^‑m-t‑«‑m-t‑h‑mÄ-s‑«-
b‑v-I‑v A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ t‑k‑m-f‑mÀ s‑XÀ-aÂ I¬-t‑hÀ-j³ h-g‑n s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-t‑X‑mÀ-Ö‑w D-X‑v-]‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-
¡‑m³ C-X‑v D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. k‑u-t‑c‑mÀ-Ö‑w [‑m-c‑m-f-a‑m-s‑W-¦‑n-e‑p‑w‑, {‑]-t‑X‑y-I D-]-I-c-W-
§Ä B-h-i‑y-a‑m-b‑n h-c‑p-¶ D-]-t‑b‑m-K-t‑b‑m-K‑y-a‑m-b s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X‑n DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v A-X‑v
t‑i-J-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w t‑I-{‑µ‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w t‑h-W‑w. H-c‑p k‑m-[‑m-c-W t‑k‑m-f‑mÀ h‑m-«À l‑o-ä-d‑nÂ‑,
H-c‑p k‑p-X‑m-c‑y-a‑m-b ¥‑m-k‑v t‑¹-ä‑v A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ ¹‑m-Ì‑n-I‑v j‑o-ä‑v s‑I‑m-ï‑v s‑]‑m-X‑n-ª‑, H-c‑p I-d‑p-¯
t‑e‑m-l A-S‑n-¯-d-b‑n-t‑e-¡‑v t‑{‑_-k‑v s‑N-b‑v-X s‑N-¼‑v s‑s‑]-¸‑n-s‑â H-c‑p t‑I‑m-b‑nÂ A-S-§‑n-b‑n-c‑n-
¡‑p-¶‑p. t‑k‑m-f‑mÀ s‑k-Ã‑p-IÄ D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¨‑v s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X‑n \Â-I‑m³ k‑u-t‑c‑mÀ-Ö-w D-]-t‑b‑m-K-
t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. s‑h-Å‑w ]-¼‑v s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w‑, i‑o-X‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-\‑p‑w‑, k‑u-t‑c‑mÀ-Ö I‑p-f-
§Ä-¡‑p‑w‑, s‑I-«‑n-S-§-f‑n-s‑e X‑m-]-\‑n-e \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w k‑u-t‑c‑mÀ-Ö-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-t‑b‑m-K-
§-s‑f-¡‑p-d‑n-¨‑v K-t‑h-j-W‑w X‑p-S-c‑p-¶‑p.
`‑q-a‑n-b‑nÂ e-`‑y-a‑m-b G-ä-h‑p‑w a‑n-I-¨ ]‑p-\-c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-K D‑uÀ-Öt‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p‑w D‑uÀ-Ö-h‑p‑w
{‑]-Z‑m-\‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å i-à-a‑m-b H-c‑p G-Pâ‑m-W‑v I‑m-ä‑v. C-X‑v I‑m-ä‑m-S‑nb-{‑´-§-f‑n-e‑q-s‑S-
b‑p‑w SÀ-s‑s‑_-\‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p‑w F-f‑p-¸-¯‑nÂ {‑]-t‑b‑m-P-\-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑n s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X‑n D-X‑v-]‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m‑w.
I‑m-ä‑n-Â\n¶pÅ‑ D‑uÀ-Ö‑w a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-Wc-l‑n-X-h‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑nk‑u-l‑r-Z-h‑p-a‑m-b D‑uÀ-Ö
t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑m-W‑v. A-X‑v I‑p-d-ª DÂ-]‑m-Z-\I‑m-e-b-f-h‑p‑w h‑n-e-I‑p-d-ª-X‑p‑w B-hÀ-¯‑n-¨‑p-Å-
X‑p-a‑m-b s‑N‑e-h‑p‑ I‑p-d-ª-X‑p-‑a‑m-W‑v. F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, C³-Ì‑m-t‑f-j³ s‑N-e-h‑v `‑m-c-a‑p-Å-X‑m-
W‑v‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X b-{‑´-§-f‑p-s‑S A-ä-I‑p-ä-¸-W‑n s‑N-e-t‑h-d‑n-b-X‑m-W‑v.
a‑o-t‑Y³ h‑m-X-I‑w ]‑p-d-¯‑p-h‑n-S‑p-¶ a-e‑n-\-P-e‑w‑, h-f‑w‑, a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§Ä‑, h‑n-f-I-f‑p-s‑S A-h-i‑n-
ã-§Ä X‑p-S-§‑n-b A-g‑p-I‑n-b s‑s‑P-h-a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑m-W‑v _-t‑b‑m-K‑y‑m-k‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å
D‑uÀ-Ö‑w D-X‑v-]‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v. h‑m-X-I‑w H-c‑p I-s‑ï-b‑v-\-d‑nÂ t‑i-J-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w D‑uÀ-Ö‑w
DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å C-Ô-\-a‑m-b‑n D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑m‑w. D-]-t‑b‑m-K-i‑q-\‑y-a‑m-b
h-k‑v-X‑p-¡Ä s‑s‑P-h-h-f-a‑m-b‑p‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m‑w. t‑h-e‑n-t‑b-ä-¯‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p‑w X‑n-c-a‑m-e-I-f‑nÂ
\‑n-¶‑p‑w s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X‑n D-X‑v-]‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p-¶ SÀ-s‑s‑_³ D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¨‑v s‑s‑S-UÂ U‑m‑w \‑nÀ-
½‑n-¨‑v s‑s‑S-UÂ ]-hÀ {‑]-t‑b‑m-P-\-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑m‑w. F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, C-X‑v s‑N-e-t‑h-d‑n-b-X‑p‑w hÀ-j-
¯‑nÂ N‑n-e k-a-b-§-f‑nÂ a‑m-{‑Xw-‑ s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X‑n DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-bp‑¶XpamWv. A-W‑p-h‑n-
L-S-\‑w h-g‑n D-X‑v-]‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶ D‑uÀ-P-¯‑n-s‑â i‑p-²-h‑p‑w t‑I-{‑µ‑o-I‑r-X-h‑p-a‑m-b D-d-h‑n-S-a‑m-W‑v
\‑y‑q-¢‑n-bÀ F-\À-P‑n. b‑p-t‑d-\‑n-b‑w-þ235‑, ¹‑q-t‑«‑m-W‑n-b‑w-þ239 F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v B-W-h\‑n-e-b-§Ä-
¡‑m-b‑n G-ä-h‑p‑w I‑q-S‑p-XÂ D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶ C-Ô-\-§Ä. B-W-h a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§Ä‑, t‑d-U‑n-
t‑b‑m B-I‑v-ä‑o-h‑v {‑Z‑m-h-I-§Ä‑, h‑m-X-I-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-s‑S \‑nÀ-a‑mÀ-P-\‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-¡‑v K‑p-c‑p-
X-c-a‑m-b t‑Z‑m-j‑w s‑N-¿‑p‑w. `‑u-a-X‑m-t-]mÀ-P‑w F-¶-X‑v `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S D-Å‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å X‑m-t-]
mÀ-Ö-a‑m-W‑v, A-X‑v N‑q-S‑m-¡‑m-t‑\‑m s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X‑n DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-t‑\‑m D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m‑w. N‑q-S‑p-Å
]‑m-d-IÄ `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S D-]-c‑n-X-e-t‑¯‑m-S‑v t‑NÀ-¶‑p-Å {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ C‑u D‑uÀ-Ö‑w D-X‑v-]‑m-Z‑n-
¸‑n-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w. \‑o-c‑m-h‑n‑, {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑m-X-I‑w‑, IÂ-¡-c‑n‑, P-e s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X-h‑n-t‑Ç-j-W‑w X‑p-S-
§‑n-b h‑n-h‑n-[t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-I-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v D-X‑v-]‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p-¶ H-c‑p D‑uÀ-Öh‑m-l-I-a‑m-
W‑v s‑s‑l-{‑U-P³. s‑s‑l-{‑U-P\‑v- \-½‑p-s‑S t‑^‑m-k‑nÂ-þ-C-Ô-\ B-{‑i‑n-X k-¼-Z--h ‑v ‑y-h-Ø-s‑b
H-c‑p s‑s‑l-{‑U-P³ k-¼-Z--h ‑v ‑y-h-Ø-b‑m-¡‑n a‑m-ä‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w‑, C-X‑v F-a‑n-j³ c-l‑n-X K-X‑m-K-X
C-Ô-\‑w \Â-I‑p-¶‑p. F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, s‑s‑l-{‑U-P-s‑â \‑n-e-h‑n-s‑e h‑n-e D-bÀ-¶-X‑m-W‑v, k‑m-
¼-¯‑n-I-a‑m-b‑n A-X‑v k‑m-[‑y-a‑m-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v X‑p-SÀ-¨-b‑m-b K-t‑h-j-W‑w B-h-i‑y-a‑m-W‑v.
``
BLOCK -2
Ecosystems Biodiversity and Conservation
]cnØnXn hyhØIÄ
ssPhsshhn[yhpw kwc£Whpw
UNIT- 1
BhmkhyhØbpsS Bibhpw
LS\bpw {]hÀ¯\hpw
h‑y-X‑y-k‑v-X ]-c‑n-X-Ø‑n-X‑n-I-f‑nÂ h‑y-X‑y-k‑v-X k-k‑y-§-f‑p‑w P-´‑p-¡-f‑p‑w \‑n-e-\‑nÂ-¡‑p-¶-
X‑v F-´‑p-s‑I‑m-s‑ï-¶-X‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑n-s‑e C-S-s‑]-S-e‑p-I-s‑f ]T‑n-¡‑p-¶ i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-i‑m-
J-b‑m-W‑v ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w. G-W-Ì‑v t‑l-¡Â 1869þÂ ‑']-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n‑' F-¶ ]-Z‑w D-]-
t‑b‑m-K‑n-¨‑p‑, A-X‑n-s‑\ {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑p‑w P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p‑w A-h-b‑p-s‑S N‑p-ä‑p-]‑m-S‑p-I-f‑p‑w X-½‑n-e‑p-Å
_-Ô-s‑¯-¡‑p-d‑n-¨‑p-Å ]T-\-a‑m-b‑n ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b \‑nÀ-h-N‑n-¨‑p.
P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§Ä ]-c-k‑v-]-c‑w C-S-]-g-I‑p-¶ {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-]-c-a‑m-b b‑q-W‑n-ä‑m-W‑v
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n h‑y-h-Ø. B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-s‑b c-ï‑v L-S-I-§-f‑m-b‑n X‑n-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p: ssPhw,
AssPhw. I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v, P-e‑w‑, s‑s‑\-{‑S-P³ X‑p-S-§‑n-b A-s‑s‑P-h ]-Z‑mÀ-
°-§-f‑p‑w t‑{‑]‑m-«‑o-\‑p-I-f‑p‑w I‑mÀ-t‑_‑m-s‑s‑l-t‑{‑U-ä‑p-I-f‑p‑w t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å s‑s‑P-h k‑w-b‑p-à-§-f‑p‑w
DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ `‑u-X‑n-I A-´-c‑o-£-s‑¯-t‑b‑m P‑o-h-\‑n-Ã‑m-¯ L-S-I-§-s‑f-t‑b‑m A-P‑n-t‑b‑m-«‑n-I‑v
L-S-I-§Ä k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. C‑u B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑nÂ I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m L-S-I-§-f‑m-b a-g‑,
s‑h-f‑n-¨‑w‑, X‑m-]-\‑n-e‑, C‑uÀ-¸‑w‑, I‑m-ä‑v, h‑m-b‑p‑, a-®‑v, [‑m-X‑p-¡Ä‑, `‑q-{‑]-I‑r-X‑n‑, pH F-¶‑n-§-s‑\-
b‑p-Å F-U‑m-^‑n-I‑v L-S-I-§-f‑p‑w P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä‑, h‑n-X-c-W‑w‑, L-S-\‑, k‑z-`‑m-
h‑w‑, ]-c-k‑v-]-c-_-Ô‑w F-¶‑n-h \‑nÀ-®-b‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑nÂ H-c‑p {‑]-[‑m-\ ]-¦‑v h-l‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑nÂ k-k‑y-§Ä‑, a‑r-K-§Ä‑, k‑q-£‑v-a‑m-W‑p-¡Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S-
b‑p-Å P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-ï‑v. C‑u P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-s‑f A-h-b‑p-s‑S t‑]‑m-j-I B-h-i‑y-I-X-I-s‑f
A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\-a‑m-¡‑n a‑q-¶‑v {‑K‑q-¸‑p-I-f‑m-b‑n X‑n-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p: \‑nÀ-½‑m-X‑m-¡Ä‑, D-]-t‑`‑m-à‑m-¡Ä‑,
h‑n-L-S‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-hÀ. l-c‑n-Xk-k‑y-§Ä t‑]‑m-s‑e-b‑p-Å DÂ-¸‑m-Z-IÀ‑, {‑]-I‑m-i-k‑w-t‑Ç-j-W
{‑]-{‑I‑n-b-b‑n-e‑q-s‑S I‑mÀ-t‑_‑m-s‑s‑l-t‑{‑U-ä‑v t‑]‑m-s‑e-b‑p-Å D‑uÀ-Ök-¼-¶-a‑m-b X-·‑m-{‑X-IÄ
k‑r-ã‑n-¡‑m³ k‑u-t‑c‑mÀ-Ö-t‑a‑m c‑m-k-{‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-t‑f‑m D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. D-]-t‑`‑m-à‑m-¡Ä
k‑z-´‑w `-£-W‑w DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑m-¯ P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑m-W‑v, `-£-W-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑n k-k‑y-§-
s‑f-b‑p‑w a‑r-K-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w B-{‑i-b‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. k-k‑v-X-\‑n-IÄ‑, ]-£‑n-IÄ‑, a-Õ‑y‑w‑, D-c-K-§Ä‑, D-`-
b-P‑o-h‑n-IÄ‑, {‑]‑m-W‑n-IÄ‑, ^‑w-K-k‑v, k‑q-£‑v-a-P‑o-h‑n-IÄ F-¶‑n-h D-]-t‑`‑m-à‑m-¡-f‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-
S‑p-¶‑p. A-hÀ `-£-W‑w F-§-s‑\ t‑\-S‑p-¶‑p F-¶-X‑n-s‑\ B-{‑i-b‑n-¨‑v, \‑m-e‑v X-c‑w D-]-t‑`‑m-à‑m-
¡Ä D-ï‑v: {‑]‑m-Y-a‑n-I‑, Z‑z‑n-X‑o-b‑, X‑r-X‑o-b‑, NXpÀ°n D-]-t‑`‑m-à‑m-¡Ä. hnLSn¸n¡p¶hÀ
k‑q-£‑v-a‑m-W‑p-¡Ä‑, _‑m-Î‑o-c‑n-b-IÄ‑, ^‑w-K-k‑p-IÄ F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v, A-h k-¦‑oÀ-®-a‑m-b \‑nÀ-
Ö‑o-h-a‑m-b s‑s‑P-h-h-k‑v-X‑p-¡-s‑f e-f‑n-X-a‑m-b A-s‑s‑P-hc‑q-]-§-f‑m-¡‑n h‑n-L-S‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w
N‑n-e h‑n-L-S‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶ DÂ-¸-¶-§-s‑f B-K‑n-c-W‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I-b‑p‑w DÂ-¸‑m-Z-IÀ h‑o-ï‑p‑w D-]-
t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶ A-s‑s‑P-h t‑]‑m-j-I-§Ä ]‑p-d-¯‑p-h‑n-S‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. H-c‑p P‑o-h‑n-b‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v
a-s‑ä‑m-¶‑n-t‑e-¡‑v t‑]‑m-j-I-§-f‑p‑w D‑uÀ-P-h‑p‑w s‑s‑I-a‑m-ä‑w s‑N-¿-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S H-c‑p t‑c-
J‑o-bt‑{‑i-W‑n-b‑m-W‑v `-£‑yi‑r‑w-J-e. h‑n-h‑n-[ t‑{‑S‑m-^‑n-I‑v X-e-§-f‑nÂ H-c‑p P‑o-h‑n-b‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v
a-s‑ä‑m-¶‑n-t‑e-¡‑v t‑]‑m-j-I-§-f‑p‑w D‑uÀ-Ö-h‑p‑w H-g‑p-I‑p-¶-X‑v H-c‑p `-£‑y i‑r‑w-J-e-b‑m-b‑n a‑m-d‑p-
¶‑p. hnLSn¸n¡p¶hÀ `-£‑yi‑r‑w-J-ebpsS Ahn`mPyLSIamWv H-cp Po-hn-bnÂ \n-¶pw
a-säm-cp-Po-hn-bn-te-¡--v t]m-j-I-§-fpw DuÀ-Ö-hpw ssI-am-äw sN-¿-s¸-Sp-¶ Po-hn-I-fp-sS
H-cp tc-Jo-b t{i-Wn-bm-Wv `-£‑yi‑r‑w-J-e.
H-cp P‑o-h‑n--sb‑ I-g‑n-¡‑p-¶ aä‑p P‑o-h‑n-IÄ I‑m-c-W‑w ]-e t‑{‑S‑m-^‑n-I‑v s‑e-h-e‑p-I-f‑p‑w ]-c-k‑v-]-
c‑w _-Ô-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶X‑n\mÂ -‑‑ BWv ]-c-k‑v-]-c _-Ô‑n-X-a‑m-b `-£‑y i‑r‑w-J-e-IÄ c‑q-]-s‑¸-
S‑p-¶-X‑v. `-£‑yi‑r‑w-J-eb‑v¡‑v D‑uÀ-Ö {‑]-h‑m-l-¯‑n-s‑â i-c‑n-b‑m-b {‑]‑m-X‑n-\‑n-[‑y‑w I‑m-W‑n-¡‑m³
I-g‑n-b‑p‑w‑, I‑m-c-W‑w A-X‑v h‑y-X‑y-k‑v-XP‑o-h‑n-IÄ X-½‑n-e‑p-Å {‑]-X‑n-{‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä {‑]-ZÀ-i‑n-¸‑n-
¡‑p-¶‑p. h‑y-X‑y-k--X‑v `-£‑yi‑r‑w-J-e-IÄ-¡‑n-S-b‑nÂ I‑q-S‑p-XÂ t‑{‑I‑m-k‑v Câ-d‑m-£-\‑p-IÄ D-ï‑m-
I‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ‑, I‑q-S‑p-XÂ k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-¡‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ CXv I‑q-S‑p-
XÂ k-¦‑oÀ-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶‑p. t‑\-s‑c-a-d‑n-¨‑v, H-c‑p `-£‑yi‑r‑w-J-e-b‑v-¡‑v D‑uÀ-Ö {‑]-h‑m-l-¯‑n-\‑v H-c‑p
G-I]‑m-X a‑m-{‑X-t‑a-b‑p-Å‑q.
H-c‑p ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I ]‑n-c-a‑n-U‑v hn-I-kn-¸n-¨-Xv NmÄ-kv FÂ-«³ B-Wv F-¶-X‑v h‑y-X‑y-k‑v-X
t‑{‑S‑m-^‑n-I‑v X-e-§-f‑nÂ h‑y-X‑y-k‑v-X P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§Ä X-½‑n-e‑p-Å _-Ô-¯‑n-s‑â {‑K‑m-^‑n-¡Â
{‑]-X‑n-\‑n-[‑m-\-a‑m-W‑v. a‑q-¶‑v X-c‑w ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I ]‑n-c-a‑n-U‑p-IÄ D-ï‑v. k‑w-J‑y-I-f‑p-s‑S ]‑n-c-a‑n-
U‑v‑, _-t‑b‑m-a‑m-k‑n-s‑â ]‑n-c-a‑n-U‑v, D‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-s‑â ]‑n-c-a‑n-U‑v. k‑w-J‑y-I-f‑p-s‑S ]‑n-c-a‑n-U‑v H‑m-t‑c‑m
t‑{‑S‑m-^‑n-I‑v X-e-¯‑n-e‑p‑w A-h-b‑p-s‑S h-e‑p-¸‑w I-W-¡‑n-s‑e-S‑p-¡‑m-s‑X A-h-b‑p-s‑S F-®‑w I‑m-W‑n-
¡‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X U‑n-{‑S‑n-ä-k‑v `-£‑y i‑r‑w-J-e-IÄ H-g‑n-s‑I k‑m-[‑m-c-W-b‑m-b‑n \‑n-hÀ-¶‑p-\‑nÂ-
¡‑p-¶‑p. _-t‑b‑m-a‑m-k‑v ]‑n-c-a‑n-U‑v H‑m-t‑c‑m t‑{‑S‑m-^‑n-I‑v X-e-¯‑n-e‑p‑w P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-s‑S B-s‑I
]‑n-Þ‑w I‑m-W‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, k‑m-[‑m-c-W-K-X‑n-b‑nÂ G-ä-h‑p‑w h-e‑p-X‑v X‑m-s‑g-b‑mb‑nc‑ -‑- n¡p‑w -a‑p-I-f‑n-
t‑e-¡‑v t‑]‑m-I‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ s‑N-d‑p-X‑mIp‑w-. H-c‑p `-£‑y i‑r‑w-J-e-b‑n-s‑e D‑uÀ-P-{‑]-h‑m-l‑w F-t‑¸‑m-g‑p‑w
G-I-]-£‑o-b-a‑m-b-X‑n-\‑mÂ‑, F-\À-P‑n ]‑n-c-a‑n-U‑v a‑m-{‑X-a‑m-W‑v F-t‑¸‑m-g‑p‑w I‑p-¯-s‑\-b‑p-Å ]‑m-c‑n-
Ø‑n-X‑n-I ]‑n-c-a‑n-U‑v.
DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-£-a-X ]‑n-c-a‑n-U‑v, A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ D‑uÀ-Ö ]‑n-c-a‑n-U‑v, D‑uÀ-Ö ]‑n-c-a‑n-U‑n-s‑â H-c‑p
D-Z‑m-l-c-W-a‑m-W‑v. C-X‑v I‑m-e-{‑I-t‑a-W H-c‑p B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑n-s‑e D‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-s‑â H-g‑p-¡‑v
]-c‑n-t‑i‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w H-c‑p t‑{‑S‑m-^‑n-I‑vX-e-¯‑n-s‑e D‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-s‑â 10% a‑m-{‑X-t‑a _-t‑b‑m-a‑m-
k‑v k‑r-ã‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-t‑e-¡‑v t‑]‑m-I‑p-I-b‑p-Å‑q F-¶ h-k‑v-X‑p-X I-W-¡‑n-s‑e-S‑p-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-
¶‑p. N‑p-ä‑p-]‑m-S‑p-I-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑p-Å D‑uÀ-Ö\-ã-h‑p‑w C‑u U-b-{‑K‑m-a‑nÂ I‑m-W‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-
s‑X s‑a‑m-¯‑w D‑uÀ-Ös‑s‑I-a‑m-ä‑w I-W-¡‑m-¡‑n-b‑n-«‑p-ï‑v. A-{‑K-`‑m-K-¯‑p-Å C-c-]‑n-S‑n-b-·‑mÀ-¡‑v
{‑]‑m-c‑w-` D‑uÀ-P-¯‑n-s‑â 0.01% a‑m-{‑X-t‑a e-`‑n-¡‑q‑, A-X‑n-\‑m-e‑m-W‑v DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-£-a-X ]‑n-c-a‑n-U‑p-
IÄ F-t‑¸‑m-g‑p‑w \‑n-hÀ-¶‑p-\‑nÂ-¡‑p-¶-X‑v.
H-c‑p `-£‑yi‑r‑w-J-eb‑nse F-Ãm se-h-epw -t{Sm-^n-Iv se-hÂ F-¶-dn-b-s¸-Sp-¶p.
1. Un-{Sn-ä-kv `-£-W irw-J-e
2. ta-¨nÂ `-£-W irw-J-e
3. ^p-U--sv h-_v þ `-£-W h-e
UNIT- 2
h‑n-h‑n-[ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-I-s‑f-
¡‑p-d‑n-¨‑p-Å A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\ A-h-t‑_‑m-[‑w
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑nh‑y-h-Ø-IÄ F-¶-X‑v H-c‑p {‑]-t‑X‑y-I {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯ {‑I-a‑o-I-c-W-¯‑nÂ P‑o-h-
\‑p-Å-X‑p‑w A-Ã‑m-¯-X‑p-a‑m-b L-S-I-§-s‑f k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, A-h H-c‑p s‑N-d‑n-b I‑p-f‑w a‑p-XÂ
h-e‑n-b h-\‑w A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ I-SÂh-s‑c h-e‑p-¸-¯‑nÂ h‑y-X‑y‑m-k-s‑¸-S‑m‑w. `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e F-Ã‑m {‑]‑m-t‑Z-
i‑n-I B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-I-f‑p‑w t‑NÀ-¶ H-c‑p B-t‑K‑m-f B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑m-b‑m-W‑v _-t‑b‑m-k‑v-
^‑n-bÀ I-W-¡‑m-¡-s‑¸-S‑p-¶-X‑v. `‑u-a‑, P-e B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-IÄ c-ï‑v A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\ h‑n-`‑m-K-
§-f‑m-W‑v, h-\-§Ä‑, ]‑pÂ-t‑a-S‑p-IÄ‑, a-c‑p-`‑q-a‑n-IÄ‑, sN-dn-b A-cp-hn-IÄ‑, i‑p-²-P-e‑w‑, k-a‑p-{‑Z‑w
F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S {‑]-[‑m-\ X-c‑w.
`‑u-a B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø `‑q-a‑n-s‑b a‑m-{‑X‑w A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\-a‑m-¡‑n-b‑p-Å-X‑p‑w `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S D-]-c‑n-X-e-
¯‑n-s‑â G-I-t‑Z-i‑w 25 a‑p-XÂ 30 i-X-a‑m-\‑w h-s‑c DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶X‑p‑amWv, h‑n-h‑n-[ `‑u-a-i‑m-
k‑v-{‑X t‑a-J-e-I-f‑nÂ h‑y-X‑y-k‑v-XX-c¯‑‑n-emWv Ch h‑n-X-c-W‑w s‑N-¿-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑Xv. h-\ B-h‑m-
k-h‑y-h-Ø-I-f‑nÂ a‑n-X-i‑o-t‑X‑m-j‑v-W C-e-s‑]‑m-g‑n-b‑p‑w‑ t‑X‑m-«‑w‑, D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m a-g-¡‑m-S‑p-IÄ
F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑mÀ-¶ P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-s‑S k‑z‑m-`‑m-h‑n-I B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-
b‑m-b‑n A-h {‑]-hÀ-¯‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X G-ä-h‑p‑w D-bÀ-¶ hÀ¤ s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-h‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-
¶‑p. ]‑pÂ-t‑a-S‑p-If‑nÂ G-ä-h‑p‑w {‑]-_-e-a‑m-bX‑v k-k‑y-§-f‑m-W‑v. A-h k‑m-[‑m-c-W-b‑m-b‑n D-j‑v-
W-t‑a-J-e‑m A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ a‑n-X-i‑o-t‑X‑m-j‑v-W {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p‑. a‑r-K-§-s‑f t‑a-
b‑m³ A-\‑p-t‑b‑m-P‑y-a‑m-b A-´-c‑o-£‑w {‑]-Z‑m-\‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. a-c‑p-`‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-
IÄ-¡‑v I‑p-d-ª a-g-b‑p‑w h‑n-c-f-a‑m-b-t‑X‑m \‑n-e-h‑n-e‑n-Ã‑m-¯-t‑X‑m B-b k-k‑y-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-ï‑v.
P-´‑p-P‑m-e-§Ä h-c-ï A-h-Ø-b‑p-a‑m-b‑n h-f-s‑cs]s«¶p s‑]‑m-c‑p-¯-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
UNIT-3
s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑h‑ p- w- B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p‑w‑
k-k‑y-§Ä‑, a‑r-K-§Ä‑, k‑q-£‑v-a‑m-W‑p-¡Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-
a‑mÀ-¶ P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-s‑f-b‑m-W‑v s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w F¶XpsImïv k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v.
\-½‑p-s‑S {‑K-l-¯‑n-s‑e P‑o-h-s‑â k‑p-Ø‑n-c-X-b‑v-¡‑v C-X‑v A-X‑y-´‑m-t‑]-£‑n-X-a‑m-W‑v, A-X‑n-Ã‑m-
s‑X P‑o-h³ X‑p-S-c‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑n-Ã. s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑nÂ H-c‑p B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑n-s‑e h‑n-
h‑n-[ P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S F-®-h‑p‑w A-h-b‑p-s‑S B-t‑]-£‑n-I B-h‑r-¯‑n-I-f‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-
s‑X C-X‑v h‑n-h‑n-[ X-e-§-f‑n-e‑p-Å P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S H¶n¨pIqSens\ {‑]-X‑n-^-e‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. s‑s‑P-
h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-\‑v ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I-h‑p‑w k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I-h‑p-a‑m-b {‑]‑m-[‑m-\‑y-a‑p-ï‑v, I‑m-c-W‑w A-X‑v
\-a‑p-¡‑v t‑]‑m-j-W‑w‑, ]‑mÀ-¸‑n-S‑w‑, C-Ô-\‑w‑, h-k‑v-{‑X‑w‑, a-ä‑v \‑n-c-h-[‑n h‑n-`-h-§Ä F-¶‑n-h \Â-I‑p-
¶‑p. S‑q-d‑n-k-¯‑n-\‑p‑w C-X‑v \‑nÀ-W‑m-b-I-a‑m-W‑v. P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-s‑S k-a‑r-²‑n‑, hÀ¤ X‑p-e‑y-X‑,
BÂ-^ s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w‑, _‑o-ä s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w‑, K‑m-a‑m s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w‑, P-\‑n-X-I s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w F-¶‑n-h
DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S \‑n-c-h-[‑n X-e-¯‑n-e‑p-Å s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑p-ï‑v. P-\‑n-X-I s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w F-¶-X‑v
H-c‑p hÀ¤¯‑n-s‑â P-\‑n-X-I L-S-\-b‑n-s‑e s‑a‑m-¯‑w P-\‑n-X-I k-h‑n-t‑i-j-X-I-f‑m-W‑v. a‑m-d‑p-¶
N‑p-ä‑p-]‑m-S‑p-I-f‑p-a‑m-b‑n s‑]‑m-c‑p-¯-s‑¸-S‑m³ P‑o-h‑n-hÀ-¤-§-s‑f P-\‑n-X-Is‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w A-\‑p-h-Z‑n-¡‑p-
¶-X‑n-\‑mÂ C-X‑v {‑]-[‑m-\-a‑m-W‑v.
B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w F-¶-X‑v H-c‑p `‑q-a‑n-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-]-c-a‑m-b Ø‑m-\-¯‑n-\‑p-
Å‑n-s‑e B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑n-s‑e h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-s‑¯ k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, C-X‑v H-c‑p X-c‑w s‑s‑P-
h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑m-W‑v. a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑mÂ H-c‑p B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø X‑m-c-X-t‑a‑y-\
A-k‑z-Ø-a‑m-I‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ‑, A-X‑n-s‑\ k‑z‑m-`‑m-h‑n-I‑w F-¶‑p‑w‑, I‑r-j‑n-`‑q-a‑n A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ \-K-c-{‑]-
t‑Z-i-§Ä t‑]‑m-s‑e-b‑p-Å a-ä‑v D-]-t‑b‑m-K-§-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑v a‑m-ä‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ‑, A-X‑n-s‑\ ]-c‑n-j‑v-I-c‑n-¨-X‑v
F-¶‑p‑w ]-c‑m-aÀ-i‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. h-\‑y-a‑m-b {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ G-ä-h‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯-a‑m-b B-h‑m-k-
h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-ï‑v. C-´‑y-b‑v-¡‑v A-k‑m-[‑m-c-W-a‑m-bXp‑w k-¼-¶-a‑m-bXpa‑m-b‑ H-c‑p B-h‑m-k-h‑y-
h-Ø-b‑p-ï‑v. {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-IÄ A-a‑n-X-a‑m-b‑n D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡-s‑¸-S‑p-I-t‑b‑m
Z‑p-c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-K‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I-t‑b‑m s‑N-b‑v-X‑mÂ A-h-b‑p-s‑S DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-£-a-X I‑p-d-b‑p-I-b‑p‑w A-h
P‑oÀ-W‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. I‑p-d-ª ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑p-Å {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ k-a‑p-
{‑Z-§-f‑p-s‑S-t‑b‑m a-c‑p-`‑q-a‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S-t‑b‑m h‑n-i‑m-e-a‑m-b h‑n-k‑v-X‑r-X‑nI‑q-Sn‑ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p‑, X-S‑m-I-§-
f‑p‑w h-\-§-f‑p‑w ]‑pÂ-t‑a-S‑p-I-f‑p‑w D-Å H-c‑p ]À-h-X-{‑]-t‑Z-i-¯‑v D-bÀ-¶ s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w
D-ï‑m-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p‑w. \‑n-c-h-[‑n B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-I-f‑p-Å {‑]-t‑Z-i-§Ä X-t‑±-i‑o-b P‑o-h‑n-I-s‑f
A-X‑n-P‑o-h‑n-¡‑m³ k-l‑m-b‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v I‑q-S‑p-XÂ h‑n-`-h-§Ä \Â-I‑n-t‑b-¡‑m‑w‑, {‑]-t‑X‑y-I‑n-¨‑p‑w
H-c‑p B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø h-cÄ-¨-t‑b‑m t‑c‑m-K-t‑a‑m a‑q-e‑w `‑o-j-W‑n-b‑m-I‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ. P-\‑n-X-I‑, k‑v-
]‑o-j‑n-k‑v, B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-s‑S X-e-¯‑n-e‑p-Å P‑o-h-s‑â s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w B-[‑p-\‑n-
Ia-\‑p-j‑yÀ A-X‑n-t‑h-K‑w ]-c‑n-j--¡
‑v -c‑n-¨‑p-s‑I‑m-ï‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, C-X‑v `‑m-h‑nX-e-a‑p-d-IÄ-¡‑v h-e‑n-b
\-ã-a‑m-W‑v.
B-t‑K‑m-f‑, {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I X-e-§-f‑nÂ s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w h‑n-h‑n-[ ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I t‑k-h-\-
§Ä \Â-I‑p-¶‑p. t‑]‑m-j-I-§-f‑p-s‑S Ø‑n-c‑o-I-c-W-h‑p‑w ]‑p-\-c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-K-h‑p‑w‑, a-®‑n-s‑â c‑q-]‑o-I-
c-W‑w‑, h‑m-b‑p‑, P-e‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-s‑S i‑p-²‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, B-t‑K‑m-f P‑o-h³ ]‑n-´‑p-W‑, B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-
Ø-b‑v-¡‑p-Å‑n-s‑e P-ek-´‑p-e‑n-X‑m-h-Ø \‑n-e-\‑nÀ-¯Â‑, \‑oÀ-¯-Sk‑w-c-£-W‑w‑, hÀ-j‑w a‑p-g‑p-
h-\‑p‑w A-c‑p-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w \-Z‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w H-g‑p-¡‑v \‑n-e-\‑nÀ-¯Â‑, a-s‑®‑m-e‑n-¸‑v \‑n-b-{‑´-W‑w‑,
{‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡Â‑, s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w \Â-I‑p-¶ N‑n-e ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I
t‑k-h-\-§-f‑m-W‑v. `-£-W‑w‑, h-k‑v-{‑X‑w‑, ]‑mÀ-¸‑n-S‑w‑, D‑uÀ-P‑w‑, a-c‑p-¶‑p-IÄ X‑p-S-§‑n-b h‑n-`-h-
§Ä t‑\-c‑n-t‑«‑m A-Ã‑m-s‑X-t‑b‑m s‑s‑P-h-a-Þ-e-¯‑n-e‑p-Å s‑s‑P-hs‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-h‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-
«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
X-S‑n‑, `-£-W‑w‑, I‑m-e‑n-¯‑o-ä F-¶‑n-h- {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I k-a‑q-l-§Ä t‑\-c‑n-«‑v D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶-
X‑n-s‑\-b‑m-W‑v D-]-t‑`‑m-Ka‑q-e‑y‑w F-¶‑p k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v. s‑sP‑h‑s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w a-qew-‑ , `-£-W‑w‑,
h-k‑v-{‑X‑w‑, ]‑mÀ-¸‑n-S‑w‑, a-c‑p-¶‑p-IÄ‑, t‑{‑]‑m-«‑o-\‑p-IÄ‑, F³-s‑s‑k-a‑p-IÄ‑, t‑]-¸-d‑p-IÄ‑, k‑v-t‑]‑mÀ-S‑v-
k‑v k‑m-[-\-§Ä‑, k‑w-K‑o-t‑X‑m-]-I-c-W-§Ä‑, ]‑m-\‑o-b-§Ä‑, h-fÀ-¯‑p-a‑r-K-§Ä‑, h‑n-t‑\‑m-Z-k-
©‑m-c‑w‑, _‑n-k‑n-\-Ê‑n-\‑p-Å A-k‑w-kv-I -‑ ‑r-X h-k‑v-X‑p-¡Ä X‑p-S-§‑n-b-h e`‑n-¡p-¶‑p. DÂ--]‑m-Z-\-
]-c-a‑m-b D-]-t‑b‑m-Ka‑q-e‑y‑w F-¶-X‑v k-k‑y-§-f‑n-t‑e‑m a‑r-K-§-f‑n-t‑e‑m D-Å P-\‑n-X-I k-h‑n-t‑i-j-
X-IÄ X‑n-c-b‑m³ s‑s‑P-h k-¼-¶-a‑m-b {‑]-t‑Z-i-§Ä D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p‑, A-X‑v
I‑r-j‑n-b‑n-e‑p‑w ¹‑m-t‑â-j³ t‑{‑]‑m-{‑K‑m-a‑p-I-f‑n-e‑p‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶ a‑n-I-¨ h‑n-f-IÄ h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-
¡‑p-¶-X‑n-t‑\‑m a‑n-I-¨ I-¶‑p-I‑m-e‑n-I-s‑f h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-t‑\‑m D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m‑w. _-t‑b‑m-s‑S-
I‑v-t‑\‑m-f-P‑n-Ì‑p-IÄ‑, ^‑mÀ-a-k‑n-Ì‑p-IÄ‑, h‑y-h-k‑m-b‑n-IÄ‑, I‑mÀ-j‑n-Ii‑m-k‑v-{‑X-ÚÀ F-¶‑n-hÀ
s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-s‑¯ H-c‑p A-k‑w-kv-I -‑ ‑r-Xh-k‑v-X‑p-h‑m-b‑n D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, A-X‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v
]‑p-X‑n-b a-c‑p-¶‑p-I-f‑p‑w DÂ-¸-¶-§-f‑p‑w a‑n-I-¨h‑n-f-I-f‑p‑w h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w. {‑i-²‑m-]‑qÀ-
h-a‑m-b {‑]-P-\-\-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S a‑n-I-¨ h‑n-f-I-f‑p‑w h-fÀ-¯‑p-a‑r-K-§s‑-fb‑p‑w‑ h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m³, P-\‑n-
X-Is‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-Ú-s‑c-b‑p‑w IÀ-j-I-s‑c-b‑p‑w {‑]‑m-]‑v-X-c‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p.
s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-s‑â k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-Ia‑q-e‑y-§Ä s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-s‑â DÂ-¸-¶-§-f‑p-
s‑S {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I D-]-t‑b‑m-K-h‑p-a‑m-t‑b‑m h‑nÂ-¸-\-b‑p-a‑m-t‑b‑m _-Ô-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. ]-c-¼-c‑m-K-X
k-a‑q-l-§Ä X-§-f‑p-s‑S s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-s‑¯ H-c‑p h‑n-`-h-a‑m-b‑n h‑n-e-a-X‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w A-X‑n-
s‑â t‑i‑m-j-W‑w A-h-c‑p-s‑S k-a‑q-l-¯‑n-\‑v h-e‑n-b \-ã‑w D-ï‑m-¡‑p-s‑a-¶‑v Nnń¡pIbpw s‑N-
b‑v-X-X‑n-\‑mÂ A-X‑n-s‑\ H-c‑p P‑o-h³-þ-]‑n-´‑p-W-b‑p-Å h‑n-`-h-a‑m-b‑n k‑w-c-£‑n-¨‑p. s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-
h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-s‑â D-]-t‑`‑m-K-]-c-h‑p‑w DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-]-c-h‑p-a‑m-b a‑q-e‑y-§Ä ]-c-¼-c‑m-K-X k-a‑q-l-§-f‑n-
s‑e k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I B-i-¦-I-f‑p-a‑m-b‑n A-S‑p-¯‑v _-Ô-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. "C-t‑¡‑m-k‑n-Ì‑w B-f‑p-IÄ"
X-§-f‑p-s‑S D-]-P‑o-h-\-¯‑n-s‑â `‑m-K-a‑m-b‑p‑w k‑m‑w-kv-I -‑ ‑m-c‑n-I-h‑p‑w a-X-]-c-h‑p-a‑m-b h‑n-I‑m-c-§-f‑n-e‑q-
s‑S s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-s‑¯ h‑n-e-a-X‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. ChÀ ]-c-¼-c‑m-K-X I‑mÀ-j‑n-I k-{‑¼-Z‑m-b-§-f‑nÂ
s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑mÀ-¶ h‑n-f-IÄ I‑r-j‑n s‑N-b‑v-X‑n-«‑p-ï‑v, C-X‑v hÀ-j‑w a‑p-g‑p-h-\‑p‑w s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑mÀ-¶
DÂ-¸-¶-§Ä h-fÀ-¯‑m-\‑p‑w h‑n-]-W-\‑w s‑N-¿‑m-\‑p‑w A-\‑p-h-Z‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w H-c‑p h‑n-f-b‑p-s‑S ]-c‑m-
P-b-¯‑n-s‑\-X‑n-c‑m-bn- {‑]-hÀ-¯‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N¿pw. k-a‑o-] hÀ-j-§-f‑nÂ‑, t‑Z-i‑o-b-þ-A-´À-t‑Z-
i‑o-b h‑n-]-W‑n-IÄ-¡‑m-b‑n \‑m-W‑y-h‑n-f-IÄ h-fÀ-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v IÀ-j-IÀ-¡‑v k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I t‑{‑]‑m-
Õ‑m-l-\-§Ä e-`‑n-¨‑p-X‑p-S-§‑n‑. C-X‑v s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-s‑â t‑i‑m-j-W-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-¡‑p-
¶‑p.
s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-s‑â k‑m-¶‑n-[‑y‑w A-X‑n-s‑â k‑u-µ-c‑y-¯‑n-\‑p‑w a-l-X‑z-¯‑n-\‑p‑w A-X‑p-
t‑]‑m-s‑e X-s‑¶ H-c‑p h‑n-t‑\‑m-Z-k-©‑m-c B-IÀ-j-W-a‑m-b‑n D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-
t‑¡-ï-X‑m-W‑v. ]-£‑n-IÄ‑, N‑n-e-´‑n-IÄ‑, a-Õ‑y-§Ä X‑p-S-§‑n-b -P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S s‑]-c‑p-a‑m-ä‑w
\‑n-c‑o-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v I‑u-X‑p-I-I-c-a‑m-W‑v.
H‑m-]--j ‑v ³ a‑q-e‑y‑w F-¶-X‑v k‑v-]‑o-j‑o-k‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w ]-c-¼-c‑m-K-X h‑n-f-I-f‑p-s‑S C-\-§-f‑p-s‑S-
b‑p‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑n `‑m-h‑n k‑m-[‑y-X-IÄ X‑p-d-¶‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑n-s‑\ k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. `‑m-h‑n-b‑nÂ
G-X‑v C-\‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K-{‑]-Z-a‑m-I‑p-s‑a-¶‑v {‑]-h-N‑n-¡‑m³ {‑]-b‑m-k-a‑m-W‑v, A-X‑n-\‑mÂ h‑n-f k-k‑y-
§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w a‑r-K-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w h-\‑y _-Ô‑p-¡-s‑f k‑w-c-£‑n-t‑¡-ï-X‑p-ï‑v. ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑m-
¼-¯‑n-I i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w‑, h‑n-f-s‑h-S‑p-¡-s‑¸-« h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S a‑q-e‑y‑w‑, h‑n-f-s‑h-S‑p-¡‑m-¯ h‑n-`-h-§Ä‑,
`‑m-h‑n h‑n-`-h-§Ä F-¶‑n-§-s‑\ k‑v-]‑o-j‑o-k‑p-IÄ‑, I-½‑y‑q-W‑n-ä‑n-IÄ‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n h‑y-h-Ø-IÄ
F-¶‑n-h-b‑v-¡‑v k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I a‑q-e‑y-§Ä \Â-I‑p-¶‑p. D-Z‑m-l-c-W-¯‑n-\‑v, G-j‑y³ s‑s‑hÂ-U‑v
K‑z‑m-d‑n-\‑v a‑m‑w-k‑w‑, C-t‑¡‑m-þ-S‑q-d‑n-k‑w‑, I-¶‑p-I‑m-e‑n {‑]-P-\-\-¯‑n-\‑p-Å k‑m-[‑y-X F-¶‑n-h-b‑v-¡‑v
a‑q-e‑y-a‑p-ï‑v. s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑nÂ ]-c-¼-c‑m-K-X h‑n-f-It-fb-‑p‑w C-X‑n-\-I‑w
\‑n-e-h‑n-e‑p-f-f h-fÀ-¯‑p-a‑r-K-§-t-fb-‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¯-W‑w.
UNIT- 4
Hcp s‑s‑P-h s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑yc‑m-{‑ã-a‑m-b‑n C-´‑y
t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑e `‑q-h‑n-k‑v-X‑r-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S 2.4% a‑m-{‑X‑w s‑s‑I-h-i-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑n-b‑n-«‑p‑w [‑m-c‑m-f‑w k-k‑y-
P-´‑p-P‑m-e-§Ä D-Å-X‑n-\‑mÂ C-´‑y Gähpw henb Hcp s‑s‑P-h s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y c‑m-{‑ã-a‑m-b‑n
A-d‑n-b-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. C-X‑n-\‑v 45‑,000þ-e-[‑n-I‑w C-\‑w k-k‑y-§-f‑p‑w 91‑,000 C-\‑w a‑r-K-§-f‑p‑w D-ï‑v,
s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-\‑v G-ä-h‑p‑w a‑n-I-¨ 10 A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ 15 c‑m-P‑y-§-f‑nÂ H-¶‑m-b‑n C-X‑v a‑m-d‑p-
¶‑p. C-´‑y-b‑p-s‑S s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑mÀ-¶ `‑u-X‑n-Ik-h‑n-t‑i-j-X-I-f‑p‑w I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑mk‑m-l-N-c‑y-§-
f‑p‑w h-\-§Ä‑, ]‑pÂ-t‑a-S‑p-IÄ‑, X-®‑oÀ-¯-S-§Ä‑, a-c‑p-`‑q-a‑n-IÄ‑, X‑o-c-t‑Z-i‑, k-a‑p-{‑Z B-h‑m-k-h‑y-
h-Ø-IÄ F-¶‑n-§-s‑\ h‑n-h‑n-[ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-I-s‑f ]‑n-´‑p-W-b‑v-¡‑p-¶‑p.
G-I-t‑Z-i‑w 70 Z-i-e-£‑w hÀ-j-§Ä-¡‑v a‑p-¼‑v H-s‑c‑m-ä `‑q-J-Þ-¯‑n-s‑e ]‑n-fÀ-¸‑v, h-S-¡³‑,
s‑X-¡³ `‑q-J-Þ-§-f‑p-s‑S c‑q-]‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-¨‑p‑, C-X‑v C-´‑y-b‑nÂ D-bÀ-¶ s‑s‑P-
hs‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-\‑v k‑m-l-N-c‑y-s‑a‑m-c‑p-¡‑n. C-´‑y-b‑nÂ D-bÀ-¶X-e-¯‑n-e‑p-w F³-s‑U-a‑n-k‑w
D-ï‑v, 18% C-´‑y³ k-k‑y-§Ä t‑e‑m-I-¯‑v a-s‑ä‑m-c‑n-S-¯‑p‑w I‑m-W‑p-¶‑n-Ã. 30‑,000 a‑p-XÂ 50‑,000
h-s‑c C-\‑w A-c‑n-I-f‑p‑w \‑n-c-h-[‑n [‑m-\‑y-§-f‑p‑w ]-¨-¡-d‑n-I-f‑p‑w ]-g-§-f‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S I‑r-j‑n
s‑N-b‑v-X h‑n-f-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w hfÀ¯parK§-f‑p-s‑S C-\-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w H¯ptNÀ¶ Hcp ssPh
s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w c‑m-P‑y-¯‑n-\‑p-ï‑v.
s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯nse {][m\Øe§Ä _-t‑b‑m-P‑n-t‑b‑m-{‑K‑m-^‑n-I‑v {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑m-W‑v,
A-h s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-s‑â H-c‑p {‑]-[‑m-\ d‑n-kÀ-t‑h‑m-bÀ DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p‑, A-h `‑o-j-W‑n-
b‑n-e‑p‑w \‑m-i-¯‑n-e‑p-a‑m-W‑v. A-h-b‑v-¡‑v D-bÀ-¶ hÀ¤w k-¼-¶-X-b‑p‑w D-bÀ-¶ A-f-h‑n-e‑p-Å
F³-U‑n-a‑n-k-h‑p-a‑p-ï‑v. H-c‑p t‑l‑m-«--k
‑v --t‑v ‑]‑m-«‑m-b‑n t‑b‑m-K‑y-X t‑\-S‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v, H-c‑p {‑]-t‑Z-i-¯‑v I‑p-d-
ª-X‑v 1‑,500 C-\‑w k-k‑y-§-s‑f-¦‑n-e‑p‑w X-t‑±-i‑o-b-a‑m-b‑n D-ï‑m-b‑n-c‑n-¡-W‑w. t‑e‑m-I-¯‑v \‑n-e-
h‑nÂ 36 s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y {][m\Øe§Ä D-ï‑v, Ah `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S D-]-c‑n-X-e-¯‑n-s‑â 2.5%
a‑m-{‑X‑w DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p‑, F-¶‑n-«‑p‑w t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑e {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I k-k‑y-P‑m-e-§-f‑nÂ 50%þ-e-[‑n-
I‑w‑, ]-£‑n‑, k-k‑v-X-\‑n‑, D-c-K‑, D-`-b-P‑o-h‑n C-\-§-f‑nÂ 43% F-¶‑n-h-s‑b ]‑n-´‑p-W-b‑v-¡‑p-¶‑p.
C-´‑y-b‑nÂ k-¼-¶-a‑m-b ]‑p-j‑v-]s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑p-ï‑v, B-t‑K‑m-f-X-e-¯‑nÂ A-d‑n-b-s‑¸-S‑p-¶
k-k‑y-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-s‑S G-I-t‑Z-i‑w 8% k‑w-c-£‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, 28% ]‑p-j‑v-] L-S-I-§-f‑p‑w {‑]‑m-t‑Z-
i‑n-I-a‑m-W‑v. t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑e 17 s‑a-K‑m s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑yc‑m-P‑y-§-f‑nÂ H-¶‑m-W‑n-X‑v, B-t‑K‑m-f-X-e-¯‑nÂ
X‑n-c‑n-¨-d‑n-ª 34 t‑l‑m-«--k ‑v --t‑v ‑]‑m-«‑p-I-f‑nÂ \‑m-e‑v t‑l‑m-«--k ‑v --t‑v ‑]‑m-«‑p-I-f‑p-a‑p-ï‑v. C‑u t‑l‑m-«--k
‑v --t‑v ‑]‑m-«‑p-
IÄ l‑n-a‑m-e-b‑w‑, C-t‑´‑m-þ-_À-½‑, ]-Ý‑n-a-L-«‑w‑, {‑i‑o-e-¦‑, k‑p-µ-À-_m³- F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v. l‑n-a‑m-
e-b‑w s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑mÀ-¶ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-I-s‑f ]‑n-´‑p-W-b‑v-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X C-´‑y-b‑n-s‑e-
b‑p‑w a-ä‑v c‑m-P‑y-§-f‑n-s‑e-b‑p‑w \‑n-c-h-[‑n {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ h‑y‑m-]‑n-¨‑p-I‑n-S-¡‑p-¶‑p. C³-t‑U‑m-þ-_À-a
t‑l‑m-«--k
‑v --t‑v ‑]‑m-«‑v t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑e G-ä-h‑p‑w h-e‑p-X‑m-W‑v, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X \nch[n P‑o-h‑n-hÀ-K-§-f‑mÂ
k-¼-¶-a‑m-b h-\-§-f‑p‑w A-X‑p-e‑y-a‑m-b N‑p-®‑m-¼‑p-I-Ã‑v I‑mÀ-Ì‑v c‑q-]‑o-I-c-W-§-f‑p‑w A-S-§‑n-b‑n-
c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. ]-Ý‑n-a-L-«-h‑p‑w {‑i‑o-e-¦ t‑l‑m-«--k ‑v --t‑v ‑]‑m-«‑p‑w H-c‑p h-e‑n-b {‑]-t‑Z-i‑w DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p‑,
C-X‑v s‑s‑P-h `‑q-a‑n-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-]-c-a‑m-b‑n {‑]-[‑m-\-a‑m-W‑v. C-t‑´‑m-t‑\-j‑y-b‑n-s‑e H-c‑p I‑q-«‑w Z‑z‑o-]‑p-I-s‑f
DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶ k‑p-µ-À-_m³ t‑l‑m-«--k ‑v --t‑v ‑]‑m-«‑v ]À-h-X-\‑n-c-IÄ‑, A-K‑v-\‑n-]À-Æ-X-§Ä‑, B-g‑w
I‑p-d-ª X‑o-c-t‑Z-iP-e‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑mÀ-¶ `‑q-{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑p-a‑p-ï‑v.
UNIT - 5
s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-\‑‑pw‑ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-
h-Ø-b‑pw‑ `‑o-j-W‑n-bmI‑p¶ {]XnIqe
kmlNcy§Ä
h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W-h‑p‑w a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â C-S-s‑]-S-e‑p‑w a‑q-e-a‑p-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S
\‑m-i‑w t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å `‑o-j-W‑n-IÄ `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w t‑\-c‑n-S‑p-¶‑p. C‑u \‑m-i‑w k-k‑y-
§Ä-¡‑p‑w a‑r-K-§Ä-¡‑p‑w a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑m-i‑n-¡‑p‑w s‑a‑m-¯-¯‑nÂ `‑o-j-W‑n D-bÀ-¯‑p-¶‑p. {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-
¯-a‑m-b I‑m-c-W-§-f‑p‑w h‑w-i-\‑m-i-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-t‑¨-¡‑m‑w F-¦‑n-e‑p‑w a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â C-S-s‑]-SÂ
a‑q-e‑w P‑o-h‑n-hÀ-¤-§Ä A-X‑n-t‑h-K‑w `‑q-a‑n-b‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v A-{‑]-X‑y-£-a‑m-I‑p-¶‑p. I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-
X‑n-b‑m-\‑w ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑nÂ I‑m-c‑y-a‑m-b a‑m-ä‑w h-c‑p-¯‑n‑, s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y
\-ã‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S \‑m-i‑w‑, B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S X-IÀ-¨-
b‑p‑w i‑n-Y‑n-e‑o-I-c-W-h‑p‑w‑, I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w‑, B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑n-s‑e a‑m-ä‑w‑, t‑]‑m-
j-I a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, A-a‑n-X-a‑m-b N‑q-j-W‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y `‑o-j-W‑n-b‑p-s‑S
{‑]-[‑m-\ I‑m-c-W-§Ä. B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S \-ã‑w s‑s‑P-hs‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑nÂ I‑p-d-h‑p-ï‑m-
¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-s‑S h‑w-i-\‑m-i-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. a-ä‑v P‑o-h-P‑m-
e-§Ä-¡‑v k‑m-[‑y-a-Ã‑m-¯ k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I h‑n-Z‑y a-\‑p-j‑yÀ A-h-c‑p-s‑S ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b ]-c‑n-j‑v-I-
c‑n-¡‑m³ D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S \‑m-i-¯‑n-\‑p-t‑i-j‑w P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§Ä-¡‑v
t‑\-c‑n-«‑p-Å c-ï‑m-a-s‑¯ h-e‑n-b `‑o-j-W‑n-b‑m-W‑v h-\‑y-a‑r-K-§-s‑f t‑h-«-b‑m-S‑p-¶-X‑v. B-\-IÄ‑,
I‑m-ï‑m-a‑r-K-§Ä‑, s‑N-d‑n-b P‑o-h‑n-IÄ X‑p-S-§‑n-b a‑r-K-§Ä-¡‑v C-X‑v h-e‑n-b- `‑o-j-W‑n D-bÀ-¯‑p-
¶‑p. I-g‑n-ª G-X‑m-\‑p‑w \‑q-ä‑m-ï‑p-I-f‑m-b‑n D-bÀ-¶ a-\‑p-j‑y P-\-k‑w-J‑y I‑m-c-W‑w a-\‑p-j‑y-þ-
h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n k‑w-LÀ-j-§Ä hÀ-²‑n-¨‑p-s‑I‑m-ï‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑m-W‑v. A-¯-c‑w k‑w-L-«-\-§-f‑p-s‑S
A-\-´-c-^-e-§-f‑nÂ h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S \‑m-i‑w‑, a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w
h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w ]-c‑n-¡‑p‑w P‑o-h-l‑m-\‑n-b‑p‑w‑, h‑n-f-\‑m-i-h‑p‑w I-¶‑p-I‑m-e‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S \‑m-i-h‑p‑w‑,
a-\‑p-j‑yk‑z-¯‑p-¡Ä-¡‑v \‑m-i-\-ã‑w‑, h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S F-®‑w I‑p-d-bÂ‑, `‑q-a‑n-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-]-c-
a‑m-b t‑{‑i-W‑n-I-f‑n-s‑e I‑p-d-h‑v, t‑{‑S‑m-^‑n-I‑v I‑m-k‑v-t‑I-U‑p-IÄ F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. I‑m-e‑m-h-
Ø‑mh‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w‑, h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W-¯‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S \-ã‑w‑, \‑n-b-a-
h‑n-c‑p-²-a‑m-b h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n h‑y‑m-]‑m-c‑w‑, A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\k‑u-I-c‑y-§Ä‑, a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑p-a‑m-b‑p-Å k‑w-LÀ-
j‑w F-¶‑n-h h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S K-W‑y-a‑m-b I‑p-d-h‑n-\‑p‑w C-X‑n-\-I‑w X-s‑¶ I‑p-d-h‑m-b‑n-c‑p-¶
P‑o-h‑n-hÀ-K-§-f‑p-s‑S h‑w-i-\‑m-i-¯‑n-\‑p‑w I‑m-c-W-a‑m-b L-S-I-§-f‑m-W‑v. h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n B-h‑m-k-
h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S t‑i-j‑n-¡‑p-¶ h-e‑n-b {‑]-t‑Z-i-§Ä‑, {‑]-t‑X‑y-I‑n-¨‑v A-X‑n-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑mÀ-¶ D-j‑v-
W-t‑a-J-e‑m h-\-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w ]-h‑n-g-¸‑p-ä‑p-I-f‑n-e‑p‑w \‑n-e-h‑n-e‑p-Å \‑m-i‑w‑, s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-\‑v
t‑e‑m-I-s‑a-¼‑m-S‑p-a‑p-Å G-ä-h‑p‑w {‑]-[‑m-\-s‑¸-« `‑o-j-W‑n-b‑m-W‑v. 2050þ-H‑m-s‑S a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â {‑]-hÀ-
¯-\-§Ä G-I-t‑Z-i‑w 10 Z-i-e-£‑w P‑o-h‑n-hÀ-K-§-s‑f C-Ã‑m-X‑m-¡‑m³ k‑m-[‑y-X-b‑p-s‑ï-¶‑v
i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-ÚÀ I-W-¡‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, C-¶-s‑¯ h‑w-i-\‑m-i-¯‑n-s‑â t‑X‑m-X‑nÂ‑, t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑e
25% P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p‑w h-f-s‑c t‑h-K-¯‑nÂ h‑w-i-\‑m-i-¯‑n-\‑v h‑n-t‑[-b-a‑m-I‑p‑w.
H-c‑p A-]‑qÀ-h hÀ¤w F-´‑m-W‑v?
C-S-b‑v-¡‑n-s‑S I-ï‑p-a‑p-«‑m-¯-X‑p‑w t‑Z-i‑o-b‑, k‑w-Ø‑m-\ A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ {‑]-h‑n-i‑y‑m kÀ-¡‑m-c‑p-
IÄ-¡‑v \‑n-b‑p-à-a‑m-¡‑m-h‑p-¶-X‑p-a‑m-b H-c‑p C-\-a‑m-W‑v A-]‑qÀ-h C-\‑w. CâÀ-\‑m-j-WÂ b‑q-
W‑n-b³ t‑^‑mÀ I¬-kÀ-t‑h-j³ H‑m-^‑v t‑\-¨À (IUCN) H-ä-s‑¸-« `‑q-a‑n-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-]-c-a‑m-b Ø-e-
§-f‑n-t‑e‑m h-f-s‑c C-S‑p-§‑n-b {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I ]-c‑n-[‑n-b‑n-t‑e‑m h‑n-L-S‑n-¨ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑n-t‑e‑m
I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ A-]‑qÀ-h P‑o-h‑n-hÀ-K-§-s‑f ASbmfs¸Sp¯p¶p. F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, C‑u
]-Z-h‑n h‑w-i-\‑m-i-`‑o-j-W‑n t‑\-c‑n-S‑p-¶ A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ h‑w-i-\‑m-i-`‑o-j-W‑n t‑\-c‑n-S‑p-¶ P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑nÂ
\‑n-¶‑v h‑y-X‑y-k‑v-X-a‑m-W‑v. H-c‑p s‑N-d‑n-b P-\-k‑w-J‑y-b‑v-¡‑v ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I Z‑p-c-´-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v
I-c-I-b-d‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑m-¯-X‑n-\‑mÂ A-]‑qÀ-h C-\-§-s‑f k‑m-[‑m-c-W-b‑m-b‑n h‑w-i-\‑m-i-`‑o-j-W‑n
t‑\-c‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑m-b‑n I-W-¡‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p. A-d‑n-b-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ 75% k‑v-]‑o-j‑o-k‑p-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w "A-]‑qÀ-h k‑v-
]‑o-j‑o-k‑v" F-¶ ]-Z-h‑n-b‑nÂ X-c‑w-X‑n-c‑n-¡‑m‑w.
H-c‑p B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑nÂ I‑m-c‑y-a‑m-b k‑z‑m-[‑o-\‑w s‑N-e‑p-¯‑p-¶ k‑v-]‑o-j‑o-k‑p-I-f‑m-W‑v I‑o-
t‑Ì‑m¬ k‑v-]‑o-j‑o-k‑v. A-h-b‑p-s‑S I‑q-«‑n-t‑¨À-¡Â A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ \‑o-¡‑w s‑N-¿Â a-ä‑v P‑o-h-P‑m-e-
§-f‑p-s‑S k‑w-`-h-¯‑nÂ h-e‑n-b a‑m-ä-§Ä-¡‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p‑w. D-Z‑m-l-c-W-¯‑n-\‑v, I-S‑p-h-I-f‑p‑w
k‑n‑w-l-§-f‑p‑w t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å a‑p³-\‑n-c t‑h-«-¡‑mÀ {‑]-[‑m-\ P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑m-W‑v, I‑m-c-W‑w A-h a-ä‑v a‑r-K-
§-f‑p-s‑S P-\-k‑w-J‑y-s‑b ]-t‑c‑m-£-a‑m-b‑n \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. H-c‑p A-]‑qÀ-h hÀ¤w \-ã-s‑¸-S‑p-¶-
X‑v a‑p-g‑p-h³ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w X-IÀ-¨-b‑v-¡‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p‑w.
H-c‑p B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑n-s‑e {‑]-[‑m-\ \‑nÀ-½‑m-X‑m-¡-f‑m-W‑v ASnØm\ hÀ¤w. A-h
k-a‑r-²-a‑m-W‑v, B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑nÂ Ahbv¡v h-e‑n-b k‑z‑m-[‑o-\-a‑p-ï‑v. s‑IÂ-]‑v h-\-§-f‑n-
s‑e s‑IÂ-¸‑v, ]-h‑n-g-¸‑p-ä‑p-I-f‑n-s‑e ]-h‑n-g-§Ä F-¶‑n-h D-Z‑m-l-c-W-§-f‑m-W‑v.
k‑w-c-£-W‑w B-h-i‑y-a‑p-Å H-c‑p B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø t‑]‑m-s‑e-b‑p-Å H-c‑p ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I
I‑m-c-W-s‑¯ {‑]-X‑n-\‑n-[‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-W‑v a‑p³-\‑n-c k‑v-]‑o-j‑o-k‑p-IÄ X‑n-c-s‑ª-S‑p-¡‑p-¶-X‑v.
s‑]‑m-X‑p-P-\-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v ]‑n-´‑p-W-b‑p‑w A‑w-K‑o-I‑m-c-h‑p‑w P-\‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-b‑n A-h-c‑p-s‑S
Z‑pÀ-_-e-X‑, B-IÀ-j-W‑w A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ h‑y-X‑n-c‑n-à-X F-¶‑n-h ]-c‑n-K-W‑n-¨‑m-W‑v A-h-s‑c X‑n-
c-s‑ª-S‑p-¡‑p-¶-X‑v. C-´‑y³ I-S‑p-h‑, B-{‑^‑n-¡³ B-\‑, s‑s‑N-\-b‑n-s‑e `‑o-a³ ]‑m-ï‑, s‑e-XÀ-
_‑m-¡‑v I-S-e‑m-a F-¶‑n-h D-Z‑m-l-c-W-§-f‑m-W‑v.
H-c‑p {‑]-t‑X‑y-I {‑]-t‑Z-i-s‑¯ h‑w-i-\‑m-i-`‑o-j-W‑n t‑\-c‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑p‑w A-]‑qÀ-h-h‑p-a‑m-b k-k‑y-
§Ä‑, a‑r-K-§Ä‑, ^‑w-K-k‑p-IÄ‑, {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-ID-]-P‑m-X‑n-IÄ F-¶‑n-h t‑c-J-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-b‑n
k‑r-ã‑n-¨ H-c‑p s‑]‑m-X‑pt‑c-J-b‑m-W‑v s‑d-U‑v U‑m-ä _‑p-¡‑v. h‑w-i-\‑m-i-¯‑n-s‑â h-¡‑n-e‑p-Å P‑o-h‑n-
I-s‑f I-s‑ï-¯‑n k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶-X‑m-W‑v C-X‑n-s‑â e-£‑y‑w. CâÀ-\‑m-j-WÂ b‑q-W‑n-b³
t‑^‑mÀ I¬-kÀ-t‑h-j³ H‑m-^‑v t‑\-¨À s‑d-U‑v U‑m-ä _‑p-¡‑v ]-c‑n-]‑m-e‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, A-X‑nÂ h‑w-i-
\‑m-i-`‑o-j-W‑n t‑\-c‑n-S‑p-¶ P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S ]‑qÀ-®-a‑m-b ]-«‑n-I A-S-§‑n-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. h‑n-h‑n-[ k‑v-
]‑o-j‑n-k‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w D-]-P‑m-X‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w h‑w-i-\‑m-i-¯‑n-s‑â A-]-I-S-k‑m-[‑y-X A-\‑p-k-c‑n-¨‑v
{‑I-a‑o-I-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶ I-fÀ-þ-t‑I‑m-U‑p-s‑N-b‑v-X h‑n-h-cj‑o-ä‑p-IÄ ]‑p-k‑v-X-I-¯‑nÂ A-S-§‑n-b‑n-c‑n-
¡‑p-¶‑p.
UNIT-6
B-t‑K‑m-f‑, t‑Z-i‑o-b‑, {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I X-e-§-f‑nÂ
s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y k‑w-c-£-W‑w
`‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e {‑]-t‑X‑y-I ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I t‑a-J-e-I-f‑nÂ s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w h‑n-X-c-W‑w s‑N-
¿-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p‑, A-h-b‑nÂ 200 F-®‑w G-ä-h‑p‑w k-¼-¶-h‑p‑w A-]‑qÀ-h-h‑p‑w h‑y-X‑n-c‑n-à-h‑p-a‑m-b
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯t‑a-J-e-I-f‑m-W‑v, C-X‑n-s‑\ t‑¥‑m-_Â 200 F-¶‑v h‑n-f‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. C‑u t‑l‑m-«--k ‑v --t‑v ‑]‑m-«‑p-
I-f‑p-s‑S h-e‑n-s‑b‑m-c‑p A-\‑p-]‑m-X-a‑p-Å N‑n-e c‑m-P‑y-§-s‑f s‑a-K‑m-þ-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y c‑m-{‑ã-§Ä F-¶‑v
h‑n-f‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-I-s‑f `‑q-a‑n A-[‑n-j‑vT‑n-X-h‑p‑w P-e-kw_Ôhpamb B-h‑m-k-
h‑y-h-Ø-I-f‑m-b‑n X‑n-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X F-Ã‑m P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p‑w k-k‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w a‑r-
K-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w k-a‑q-l-§-f‑nÂ h-k‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, A-h A-h-b‑p-s‑S P‑o-h-\‑n-Ã‑m-¯ ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑p-
a‑m-b‑p‑w ]-c-k‑v-]-c‑w k‑w-h-Z‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. H‑m-t‑c‑m {‑]-t‑Z-i-¯‑n-\‑p‑w A-\‑p-t‑b‑m-P‑y-a‑m-b k-k‑y-§-f‑p‑w
a‑r-K-§-f‑p-a‑p-Å \‑n-c-h-[‑n `‑q-a‑n-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-]-c-a‑m-b {‑]-t‑Z-i-§Ä C-´‑y-b‑nÂ D-ï‑v. B-h‑m-k-h‑y-
h-Ø-IÄ-¡‑v P‑o-h-\‑n-Ã‑m-¯-X‑p‑w P‑o-h-\‑p-Å-X‑p-a‑m-b L-S-I-§-f‑p-ï‑v, N‑n-e-XnÂ aäpÅhsb
a-ä‑p-Å-h-s‑c A-t‑]-£‑n-¨‑v a-\‑p-j‑y kzm[o\w I‑p-d-h‑m-W‑v.
\‑n-e-h‑nÂ `‑q-a‑n-b‑nÂ A-d‑n-b-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ 1.8 Z-i-e-£‑w k‑v-]‑o-j‑o-k‑p-I-f‑p-ï‑v, F-¶‑mÂ `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-
s‑e k-k‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w a‑r-K-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w F-®‑w 1.5 a‑p-XÂ 20 _‑n-e‑y¬ h-s‑c h‑y-X‑y‑m-k-s‑¸-
S‑m-s‑a-¶‑v i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-ÚÀ I-W-¡‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p. t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑e `‑q-c‑n-`‑m-K‑w s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑yh‑p‑w
k-¼-¶ c‑m-P‑y-§-f‑ps‑S‑ s‑X-¡‑v `‑m-K-¯‑m-W‑v. h‑n-I-k‑n-X c‑m-P‑y-§-f‑nÂ s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-
s‑â A-f-h‑v I‑p-d-h‑m-W‑v. s‑s‑P-h-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-]-c-a‑m-b‑n k-¼-¶-a‑m-b {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯ {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑p-s‑S
a‑q-e‑y‑w t‑e‑m-I-s‑a-¼‑m-S‑p‑w I‑q-S‑p-XÂ h‑n-e-a-X‑n-¡-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p‑, A-´‑m-c‑m-{‑ã I-c‑m-d‑p-IÄ A-¯-c‑w
{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-s‑f k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w ]‑n-´‑p-W-b‑v-¡‑m-\‑p‑w {‑i-a‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. k‑p-Ø‑n-ch‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-\‑m-
b‑n h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S Ú‑m-\-]‑qÀ-h-a‑m-b D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑w DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S‑, k-´‑p-e‑n-X‑m-h-Ø-b‑p‑w s‑s‑h-
h‑n-[‑y-h‑p‑w \‑n-e-\‑nÀ-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S B-k‑q-{‑X‑n-X-a‑m-b a‑m-t‑\-P‑v-s‑aâ‑m-W‑v
kwc£n¡p¶Xv. k‑w-c-£-W{‑i-a-§-s‑f C³k‑n-ä‑p (Hä¡mgvN)‑, F-I--k ‑v ‑n-ä‑p (Zqschym]
Iamb‑v‑) k‑w-c-£-W‑w F-¶‑n-§-s‑\ X-c‑w X‑n-c‑n-¡‑m‑w.
C-´‑y-b‑ns‑e‑ G-I-t‑Z-i‑w 99 t‑Z-i‑o-b ]‑mÀ-¡‑p-IÄ c‑m-P‑y-¯‑p-S-\‑o-f‑w h‑y‑m-]‑n-¨‑p-I‑n-S-¡‑p-¶‑p.
B-\-IÄ‑, I-S‑p-h-IÄ‑, ]‑m-¼‑p-IÄ‑, a‑p-X-e-IÄ‑, I‑p-c-§‑p-IÄ‑, k‑m-¼‑À a‑m³‑, ]‑p-Å‑n-a‑m³‑, I‑m-
ï‑m-a‑r-K‑w‑, B-S‑v, k‑n‑w-l-§Ä‑, h‑n-h‑n-[-X-c‑w k-k‑y-P-´‑p-P‑m-e-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S h‑n-
h‑n-[-b‑n-\‑w h-\‑y-a‑r-K-§-f‑p-s‑S {‑]-P-\-\-¯‑n-\‑p‑w h-fÀ-¯-e‑n-\‑p‑w A-\‑p-t‑b‑m-P‑y-a‑m-b ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-
X‑n-I k‑m-l-N-c‑y-§Ä C‑u t‑Z-i‑o-t‑b‑m-Z‑y‑m-\-§Ä {‑]-Z‑m-\‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. t‑Z-i‑o-b D-Z‑y‑m-\-§-s‑f
IUCN c-ï‑m‑w h‑n-`‑m-K-¯‑nÂ-s‑¸-« k‑w-c-£‑n-X{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑p-s‑S I‑o-g‑n-e‑m-W‑v A‑w-K‑o-I-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-
¶-X‑v.
t‑Z-i‑o-t‑b‑m-Z‑y‑m-\-§Ä-¡‑v ]‑p-d-s‑a h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n k-t‑¦-X-§-f‑p‑w C-´‑y-b‑n-e‑p-ï‑v. C‑u k-t‑¦-X-
§Ä h-\‑y-a‑r-K-§-f‑p-s‑S k‑z‑m-`‑m-h‑n-I B-h‑m-k-t‑I-{‑µ-§-f‑m-b‑n hÀ-¯‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑p-s‑S
C-S-s‑]-SÂ‑, t‑h-«-b‑m-SÂ F-¶‑n-h-b‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v A-h-s‑b k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. h-\‑y-
P‑o-h‑nk-t‑¦-X-§-f‑nÂ X-S‑n, h‑n-f-s‑h-S‑p-¸‑v, I‑r-j‑n‑, a-c‑w‑, a-ä‑v h-\ DÂ-]-¶-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-s‑S
t‑i-J-c-W‑w A-\‑p-h-Z-\‑o-b-a‑m-W‑v, A-h k‑w-c-£-W ]-²-X‑n-s‑b X-S-Ê-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶‑n-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ.
h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑nk-t‑¦-X-§-f‑n-s‑e a‑r-K-§-s‑f-¡‑p-d‑n-¨‑v ]T‑n-¡‑m³ K-t‑h-j-IÀ-¡‑v A-\‑p-h‑m-Z-a‑p-ï‑v,
I‑q-S‑m-s‑X G-X‑m-\‑p‑w k-t‑¦-X-§Ä ]-c‑n-t‑¡-ä-X‑p‑w D-t‑]-£‑n-¡-s‑¸-«-X‑p-a‑m-b a‑r-K-§-s‑f ]‑p-\-c-
[‑n-h‑m-k-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑n GsäSp¡p¶p.
h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n k-t‑¦-X-§Ä Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-s‑â {‑]-[‑m-\e-£‑y‑w h‑w-i-\‑m-i-`‑o-j-W‑n t‑\-
c‑n-S‑p-¶ P‑o-h‑n-I-s‑f k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I‑, A-h-s‑b \‑n-c‑o-£‑n-¡‑p-I‑, a‑r-K-§-t‑f‑m-S‑v F-§-s‑\ s‑]-
c‑p-a‑m-d-W-s‑a-¶‑v P-\-§-s‑f t‑_‑m-[-hÂ-¡-c‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v. h-\‑y-a‑r-K-§Ä-¡‑v k‑p-c-
£‑n-X-a‑m-b A-`-b‑w \Â-I‑p-I-b‑p‑w A-h-b‑v-¡‑v k‑p-J-{‑]-Z-a‑m-b P‑o-h‑n-X‑w \Â-I‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-
¶‑p. h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑nk-t‑¦-X-§fnÂ h‑n-t‑\‑m-Z-k-©‑m-c‑w A-\‑p-h-Z‑n-¡‑p-¶‑n-Ã‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X B-f‑p-I-s‑f
Iq«t¯msS {‑]-t‑h-i‑n-¡‑m³ A-\‑p-h-Z‑n-¡‑p-¶‑n-Ã.
C-´‑y-b‑nÂ c‑m-P-Ø‑m-\‑n-s‑e `-c-X‑v-]‑qÀ ]-£‑n-k-t‑¦-X‑w‑, H-U‑o-j-b‑n-s‑e N‑n-Â¡ X-S‑m-I‑w
]-£‑n-k-t‑¦-X‑w‑, t‑I-c-f-¯‑n-s‑e N‑n-¶‑mÀ h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n k-t‑¦-X‑w‑, K‑p-P-d‑m-¯‑n-s‑e K‑nÀ t‑Z-i‑o-
t‑b‑m-Z‑y‑m-\‑w‑, h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n k-t‑¦-X‑w‑, D-¯-c‑m-J-Þ‑n-s‑e t‑K‑m-h‑n-µ‑v h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n k-t‑¦-X‑w‑, X-a‑n-
g‑--\
v ‑m-«‑n-s‑e a-‑pX‑‑p-a-s‑s‑e h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n k-t‑¦-X‑w X‑p-S-§‑n \‑n-c-h-[‑n h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n k-t‑¦-X-§-f‑p-ï‑v.
H-c‑p {‑]-t‑Z-i-¯‑n-s‑â s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶ k‑w-c-£‑n-X t‑a-J-e-I-f‑m-W‑v
_-t‑b‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ d‑n-kÀ-h‑p-IÄ‑. \‑n-h‑m-k‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S ]-c-¼-c‑m-K-X P‑o-h‑n-X-s‑s‑i-e‑n‑, h-fÀ-¯‑p-a‑r-
K-§Ä‑, aäpa‑r-K-§Ä‑, h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n-IÄ F-¶‑n-h CXnÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. H-c‑p _-t‑b‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ
d‑n-kÀ-h‑nÂ a‑q-¶‑v t‑k‑m-W‑p-I-f‑p-ï‑v: t‑I‑mÀ t‑k‑m¬‑, _-^À t‑k‑m¬‑, {‑S‑m³-k‑n-j³ t‑k‑m¬.
t‑I‑mÀ t‑k‑m¬ \‑n-b-a-]-c-a‑m-b‑n k‑w-c-£‑n-¡-s‑¸-S‑p-I-b‑p‑w a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â C-S-s‑]-SÂ IÀ-i-\-a‑m-b‑n
\‑n-t‑c‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. _-^À t‑k‑m¬ K-t‑h-j-W-þ-h‑n-Z‑y‑m-`‑y‑m-k {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä
A-\‑p-h-Z‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, F-¶‑mÂ {‑]-[‑m-\t‑a-J-e-b‑p-s‑S k‑w-c-£-We-£‑y-§-s‑f X-S-Ê-s‑¸-S‑p-¯-c‑p-
X‑v. d‑n-kÀ-h‑v a‑m-t‑\-P--s‑v ‑aâ‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w \‑m-«‑p-I‑m-c‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w k-l-I-c-W-t‑¯‑m-s‑S I‑r-j‑n‑, h‑n-t‑\‑m-Z‑w‑,
h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w‑, s‑k-ä‑nÂ-s‑aâ‑p-IÄ X‑p-S-§‑n-b a-\‑p-j‑y{‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä A-\‑p-h-Z-\‑o-b-a‑m-b
Ø-e-a‑m-W‑v k‑w-{‑I-a-W t‑a-J-e ({‑S‑m³-k‑n-j³ t‑k‑m¬).
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S h-e‑n-b {‑]-t‑Z-i-§Ä k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶ K-h¬-s‑aâ‑v
Ø‑m-]‑n-¨ 18 _-t‑b‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ d‑n-kÀ-h‑p-IÄ C-´‑y-b‑n-e‑p-ï‑v, C‑u {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ h-k‑n-
¡‑p-¶ a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑p‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. k‑p-Ø‑n-ch‑n-I-k-\‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-
b‑n a‑m³ B³-U‑v _-t‑b‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ d‑n-kÀ-h‑v t‑{‑]‑m-{‑K‑m‑w _-t‑b‑m-k‑v-^‑n-bÀ d‑n-kÀ-h‑p-I-s‑f X‑n-
c‑n-¨-d‑n-b‑p-¶‑p.
h‑w-i-\‑m-i-`‑o-j-W‑n t‑\-c‑n-S‑p-¶ k-k‑y-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w a‑r-K-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w A-h-b‑p-s‑S k‑z‑m-`‑m-h‑n-I
B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑v-¡‑v ]‑p-d-¯‑v k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v F-I--k ‑v ‑v-þ-k‑n-ä‑p k‑w-c-£-W-¯‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-
S‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X s‑_‑m-«‑m-W‑n-¡Â K‑mÀ-U-\‑p-IÄ‑, a‑r-K-i‑m-e-IÄ‑, P‑o³ _‑m-¦‑p-IÄ‑, k‑o-I‑v
_‑m-¦‑p-IÄ‑, S‑n-j‑y‑p IÄ-¨À‑, {‑I-t‑b‑m-{‑]‑n-kÀ-t‑h-j³ X‑p-S-§‑n-b c‑o-X‑n-I-f‑p‑w C-X‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-
¶‑p. a‑r-K-§Ä-¡‑v I‑q-S‑p-XÂ k-a-b-h‑p‑w {‑]-P-\-\{‑]-hÀ-¯-\w-‑ \Â-IÂ‑, P‑o-h‑n-hÀ-K-§-s‑f h‑o-
ï‑p‑w I‑m-«‑n-t‑e-¡‑v s‑I‑m-ï‑phnSÂ‑, h‑w-i-\‑m-i-`‑o-j-W‑n t‑\-c‑n-S‑p-¶ P‑o-h‑n-I-s‑f k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑m³
P-\‑n-X-I k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I h‑n-Z‑y-IÄ F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S-b‑p-Å a‑p³-I‑m-e k‑w-c-£-W-¯‑n-\‑v \‑n-c-
h-[‑n K‑p-W-§-f‑p-ï‑v. F-Iv-k -‑ ‑v-þ-k‑n-ä‑p k‑w-c-£-W-¯‑n-\‑v c-ï‑v c‑o-X‑n-I-f‑p-ï‑v: ]-c-¼-c‑m-K-X-h‑p‑w
_-t‑b‑m-s‑S-I‑v-t‑\‑m-f-P‑n-¡Â c‑o-X‑n-I-f‑p‑w.
IÀ-j-IÀ‑, k-k‑y-{‑]-P-\-IÀ‑, K-t‑h-j-IÀ F-¶‑n-hÀ-¡‑v Z‑oÀ-L-I‑m-ek‑p-c-£-b‑p‑w e-`‑y-X-b‑p‑w
D-d-¸‑m-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-b‑n h‑n-fbn--\-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w A-h-b‑p-s‑S h-\‑y _-Ô‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w P‑o-h-\‑p-Å
k‑m-¼‑n-f‑p-IÄ k‑w-`-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w ]-c‑n-]‑m-e‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w ]‑p-\À-\‑nÀ-½‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶ Ø-e-
§-f‑m-W‑v P‑o³ _‑m-¦‑p-IÄ. P‑o³ _‑m-¦‑p-IÄ P-\‑n-X-I h‑n-`-h-§Ä t‑i-J-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w P-\‑n-
X-I h‑n-`-h-§Ä k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-b‑n k-k‑yk‑m-¼‑n-f‑p-IÄ ]‑p-\À-\‑nÀ-½‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w ]‑p-\-
c‑p-Ö‑o-h‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. t‑Z-i‑o-b D-Z‑y‑m-\-§Ä-¡‑p‑w h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n k-t‑¦-X-§Ä-¡‑p‑w
s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y‑w a‑n-I-¨ c‑o-X‑n-b‑nÂ k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X s‑_‑m-«‑m-W‑n-¡Â
K‑mÀ-U-\‑p-I-f‑p‑w a‑r-K-i‑m-e-I-f‑p‑w {‑]-P-\-\-¯‑n-\‑p‑w h‑n-Z‑y‑m-`‑y‑m-k B-h-i‑y-§Ä-¡‑p-a‑p-Å `-h-\
a‑m-X‑r-I-IÄ BWv. k-k‑y P-\‑n-X-Ih‑n-`-h-§Ä k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å G-ä-h‑p‑w s‑N-e-h‑p-
I‑p-d-ª c‑o-X‑n-b‑m-W‑v h‑n-¯‑v _‑m-¦‑n‑w-K‑v. ^‑oÂ-U‑v P‑o³ _‑m-¦‑p-IÄ ]-c‑n-]‑m-e‑n-¡‑m³ {‑]-b‑m-
k-a‑m-W‑v, A-h t‑c‑m-K-§Ä-¡‑p‑w A-h-K-W-\-b‑v-¡‑p‑w h‑n-t‑[-b-a‑m-W‑v. t‑I‑m-i-§-f‑n-s‑e `‑q-c‑n-`‑m-K‑w
c‑m-k-a‑m-ä-§-f‑p‑w X-S-b‑m³ h-f-s‑c X‑m-g‑v-¶ X‑m-]-\‑n-e-b‑n-t‑e-¡‑v X-W‑p-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v {‑I-t‑b‑m-{‑]‑n-
kÀ-t‑h-j-\‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. I-S‑p-h-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w A-h-b‑p-s‑S B-h‑m-kh‑y-h-Ø-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w k‑w-c-
£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-W‑v t‑{‑]‑m-P-Î‑v s‑s‑S-KÀ B-c‑w-`‑n-¨-X‑v, a‑p-X-e k‑w-c-£-W {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑nÂ
{‑]-P-\-\ t‑I-{‑µ-§-f‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
``
BLOCK -3
Social Issues and Sustainable Development
kmaqlnI {]iv\§fpw kpØnc
hnIk\hpw
UNIT-1
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑p‑w a-\‑p-j‑y‑m-t‑c‑m-K‑y-h‑p‑w
i‑p-²-h‑m-b‑p‑, P-e‑w‑, `-£‑y DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-¯‑n-\‑p-Å ^-e-`‑q-b‑n-j‑vT-a‑m-b`‑q-a‑n‑, DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-¯‑n-
\‑p-Å D‑uÀ-Ö‑-w, ]-Z‑mÀ-° ê§Ä t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\ B-h-i‑y-§Ä F-¶‑n-h- {‑]-Z‑m-
\‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶ {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯ N‑p-ä‑p-]‑m-S‑p-I-f‑p-Å a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â B-t‑c‑m-K‑y‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑p-a‑m-b‑n
_-Ô-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-IX-IÀ-¨ t‑c‑m-K-§Ä-¡‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-I-b‑p‑w I‑y‑m³-kÀ‑,
l‑r-t‑{‑Z‑m-K‑w‑, B-k‑v-Xva‑, a-ä‑v \‑n-c-h-[‑n t‑c‑m-K-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑v-¡‑p-Å k‑m-[‑y-X hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-
b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p‑w. B-t‑K‑m-f I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑mh‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w A]ISIcw B-b-X‑n-t‑\-¡‑mÄ I‑q-S‑p-XÂ
B-t‑c‑m-K‑y-]-c-a‑m-b {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä CXv D-ï‑m-¡‑p-s‑a-¶‑v {‑]-X‑o-£‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
h‑m-b‑p‑, P-e‑w‑, a-®‑v X‑p-S-§‑n-b h-k‑v-X‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S D-]-t‑`‑m-K-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I-f‑p-
s‑S-b‑p‑w h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w \‑m-i-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p‑w `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S i‑n-Y‑n-e‑o-I-c-W-t‑a‑m ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-
b‑p-s‑S X-IÀ-¨-t‑b‑m B-W‑v ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I X-IÀ-¨ F¶v ]dbp¶Xv D-]-t‑`‑m-à‑r DÂ-¸-¶-
§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å c‑m-k D-Z‑z-a-\‑w‑, ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I i-_--Z‑v ‑w‑, ]‑q-¸Â F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S-b‑p-Å
\‑n-c-h-[‑n ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I L-S-I-§Ä a-\‑p-j‑yÀ A-h-c‑p-s‑S {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I ]-c‑n-X-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑nÂ X‑p-
d-¶‑p-I‑m-«-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. t‑a‑m-i‑w ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I -\‑n-e-h‑m-c‑w C-X‑n-\-I‑w X-s‑¶ B-t‑c‑m-K‑y-Ø‑n-X‑n
A-]-I-S-¯‑n-e‑m-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶ B-f‑p-I-f‑nÂ G-ä-h‑p‑w h-e‑n-b k‑z‑m-[‑o-\‑w s‑N-e‑p-¯‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X
B-t‑K‑m-f-X-e-¯‑nÂ k‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑p-¶ a-c-W-§-f‑nÂ 25 i-X-a‑m-\-h‑p‑w ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I L-S-I-§-
f‑m-e-mW‑v.
]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I A-]-I-S-§Ä P‑o-h-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-]-c-t‑a‑m c‑m-k-]-c-t‑a‑m i‑m-c‑o-c‑n-I-t‑a‑m _-t‑b‑m-
s‑a-¡‑m-\‑n-¡Â A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ a‑m-\-k‑n-It‑‑a‑m k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I-t‑a‑m B-I‑m‑w. h‑m-b‑p‑, s‑h-Å‑w‑, `-£-
W‑w‑, `‑q-a‑n F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-s‑S I‑mÀ-j‑n-I‑, h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-\‑v ]‑p-d-t‑a‑, A-]-c‑y‑m-]‑v-
X-a‑m-b ]‑mÀ-¸‑n-S-h‑p‑w i‑p-N‑n-X‑z-h‑p‑w t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å ]-c-¼-c‑m-K-X ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I B-t‑c‑m-K‑y A-]-
I-S-§fp‑w \‑n-e-h‑n-e‑p-ï‑v. ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I-h‑p‑w s‑X‑m-g‑nÂ-]-c-h‑p-a‑m-b A-]-I-S-k‑m-[‑y-X-IÄ h-c‑p-
¯‑p-¶ B-t‑c‑m-K‑y-{‑]-i‑v-\-§Ä h‑n-I-k‑z-c c‑m-P‑y-§-f‑nÂ {‑]-t‑X‑y-I‑n-¨‑v IT‑n-\-a‑m-W‑v. CXv \‑n-b-
{‑ń-‑ ¡m³ ^-e-{‑]-Z-a‑m-b \-S-]-S‑n-IÄ C-X‑p-h-s‑c h‑y‑m-]-I-a‑m-b‑n k‑z‑o-I-c‑n-¨‑n-«‑n-Ã.
a-\‑p-j‑yP-\-k‑w-J‑y-b‑p-s‑S h-e‑p-¸-h‑p‑w s‑]-c‑p-a‑m-ä-h‑p‑w‑, h‑m-k-Ø-e-§-f‑p-s‑S X-c-h‑p‑w Ø‑m-\-
h‑p‑w‑, s‑h-I‑v-äÀ \‑n-b-{‑´-W ]-c‑n-]‑m-S‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S e-`‑y-X-b‑p‑w \-S-¸‑m-¡-e‑p‑w‑, B-t‑c‑m-K‑y ]-c‑n-c-£-b‑n-
t‑e-¡‑p-Å {‑]-t‑h-i-\‑w X‑p-S-§‑n-b k-¦‑oÀ-®-a‑m-b k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I‑, P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑m-]-c-
a‑m-b L-S-I-§-Ä ]-IÀ-¨-h‑y‑m-[‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S hym]\s¯ k‑z‑m-[‑o-\‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
I‑p-S‑n-s‑h-Å‑w‑, `-£‑y DÂ-]-¶-§Ä‑, A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w F-¶‑n-h-
b‑n-e‑q-s‑S Z‑oÀ-L-I‑m-e-t‑¯-¡‑v ^‑v-e‑q-s‑s‑d-U‑v A-a‑n-X-a‑m-b‑n ico-c¯nÂ Iecp¶Xv a‑q-e-a‑p-ï‑m-
I‑p-¶ H-c‑p t‑c‑m-K-a‑m-W‑v ^‑v-e‑q-t‑d‑m-k‑n-k‑v. C-X‑v ]-Ã‑p-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w F-Ã‑p-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑,
a‑n-X-a‑m-b A-f-h‑nÂ Z-´-£b-¯‑n-\‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶‑p‑, h-e‑n-b A-f-h‑nÂ I-g‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v K‑p-c‑p-
X-c-a‑m-b F-Ã‑n-s³‑d {‑]-i‑v-\-§Ä-¡‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p‑w. s‑N-d‑n-b s‑h-f‑p-¯ ]‑m-S‑p-IÄ A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ
h-c-IÄ a‑p-XÂ C-c‑p-ï X-h‑n-«‑v ]‑m-S‑p-IÄ‑, h‑r-¯‑n-b‑m-¡‑m³ {‑]-b‑m-k-a‑p-Å ]-c‑p-¡³‑, I‑p-g‑n-I-
f‑p-Å C-\‑m-aÂ F¶nh CX‑ns³‑d e-£-W-§f‑m-W‑v. ^‑v-e‑q-t‑d‑m-k‑n-k‑v X-S-b‑p-¶-X‑nÂ I‑p-S‑n-
s‑h-Å-¯‑n-s‑â K‑p-W-\‑n-e-h‑m-c \‑n-b-{‑´-W‑w {][m\amWv.
i‑z‑m-k-\‑m-f-§Ä C-S‑p-§‑n- izmkw ap«v A\p`hn¡p¶ A-h-Ø-b‑m-W‑v B-k‑v-Xva‑.
N‑p-a‑, i‑z‑m-k‑w-a‑p-«Â‑, i‑z‑m-k-X-S-Ê‑w F-¶‑n-h B-k‑v-Xva‑ a‑qew D-ï‑m-Ip-‑ ‑w. \-K-c-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w
B-k‑v-ß h‑y‑m-]-\w- hÀ²n¡phm³ CSbm¡p¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I A-eÀ-P‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S-
b‑p‑w {‑]-t‑I‑m-]‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶ L-S-I-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w k-¼À-¡‑w B-k‑v-Xva-‑b‑p-s‑S k‑m-[‑y-X hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-
¡‑p-¶‑p. B-k‑v-Xva‑b‑v-¡‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶ ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I L-S-I-§Ä B-b- F-bÀ-t‑h s‑s‑l-
¸À s‑d-k--t‑v ‑]‑m¬-k‑n-h‑n-ä‑n-b--s‑v ‑¡‑m-¸‑w C-k‑n-t‑\‑m-^‑nÂ-k‑v A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ \‑y‑q-t‑{‑S‑m-^‑n-e‑p-IÄ aqew
i‑z‑m-k-\‑m-f-¯‑n\-‑v h‑o-¡‑w D-ï‑m-I‑p-¶‑p. sI«n\nÂ¡p¶ ]‑p-I-b‑p‑w ]‑q-¸Â h-fÀ-¨-b‑p‑w i‑z-k-
\t‑c‑m-K-h‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶ C³-t‑U‑mÀ L-S-I-§-f‑m-W‑v.
]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I a‑m-ä-§-f‑m-W‑v A-eÀ-P‑nt‑c‑m-K-§-f‑p-s‑S {‑Z‑p-X-K-X‑n-b‑n-e‑p-Å hÀ-²-\-h‑n-\‑p‑w
h-j-f‑m-I‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-a‑p-Å {‑]-[‑m-\ I‑m-c-W‑w F-¶‑v I-c‑p-X-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. s‑]‑m-S‑n-]-S-e-§Ä‑, ]‑q-s‑¼‑m-
S‑n-IÄ‑, ^‑w-K-k‑v, a‑r-K-§-f‑p-s‑S t‑c‑m-a‑w F-¶‑n-hb‑p-s‑S h‑m-b‑p-h‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p-Å k¼À¡w A-eÀ-
P‑n-s‑b k‑z‑m-[‑o-\‑n-¡‑p-¶ ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I L-S-I-§-f‑m-W‑v. \-K-c-hÂ-¡-c-W-h‑p‑w h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-
I-hÂ-¡-c-W-h‑p‑w I‑m-c-W‑w h‑m-b‑p a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w hÀ-²‑n-¨‑p-s‑I‑m-ï‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑m-W‑v, C-X‑v
t‑e‑m-I P-\-k‑w-J‑y-b‑p-s‑S 40% t‑]-c‑nÂ A-eÀ-P‑n-¡‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶‑p. A-eÀ-P‑n t‑c‑m-K-§Ä
C-Ã‑m-X‑m-¡‑m-\‑p‑w \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w s‑a-U‑n-¡Â \-S-]-S‑n-IÄ B-h-i‑y-a‑m-W‑v. ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I
a‑m-ä-§Ä s‑a-¨-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑m-\‑p‑w A-X‑v A-X‑y-´‑m-t‑]-£‑n-X-a‑m-W‑v.
UNIT-2
B-tc
‑ m‑ K
- y‑ ¯
- n‑ s
- e
‑ F-¸n‑ s - U
‑ a
- n‑ t- b
‑ m‑ f
- P
- n‑ ¡
- Â
{‑]i
- \
v-‑ §
- Ä
t‑c‑m-K-§-f‑p-s‑S h‑n-X-c-W-h‑p‑w I‑m-c-W-§-f‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S H-c‑p P-\-k‑w-J‑y-b‑n-s‑e B-t‑c‑m-K‑y
k‑w-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S B-h‑r-¯‑n-b‑p‑w amXrIbpw k‑w-_-Ô‑n-¨ ]T-\-a‑m-W‑v F-¸‑n-s‑U-a‑n-t‑b‑m-f-P‑n.
P‑o-h-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w‑, Ø‑n-X‑n-h‑n-h-c-¡-W-¡‑v, k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w‑, F-©‑n-\‑o-b-d‑n‑w-K‑v X‑p-S-§‑n-b
a-ä‑v i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-i‑m-J-I-s‑f B-{‑i-b‑n-¡‑p-¶ H-c‑p {‑]-t‑X‑y-I i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-a‑m-W‑n-X‑v. a-ä‑v t‑c‑m-K-§Ä-
s‑¡‑m-¸‑w l‑r-t‑{‑Z‑m-K‑w‑, I‑y‑m³-kÀ F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-s‑S A-]-I-S-k‑m-[‑y-X-s‑b k‑z‑m-[‑o-\‑n-¡‑p-¶ L-S-
I-§-s‑f I‑p-d‑n-¨‑v a-\-Ê‑n-e‑m-¡‑m³ F-¸‑n-s‑U-a‑n-t‑b‑m-f-P‑n klmbw s‑N-b‑v-X‑n-«‑p-ï‑v. F-¸‑n-s‑U-a‑n-
t‑b‑m-f-P‑n-¡Â ]T-\-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-[‑m-\ t‑a-J-e-I-f‑nÂ t‑c‑m-K-I‑m-c-W‑w‑, k‑w-{‑I-a-W‑w‑, A-t‑\‑z-j-
W‑w‑, t‑c‑m-K\‑n-c‑o-£-W‑w‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n F-¸‑n-s‑U-a‑n-t‑b‑m-f-P‑n‑, t‑^‑m-d³-k‑n-I‑v F-¸‑n-s‑U-a‑n-t‑b‑m-f-
P‑n‑, H-I‑y‑p-t‑]-j-WÂ F-¸‑n-s‑U-a‑n-t‑b‑m-f-P‑n‑, k‑v-{‑I‑o-\‑n‑w-K‑v, _-t‑b‑m t‑a‑m-W‑n-ä-d‑n‑w-K‑v, N‑n-I‑n-Õ‑m
^-e-§-f‑p-s‑S X‑m-c-X-a‑y‑w F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. s‑h-Å-h‑p-a‑m-b‑n t‑\-c‑n-«‑p‑w A-Ã‑m-s‑X-b‑p‑w
NÀ-½-¯‑nÂ k-¼À-¡‑w ]‑p-eÀ-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p‑w s‑h-Å‑w I‑p-S‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p‑w D-ï‑m-
I‑p-¶ t‑c‑m-K-§Ä-¡‑v aen\P-ek-¼À-¡‑w I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p‑w. P-e-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S-t‑b‑m P-e-h‑p-a‑m-b‑n
_-Ô-s‑¸-«-t‑X‑m B-b k‑q-£‑v-a‑m-W‑p-¡-f‑p‑w A-]-I-S-I-c-a‑m-b k‑w-b‑p-à-§-f‑p‑w t‑c‑m-K-§Ä-¡‑v
I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p‑w. \-Ã F-©‑n-\‑o-b-d‑n‑w-K‑v c‑o-X‑n-I-f‑p‑w ^-e-{‑]-Z-a‑m-b P-ea‑m-t‑\-P‑v-s‑aâ‑p‑w P-e-h‑p-a‑m-
b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-« t‑c‑m-K-§-f‑p-s‑S {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä X-S-b‑m-t‑\‑m I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑m-t‑\‑m klmbn¡pw.
P-e-P-\‑y-a‑m-b s‑s‑a-t‑{‑I‑m-_-t‑b‑m-f-P‑n-¡Â t‑c‑m-K‑w‑, P-e-P-\‑y c‑m-k-t‑c‑m-K‑w‑, P-e i‑p-N‑n-X‑zt‑c‑m-
K‑w‑, P-ek-¼À-¡t‑c‑m-K‑w‑, P-e s‑h-I‑v-äÀ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø t‑c‑m-K‑w‑, h‑n-kÀ-P‑y \‑nÀ-a‑mÀ-P-\
t‑c‑m-K‑w‑, h‑m-«À F-b-t‑d‑m-t‑k‑mÄ t‑c‑m-K‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v P-ek‑w-_-Ô-a‑m-b t‑c‑m-K-§-f‑p-s‑S
G-g‑v h‑n-`‑m-K-§Ä. t‑e‑m-I-s‑a-¼‑m-S‑p-a‑p-Å a‑n-¡ P-e-P-\‑yt‑c‑m-K-§-f‑p‑w {‑]-[‑m-\-a‑m-b‑p‑w I‑p-«‑n-I-
s‑f _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v i‑p-N‑n-X‑z-anÃmbvabpw Z‑pÀ-_-e-a‑m-b {‑]-X‑n-t‑c‑m-[-t‑i-j‑n-b‑p-a‑m-W‑v.
s‑h-I--S‑v -d‑p-IÄ F-¶-d‑n-b-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑m-W‑v s‑h-I--S‑v -d‑n-e‑q-s‑S ]-I-c‑p-¶ t‑c‑m-K-§Ä
]-c-¯‑p-¶-X‑v. C‑u s‑h-I--S‑v -d‑p-IÄ-¡‑v a‑r-K-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑n-t‑e-t‑¡‑m ]-IÀ-¨-h‑y‑m-[‑n-IÄ
]-I-c‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w. a‑n-¡ s‑h-I--S‑v -d‑p-I-f‑p‑w c-à‑w I‑p-S‑n-¡‑p-¶ {‑]‑m-W‑n-I-f‑m-W‑v, t‑c‑m-K-_‑m-[‑n-X-
\‑m-b H-c‑p t‑l‑m-Ì‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v c-à‑w hens¨S‑p-¡‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ t‑c‑m-K-a‑p-ï‑m-¡‑p-¶ k‑q-£‑v-a‑m-W‑p-
¡-s‑f h‑n-g‑p-§‑p-I-b‑p‑w A-S‑p-¯ `-£-Wk-a-b-¯‑v A-h-s‑b H-c‑p ]‑p-X‑n-b t‑l‑m-Ì‑n-t‑e-¡‑v I‑p-
¯‑n-h-b‑v-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. s‑I‑m-X‑p-I‑p-IÄ t‑c‑m-K‑m-W‑p-¡-sf ]SÀ¯p¶Xv C§s\bmWv
F-¶‑mÂ C‑u-¨-IÄ‑, a-WÂ C‑u-¨-IÄ‑, _-K‑p-IÄ‑, i‑p-²-P-e H-¨‑p-IÄ F-¶‑n-h-b‑v-¡‑p‑w t‑c‑m-
K-§Ä ]SÀ¯m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w.
t‑c‑m-K‑m-W‑p-¡-f‑p‑w ]-c‑m-¶-t‑`‑m-P‑n-I-f‑p‑w a‑q-e-w s‑h-I--S‑v -d‑n-e‑q-s‑S ]-I-c‑p-¶ t‑c‑m-K-§Ä H‑m-t‑c‑m
hÀ-j-h‑p‑w H-c‑p _‑n-e‑y-W‑n-e-[‑n-I‑w B-f‑p-I-s‑fbmWv _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v. C-X‑v H-c‑p Z-i-e-£-¯‑n-
e-[‑n-I‑w a-c-W-§Ä-¡‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶‑p. a-t‑e-d‑n-b‑, s‑U-¦‑n-¸-\‑n‑, e‑o-j‑v-a‑m-\‑n-b‑m-k‑n-k‑v, N‑m-K‑m-
k‑v t‑c‑m-K‑w‑, a-ª-¸-\‑n‑, e‑n‑w-^-ä‑n-I‑v s‑s‑^-t‑e-d‑n-b-k‑n-k‑v, H‑m-t‑¦‑m-s‑kÀ-k‑n-b-k‑n-k‑v X‑p-S-§‑n-b
t‑c‑m-K-§Ä \-K-c‑, {‑K‑m-a {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-s‑e B-f‑p-I-s‑f _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-s‑a-¦‑n-e‑p‑w t‑a‑m-i‑w P‑o-h‑n-X
k‑m-l-N-c‑y-§-f‑p-Å k-a‑q-l-§-f‑n-e‑m-W‑v C-h I‑q-S‑p-X-e‑m-b‑n I‑m-W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶-X‑v. B-h-i‑y-¯‑n-
\‑v ]‑mÀ-¸‑n-S‑w‑, i‑p-²-a‑m-b I‑p-S‑n-s‑h-Å‑w‑, i‑p-N‑n-X‑z‑w F-¶‑n-h e-`‑y-a-Ã‑m-¯ B-f‑p-IÄ‑, t‑]‑m-j-
I‑m-l‑m-c-¡‑p-d-h‑p-Å-h-t‑c‑m {‑]-X‑n-t‑c‑m-[-t‑i-j‑n I‑p-d-ª-h-t‑c‑m B-W‑v. CXv‑ B-f‑p-I-s‑f t‑P‑m-e‑n
s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p‑w I‑p-S‑p‑w-_-§-s‑f- t‑]‑m-ä‑p-¶-X‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p‑w X-S-b‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑q-s‑S Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y‑w
hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
D-Z‑m-l-c-W-¯‑n-\‑v, s‑U-¦‑n-¸-\‑n‑b‑ps‑S N‑n-I‑n-Õ‑m-s‑¨-e-h‑p‑w \-j--S‑v -a‑m-b s‑X‑m-g‑nÂZ‑n-\-§-f‑p‑w
I‑m-c-W‑w I‑p-S‑p‑w-_-§Ä-¡‑p‑w kÀ-¡‑m-c‑p-IÄ-¡‑p‑w I‑m-c‑y-a‑m-b k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I`‑m-c‑w D-ïmIp¶‑p.
k‑m-¼-¯‑n-Ih-fÀ-¨-s‑b t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w t‑c‑m-K-h‑m-
l-IÀ ]-c-¯‑p-¶ t‑c‑m-K-§Ä I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-¶-X‑v \‑nÀ-W‑m-b-I-a‑m-W‑v. N‑p-a‑, X‑p-½Â‑, A-S‑p-¯
h‑y-à‑nk-¼À-¡‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑n-e‑q-s‑S ]-S-c‑p-¶ s‑N-d‑n-b k‑q-£‑v-a‑m-W‑p-¡Ä a‑q-e-a‑m-W‑v h‑m-b‑p-
h‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p-Å t‑c‑m-K-§Ä D-ï‑m-I‑p-¶-X‑v. s‑]‑m-S‑n‑, s‑h-Å-¯‑p-Å‑n-IÄ‑, a-®‑v F-¶‑n-h-b‑n-e‑p‑w
k‑q-£‑v-a‑m-W‑p-¡Ä I‑m-W‑m‑w. h‑m-b‑p-h‑n-e‑q-s‑S ]-I-c‑p-¶ t‑c‑m-K-§-f‑p-s‑S e-£-W-§-f‑p‑w N‑n-I‑n-
Õ-b‑p‑w t‑c‑m-K-¯‑n-s‑â X-c‑w A-\‑p-k-c‑n-¨‑v h‑y-X‑y‑m-k-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
h‑y-à‑n-K-X k‑w-c-£-W D-]-I-c-W-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w i-c‑n-b‑m-b s‑hâ‑n-t‑e-j³ k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§-
f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S h‑m-b‑p-h‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p-Å t‑c‑m-K-§Ä ]-I-c‑p-¶-X‑v X-S-b‑m³ I-g‑n-
b‑p‑w. a-ä‑p-Å-h-c‑p-a‑m-b‑p-Å A-S‑p-¯ k-¼À-¡‑w H-g‑n-h‑m-¡‑p-I-t‑b‑m a‑p-J‑w a-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I-t‑b‑m s‑N-
¿‑p-¶-X‑v t‑c‑m-K-§Ä ]-I-c‑p-¶-X‑v X-S-b‑m³ k-l‑m-b‑n-¡‑p‑w. A-´-c‑o-£ D‑u-j‑v-a‑m-h‑v, C‑uÀ-
¸‑w‑, k‑q-c‑y-{‑]-I‑m-i‑w GÂ-¡‑p-¶-X‑v X‑p-S-§‑n-b ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I L-S-I-§Ä t‑c‑m-K‑m-W‑p-¡Ä
F-{‑X-t‑¯‑m-f‑w k-P‑o-h-a‑m-b‑n X‑p-S-c‑p-¶‑p‑, F-{‑X Z‑q-c‑w k-©-c‑n-¡‑m‑w F-¶-X‑n-s‑\ _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p‑¶
LSI§fmWv.
P-e-t‑Z‑m-j‑w‑, N‑n-¡³-t‑]‑m-I--k
‑v ‑v, £-b‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S A-k‑p-J-¯‑n-\‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-
I‑p-¶ h‑m-b‑p-h‑n-e‑q-s‑S ]-I-c‑p-¶ \‑n-c-h-[‑n t‑c‑m-K-§-f‑p-ï‑v. h‑m-b‑p-h‑n-e‑q-s‑S ]-I-c‑p-¶ t‑c‑m-K-§-
f‑p-s‑S h‑y‑m-]-\‑w X-S-b‑p-¶-X‑v F-Ã‑m-b‑v-t‑¸‑m-g‑p‑w k‑m-[‑y-a-s‑Ã-¦‑n-e‑p‑w‑, a-X‑n-b‑m-b s‑hâ‑n-t‑e-j-\‑p‑w
k‑w-c-£-W D-]-I-c-W-§-f‑p-s‑S D-]-t‑b‑m-K-h‑p‑w D-d-¸‑m-¡n‑‑ -bmÂ A-]-I-S-k‑m-[‑y-X I‑p-d-b‑v-¡m‑‑ ‑w.
UNIT-3
C-´‑y-b‑n-s‑e ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n
{‑]-Ø‑m-\-§-f‑ps‑S N-c‑n-{‑X‑w
a-\‑p-j‑y³ DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S-b‑p-Å P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-s‑S \‑n-e-\‑nÂ-¸‑n-\‑v B-h-i‑y-a‑m-b ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n

k‑w-c-£-W-¯‑n-\‑v ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n A-h-t‑_‑m-[‑w \‑nÀ-W‑m-b-I-a‑m-W‑v. ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑nb‑nÂ {‑]-I‑r-
X‑n-Z-¯-h‑p‑w I‑r-{‑X‑n-a-h‑p-a‑m-b L-S-I-§Ä DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p‑. a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-s‑f
Ch _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n A-h-t‑_‑m-[‑w ]‑p-\-c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m-h‑p-¶ h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S D-]-
t‑b‑m-K‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-h‑p‑w B-t‑K‑m-fX‑m-]-\-h‑p‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w
k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b H-c‑p t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b-¡‑p-d‑n-¨‑p-Å
s‑]‑m-X‑p A-h-t‑_‑m-[‑w A-X‑y-´‑m-t‑]-£‑n-X-a‑m-W‑v, ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I {‑]-i‑v-\-§-f‑p-s‑S {‑]‑m-[‑m-\‑y-
s‑¯-b‑p‑w A-\-´-c-^-e-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w I‑p-d‑n-¨‑v B-f‑p-I-s‑f t‑_‑m-[-hÂ-¡-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v A-X‑nÂ DÄ-
s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
N‑n-]--t‑v ‑I‑m {‑]-Ø‑m-\‑w t‑]‑m-s‑e-b‑p-Å ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n {‑]-Ø‑m-\-§Ä‑, {‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-
s‑S k‑p-Ø‑n-c a‑m-t‑\-P--s‑v ‑aâ‑n-s‑\ A-\‑p-I‑q-e‑n-¡‑p-¶‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑w-c-£-W-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑p-Å k‑m-
a‑q-l‑n-I A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ c‑m-{‑ã‑o-b {‑]-Ø‑m-\-§-f‑m-W‑v. 1973þÂ D-¯À-{‑]-t‑Z-i‑n-s‑e J‑p‑w-X‑p-§‑nÂ
B-c‑w-`‑n-¨‑, h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-s‑\-X‑n-c‑m-b A-l‑n‑w-k‑m-ß-I-a‑m-b {‑]-X‑n-t‑j-[-a‑m-b‑n-c‑p-¶‑p N‑n-]‑v-
-t‑I‑m {‑]-Ø‑m-\‑w. C-´‑y-b‑nÂ ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I-h‑p‑w s‑]‑m-X‑p-P-\‑m-t‑c‑m-K‑y-h‑p-a‑m-b t‑]‑m-c‑m-«-§Ä
\-S-¡‑p-¶‑p-ï‑v, 2000 h-s‑c-b‑p-Å {‑]-[‑m-\ ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n{‑]-Ø‑m-\-§-f‑nÂ N‑n-]--t‑v ‑I‑m a‑q-h--s‑v ‑aâ‑v‑,
t‑k-h‑v s‑s‑k-eâ‑v h‑m-e‑n a‑q-h--s‑v ‑aâ‑v‑, P‑w-K‑nÄ _-¨‑m-t‑h‑m B-t‑µ‑m-f³‑, A-¸‑n-t‑¡‑m a‑q-h--s‑v ‑aâ‑v‑,
\À-½-Z _-¨‑m-t‑h‑m B-t‑µ‑m-f³ (F³-_‑n-F‑) F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
X-t‑±-i‑o-b-c‑m-b B-Z‑n-h‑m-k‑n-IÄ‑, IÀ-j-IÀ‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n {‑]-hÀ-¯-IÀ‑, a-\‑p-j‑y‑m-h-I‑m-i
{‑]-hÀ-¯-IÀ F-¶‑n-h-c‑p-s‑S t‑\-X‑r-X‑z-¯‑nÂ C-´‑y-b‑n-s‑e H-c‑p k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I {‑]-Ø‑m-\-a‑m-W‑v
\À-½-Z _-¨‑m-t‑h‑m B-t‑µ‑m-f³ (NBA). K‑p-P-d‑m-¯‑v, a-[‑y-{‑]-t‑Z-i‑v, a-l‑m-c‑m-{‑ã F-¶‑n-h‑n-S-§-f‑n-
e‑q-s‑S H-g‑p-I‑p-¶ \À-½-Z\-Z‑n-b‑n-s‑e h³-I‑n-S A-W-s‑¡-«‑v ]-²-X‑n-IÄ-¡‑v F-X‑n-c‑m-bmWv Cu
{]-Øm\w DSseSp¯Xv‑v. \À-½-Z‑m A-W-s‑¡-«‑v ]-²-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S `‑m-K-a‑m-b K‑p-P-d‑m-¯‑n-s‑e kÀ-
Z‑mÀ k-t‑c‑m-hÀ A-W-s‑¡-«‑m-W‑v F³-_‑n-F-b‑p-s‑S {‑]-[‑m-\ {‑i-²‑m-t‑I-{‑µ‑w. a‑q-¶‑v k‑w-Ø‑m-
\-§-f‑n-s‑e P-\-§Ä-¡‑v P-e-t‑k-N-\-h‑p‑w s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X‑n-b‑p‑w e-`‑y-a‑m-¡‑p-I-b‑m-W‑v ]-²-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S
e-£‑y‑w.
t‑I‑m-S-X‑n \-S-]-S‑n-IÄ‑, \‑n-c‑m-l‑m-c k-a-c‑w‑, d‑m-e‑n-IÄ‑, k‑n-\‑n-a‑m-þ-I-e‑mc‑w-K-s‑¯ {‑]-a‑p-J-c‑nÂ
\‑n-¶‑p-Å ]‑n-´‑p-W t‑i-J-c‑n-¡Â F-¶‑n-h F³-_‑n-F-b‑p-s‑S {‑]-N‑m-c-W-¯‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
t‑a-[‑m]-S‑v-I-d‑p‑w _‑m-_B‑w-s‑X-b‑p-a‑m-W‑v F³-_‑n-F-b‑p-s‑S {‑]-a‑p-J h-à‑m-¡Ä. 1991þÂ A-hÀ-
¡‑v s‑s‑d-ä‑v s‑s‑e-h‑v-e‑n-l‑p-U‑v A-h‑mÀ-U‑v e-`‑n-¨‑p.
X-t‑±-i‑o-b-c‑m-b P-\-§Ä a‑p-XÂ {‑K‑m-a‑o-WP-\-X h-s‑c-b‑p-Å h‑y-X‑n-c‑n-à-a‑m-b k‑w-kv-I -‑ ‑m-c-
h‑p‑w ]‑m-c-¼-c‑y-h‑p-a‑p-Å s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑mÀ-¶ B-f‑p-IÄ Cu {]-Øm\s¯ ]‑n-´‑p-W-b‑v-¡‑p-¶‑p.
1985þÂ \À-½-Z‑m\-Z‑n-b‑nÂ I‑q-ä³ A-W-s‑¡-«‑v \‑nÀ-a‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-s‑\-X‑n-s‑c-b‑p-Å P-\-I‑o-b a‑p-
t‑¶-ä-a‑m-b‑m-W‑v F³-_‑n-F B-c‑w-`‑n-¨-X‑v. \‑nÀ-Z‑n-ã kÀ-Z‑mÀ k-t‑c‑m-hÀ A-W-s‑¡-«‑p‑w \À-½-Z‑m
k‑m-K-d‑p‑w 250‑,000þ-¯‑n-e-[‑n-I‑w B-f‑p-I-s‑f a‑m-ä‑n-¸‑mÀ-¸‑n-t‑¡-ï-X‑m-b‑n-c‑p-¶‑p. C‑u P-\-X-b‑p-s‑S
\ne\nÂ¸n\pw ]‑p-\-c-[‑n-h‑m-k-¯‑n-\pw t‑h-ï‑n-b‑m-W‑v {‑]-Ø‑m-\‑w t‑]‑m-c‑m-S‑n-b-X‑v.
NBA A-\‑p-k-c‑n-¨‑v, A-W-s‑¡-«‑p-IÄ G-I-t‑Z-i‑w H-c‑p Z-i-e-£‑w B-f‑p-I-s‑f a‑m-ä‑n-¸‑mÀ-¸‑n-¡‑p-
I-b‑p‑w h-e‑n-b ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-\‑m-i‑w D-ï‑m-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. C‑u {‑]-Ø‑m-\-s‑¯ k‑m-¼-
¯‑n-I h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-\‑v X-S-Ê-a‑m-b‑n I-ï‑v B-f‑p-IÄ h‑n-aÀ-i‑n-¨‑p. F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, \À-½-Z‑m
\-Z‑n-b‑nÂ A-W-s‑¡-«‑p-IÄ \‑nÀ-½‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-s‑\-X‑n-c‑m-b {‑]-N‑m-c-W‑w k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I-h‑p‑w ]‑m-c‑n-
Ø‑n-X‑n-I-h‑p-a‑m-b \‑o-X‑n-¡‑p-t‑h-ï‑n-b‑p-Å B-t‑K‑m-ft‑]‑m-c‑m-«-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-X‑o-I-a‑m-s‑W-¶‑v NBA h‑n-
i‑z-k‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
1990 a‑p-XÂ NBA b‑p-s‑S k‑z‑m-[‑o-\‑w I‑p-d-ª‑p. F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, t‑a-[‑m ]-S‑v-I-d‑p‑w F³-_‑n-F-
b‑p‑w kÀ-Z‑mÀ k-t‑c‑m-hÀ ]-²-X‑n-s‑b s‑h-Ã‑p-h‑n-f‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v X‑p-S-c‑p-IbmWv.
UNIT- 4
\‑n-e-h‑n-s‑e ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑w-c-£-W
kwLS\IÄ {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä þ
k‑z-Ñ‑v `‑m-c-X‑v A-`‑n-b‑m³‑, l-c‑n-X t‑I-c-f‑w
a‑n-j³‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n, {‑]-I‑r-X‑n ¢-º‑v
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑w-c-£-W‑w F-¶‑mÂ {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯ {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w A-h-s‑b BØm\
Øe-sa¶v IcpXp¶ P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶-X‑m-W‑v. h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S h‑w-
i-\‑m-i‑w X-S-b‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v A-h s‑s‑I-I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I‑, ]-c‑n-]‑m-e‑n-¡‑p-I‑, ]‑p-\‑x-Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-I‑,
k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h C-X‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-s‑b k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑m³ {‑]-I‑r-
X‑n-h‑n-`-h-§-s‑f h‑n-t‑h-I-]‑qÀ-Æ‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑m-W‑v k‑w-c-£-W‑w. h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W‑w I‑p-
d-b‑v-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v h-\-k‑w-c-£-W-¯‑nÂ D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶ k‑p-Ø‑n-c a-c‑wa‑p-d‑n-¡Â k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-
I-X-I-f‑nÂ C-X‑v I‑m-W‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w. \-½‑p-s‑S \‑n-e-\‑nÂ-¸‑n-\‑v A-X‑y-´‑m-t‑]-£‑n-X-a‑m-b a‑r-K-
§-s‑f-b‑p‑w a-c-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w k-l‑m-b‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑w-c-£-
W‑w \‑nÀ-W‑m-b-I-a‑m-W‑v.
k‑z-Ñ‑v `‑m-c-X‑v A-`‑n-b‑m³ F-¶-X‑v C-´‑y³ K-h¬-s‑aâ‑n-s‑â t‑\-X‑r-X‑z-¯‑n-e‑p-Å H-c‑p i‑p-
N‑n-X‑z I‑m-s‑¼-b--\ ‑v ‑m-W‑v. h‑r-¯‑n-b‑p‑w i‑p-N‑n-X‑z-h‑p‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, X‑p-d-Ê‑m-b Ø-e-§-
f‑nÂ a-e-a‑q-{‑X h‑n-kÀ-Ö-\‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I‑, {‑K‑m-a-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-s‑e P‑o-h‑n-X-\‑n-e-h‑m-c‑w s‑a-¨-s‑¸-
S‑p-¯‑p-I‑, k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b i‑p-N‑n-X‑zk-{‑¼-Z‑m-b-§Ä t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, B-t‑c‑m-K‑y-s‑¯-b‑p‑w
i‑p-N‑n-X‑z-s‑¯-b‑p‑w I‑p-d‑n-¨‑v A-h-t‑_‑m-[‑w k‑r-ã‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v C-X‑n-s‑â e-£‑y-§Ä.
C‑u I‑m-¼-b‑n³ H-c‑p t‑Z-i‑o-b{‑]-Ø‑m-\-a‑m-b‑n a‑m-d‑n-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, c‑m-P‑y-¯‑p-S-\‑o-f-a‑p-Å Z-i-e-
£-¡-W-¡‑n-\‑v B-f‑p-IÄ C-´‑y-s‑b h‑r-¯‑n-b‑p-Å-X‑m-¡‑m-\‑p-Å k‑w-c‑w-`-§-f‑nÂ ]-¦‑m-f‑n-I-f‑m-
I‑p-¶‑p. h‑n-h‑n-[ ]-Ý‑m-¯-ea-‑p-Å B-f‑p-IÄ C‑u {‑i-a-¯‑nÂ ]-¦‑p-t‑NÀ-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X ]-X‑n-
h‑m-b‑n i‑p-N‑n-X‑z I‑m-s‑¼-b--\ ‑v ‑p-I-f‑p‑w t‑_‑m-[-hÂ-¡-c-W ]-c‑n-]‑m-S‑n-I-f‑p‑w \-S-¯‑n-h-c‑p-¶‑p. k‑z-Ñ‑v
`‑m-c-X‑v A-`‑n-b‑m³ P-\-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v a‑n-I-¨ ]‑n-´‑p-W e-`‑n-¨‑v H-c‑p "P³ B-t‑µ‑m-f³‑' B-b‑n
a‑m-d‑n. ]‑u-c-·‑mÀ h³-t‑X‑m-X‑nÂ ]-s‑¦-S‑p-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w h‑r-¯‑n-b‑p-Å-X‑p‑w ip²nb‑p-Å-X‑p-a‑m-b H-c‑p
C-´‑y \‑n-e-\‑nÀ-¯‑m³ {‑]-X‑n-Ú-s‑b-S‑p-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-b‑v-X‑p‑, ‑"i‑p-N‑n-X‑z‑w s‑s‑Z-h-`-à‑n-b‑p-s‑S
A-S‑p-¯‑m-W‑v' F-¶ k-t‑µ-i‑w {‑]-N-c‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-\‑p-Å {‑i-a-¯‑nÂ ChÀ ]-¦‑m-f‑n-I-f‑m-b‑n.
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑u-l‑r-Z‑hp‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑nh‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\-h‑p‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-
¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-b‑n C-´‑y-b‑nÂ t‑I-c-f kÀ-¡‑mÀ B-c‑w-`‑n-¨ H-c‑p ]-c‑n-]‑m-S‑n-b‑m-W‑v l-c‑n-X-t‑I-
c-f‑w a‑n-j³. P-e-t‑i-J-c‑w ]‑p-\-c‑p-Ö‑o-h‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, ^-e-{‑]-Z-a‑m-b J-c-a‑m-e‑n-\‑y k‑w-kv-I -‑ -c-W‑w
t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, s‑s‑P-h-I‑r-j‑n t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I X‑p-S-§‑n-b-h-b‑m-W‑v a‑n-j³ e-£‑y-
a‑n-S‑p-¶- a‑q-¶‑v Z‑u-X‑y-§Ä. ^-e-{‑]-Z-a‑m-b a‑m-e‑n-\‑y \‑nÀ-a‑mÀ-P-\-¯‑n-\‑v i‑p-N‑n-X‑z a‑m-e‑n-\‑y k‑w-
k-‑v-I-c-W‑w‑, P-e-k‑w-c-£-W-¯‑n-\‑v P-e-kar²n‑, I‑mÀ-j‑n-I h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-\‑v k‑p-P-e‑w k‑p-^-e‑w
F¶nh Dd¸mt¡ïXmWv. B-Z‑y-L-«-¯‑nÂ \‑n-e-h‑n-e‑p-Å I‑n-W-d‑p-IÄ‑, I‑p-f-§Ä‑, \‑o-c‑p-
d-h-IÄ‑, I-\‑m-e‑p-IÄ‑, t‑X‑m-S‑p-IÄ‑, c-ï‑m‑w L-«-¯‑nÂ \-Z‑n-IÄ‑, P-e-k‑w-`-c-W‑n-IÄ‑, X-S‑m-I-
§Ä‑, I‑m-bÂ F-¶‑n-h-s‑b ]‑p-\-c‑p-Ö‑o-h‑n-¸‑n-¨‑v k‑w-c-£‑n-¨‑p-s‑I‑m-ï‑v P-e-k‑w-c-£-W-¯‑n-s‑â
H-c‑p ]‑p-X‑n-b k‑w-kv-I -‑ ‑m-c‑w h-fÀ-¯‑n-s‑b-S‑p-¡‑m³ a‑n-j³ D‑u-¶Â \Â-I‑p-¶‑p.
]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I k‑m-l-N-c‑y-§Ä s‑a-¨-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-
\‑p‑w a-c-§Ä \-«‑p-]‑n-S‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w P-e‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w a-ä‑p-Å-h-s‑c t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-
¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å t‑{‑]‑m-{‑K‑m-a‑p-I-f‑p‑w {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑p‑w h‑m-K‑v-Z‑m-\‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶ H-c‑p {‑K‑q-¸‑m-W‑v
C-t‑¡‑m-þ-¢-_‑v. h-c‑p‑w X-e-a‑p-d-b‑nÂ ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n A-h-t‑_‑m-[‑w k‑r-ã‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑nÂ ¢-_‑v {‑]-[‑m-
\ ]-¦‑v h-l‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. h‑r-£-s‑s‑¯ \-S‑oÂ ]-c‑n-]‑m-S‑n-IÄ‑, t‑_‑m-[-hÂ-¡-c-W ]-c‑n-]‑m-S‑n-IÄ‑,
i-c‑n-b‑m-b a‑m-e‑n-\‑y k‑w-kv-I -‑ -c-W-s‑¯-¡‑p-d‑n-¨‑p‑w ¹‑m-Ì‑n-I‑v _‑m-K‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S Z‑q-j‑y-^-e-§-s‑f-¡‑p-
d‑n-¨‑p‑w h‑n-Z‑y‑mÀ-°‑n-I-s‑f t‑_‑m-[-h-X‑v-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v C-X‑n-s‑â {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
UNIT-5
P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑m h-fÀ-¨‑
P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑m hÀ-²-\-h‑v aqew ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I-h‑p‑w k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I-h‑p-a‑m-b {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e^-
e-§Ä D-ï‑m-¡‑p‑w. A-a‑n-X-a‑m-b I‑r-j‑n‑, h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, P-e-a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, b‑q-t‑{‑S‑m-^‑n-
t‑¡-j³‑, B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑v-¡‑v A-a‑n-XP-\-k‑w-J‑y I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑m‑w. P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑m
hÀ-²-\-h‑v a‑q-e-a‑p-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y-h‑p‑w \-K-c-hÂ-¡-c-W-h‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b \-i‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-
¶‑p. I‑r-j‑n-t‑b‑m-K‑y-a‑m-b `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑m k-½À-Z‑w `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S X-IÀ-¨-b‑v-¡‑v I‑m-c-W-
a‑m-I‑p‑w‑, A-t‑X-k-a-b‑w hÀ-²‑n-¨‑p-h-c‑p-¶ P-\-k‑w-J‑y-b‑p‑w hÀ-²‑n-¨‑p-h-c‑p-¶ k-a‑r-²‑n-b‑p‑w N‑n-e
c‑m-P‑y-§-f‑nÂ D‑uÀ-Ö DÂ-]‑m-Z-\-¯‑n-e‑p‑w D-]-t‑`‑m-K-¯‑n-e‑p‑w {‑Z‑p-X-K-X‑n-b‑n-e‑p-Å h-fÀ-¨-b‑v-¡‑v
C-X‑n-\-I‑w I‑m-c-W-a‑m-b‑n-«‑p-ï‑v. ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑nÂ P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑m h-fÀ-¨-b‑p-s‑S B-L‑m-X‑w {‑]‑m-Y-
a‑n-I-a‑m-b‑n {‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S D-]-t‑b‑m-K-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p‑w a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S DÂ-]‑m-Z-\-¯‑n-
e‑q-s‑S-b‑p‑w B-W‑v. C-X‑v s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-¯‑n-s‑â \-ã‑w‑, h‑m-b‑p‑, P-ea-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, I‑r-j‑n-
t‑b‑m-K‑y-a‑m-b `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e hÀ-²‑n-¨ k-½À-±‑w X‑p-S-§‑n-b ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I k-½À-±-§-f‑p-a‑m-b‑n
_-Ô-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a-Ã‑m-¯ h-fÀ-¨-b‑p‑w {‑]-X‑y‑p-X‑v-]‑m-Z-\ B-t‑c‑m-K‑y k‑w-c-£-W-
¯‑n-\‑p-Å e-`‑y-X-¡‑p-d-h‑p‑w P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑m h-fÀ-¨-b‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-« a-ä‑v {‑]-[‑m-\ {‑]-i--\ ‑v -§-f‑m-
W‑v‑. C-X‑v a-\‑p-j‑y k-a‑q-l-§-f‑nÂ k-½À-±‑w s‑N-e‑p-¯‑p-¶‑p‑. `-£-W-þ-P-e Z‑uÀ-e-`‑y‑w c‑q-£-a‑m-
¡‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-s‑¯ A-`‑n-a‑p-J‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶ {‑]-X‑n-t‑c‑m-[-t‑i-j‑n I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-
¶‑p‑. G-ä-h‑p‑w Z‑pÀ-_-e-c‑m-b k-a‑q-l-§Ä- _‑p-²‑n-a‑p-«‑p-¶‑p. X-e-a‑p-d-IfmbpÅ Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y-¯‑nÂ
\‑n-¶‑v I-c-I-b-d‑m³ I‑q-S‑m-s‑X‑, P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑m hÀ-²-\-h‑v aqew {‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S t‑i‑m-j-
W‑w‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S X-IÀ-¨‑, s‑X‑m-g‑n-e‑n-Ã‑m-b‑v-a‑, k‑w-LÀ-j-§Ä‑, b‑p-²-§Ä‑, D-bÀ-¶ P‑o-
h‑n-X-s‑¨-e-h‑v, t‑]‑m-j-I‑m-l‑m-c-¡‑p-d-h‑v, ]-«‑n-W‑n‑, ]-IÀ-¨-h‑y‑m-[‑n-IÄ F-¶‑n-h kzm`mhnI-ambn
Dï‑mIpw.
2000þÂ t‑e‑m-I-P-\-k‑w-J‑y 6.3 _‑n-e‑y¬ B-b‑n-c‑p-¶‑p‑. A-S‑p-¯ 100 hÀ-j-¯‑n-\‑p-Å‑nÂ
C-X‑v \mepaS§v h-f-c‑p-s‑a-¶‑v {‑]-X‑o-£‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, C-X‑n-s‑\ P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑m h‑n-k‑v-t‑^‑m-S-\‑w F-¶‑v
h‑n-f‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. C‑u h-fÀ-¨ K‑p-c‑p-X-c-a‑m-b h‑n-`-h-t‑i‑m-j-W-¯‑n-\‑p‑w ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I X-IÀ-¨-
b‑v-¡‑p‑w I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶‑p. a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑p-s‑S F-®-¯‑n-e‑p-Å hÀ-²-\-h‑v {‑K‑m-a-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ
\‑n-¶‑v \-K-c-§-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑p-Å I‑p-S‑n-t‑b-ä‑w t‑N-c‑n {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑p-s‑S h-fÀ-¨-b‑v-¡‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶
\‑n-c-h-[‑n k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I {‑]-i‑v-\-§-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑v CXv \-b‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. s‑X‑m-g‑n-e‑n-Ã‑m-b‑v-a-b‑p‑w Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y-h‑p‑w
h‑n-Z‑y‑m-k-¼-¶-c‑m-b b‑p-h‑m-¡Ä-¡‑n-S-b‑nÂ \‑n-c‑m-i-b‑v-¡‑p‑w t‑c‑m-j-¯‑n-\‑p‑w I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶‑p. \‑n-
t‑£-]m-h-i‑y-I-X‑, a‑q-e-[-\ c‑q-]‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, {‑]-X‑n-i‑oÀ-j h-c‑p-a‑m-\‑w‑, `-£‑y {‑]-i‑v-\‑w‑, s‑X‑m-g‑n-e‑n-
Ã‑m-b‑v-a‑, X‑m-g‑v-¶ P‑o-h‑n-X \‑n-e-h‑m-c‑w‑, Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y‑w‑, k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I {‑]-i‑v-\-§Ä‑, Pohn¡p¶nSs¯
k-½À-±‑w‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑n-s‑e k-½À-±‑w F-¶‑n-h P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑mh‑n-k‑v-t‑^‑m-S-\-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-X‑y‑m-
L‑m-X-§-f‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑mh‑n-k‑v-t‑^‑m-S-\‑w k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I h‑n-I-k-\-s‑¯ X-S-Ê-
s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶‑p‑sa¶pÅXpsImïv, A-X‑v ^-e-{‑]-Z-a‑m-b‑n \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡-W‑w.
UNIT-6
k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\‑w
k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\‑w F-¶‑mÂ h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S t‑i‑m-j-W‑w I‑q-S‑m-s‑X A-h D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-
¡‑p-I F-¶-X‑pa‑mW - ‑v. A-X‑n-\‑v \‑m-e‑v a‑m-\-§-f‑p-ï‑v: k-a‑q-l‑w‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n‑, k‑w-kv-I -‑ ‑m-c‑w‑, k-¼-
Z‑--h
v ‑y-h-Ø F-¶‑n-h. s‑a-¨-s‑¸-« P‑o-h‑n-X \‑n-e-h‑m-c-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑n ]-‑mc‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n‑I, k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I‑, k‑m-
¼-¯‑n-I ]-c‑n-K-W-\-IÄ k-´‑p-e‑n-X-a‑m-¡‑p-I-b‑m-W‑v k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\‑w e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑v.
k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-s‑â a‑q-¶‑v {‑]-[‑m-\ LSI§fpï‑v: k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I‑w‑, ]m-‑ c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n‑Iw‑,
k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I‑w. k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-[‑m-\ X-¯‑z-§Ä {‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§Ä C-Ã‑m-X‑m-
¡‑p-I-t‑b‑m \-i‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-t‑b‑m s‑N-¿‑m-X‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w‑ `‑m-h‑n X-e-a‑p-d-IÄ-¡‑v A-h-b‑p-s‑S D-]-t‑b‑m-
K-£-a-X I‑p-d-b-‑m¯ h‑n-[-¯‑nÂ D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m\‑pÅ- \S]-SnIÄ FSp¡Ww F-¶-Xp-am-
W‑v. k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\‑w B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S k‑w-c-£-W‑w‑, k‑p-Ø‑n-c k-a‑q-l-¯‑n-s‑â
h‑n-I-k-\‑w‑, s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y k‑w-c-£-W‑w‑, P-\-k‑w-J‑y‑m h-fÀ-¨-b‑p-s‑S \‑n-b-{‑´-W‑w‑, a‑m-\-h
h‑n-`-h-t‑i-j‑n h‑n-I-k-\‑w‑, s‑]‑m-X‑p ]-¦‑m-f‑n-¯‑w F-¶‑n-h kpkvXnchnIk\s¯ t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-
l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-s‑â D-Z‑m-l-c-W-§-f‑nÂ I‑m-ä‑n-s‑â D‑uÀ-Ö‑w‑, k‑u-t‑c‑mÀ-Ö‑w‑,
CShnfIÄ PehnXcW D-]-I-c-W-§Ä‑, l-c‑n-X C-S-§Ä F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-
X‑n DÂ-]‑m-Z-\-¯‑n-\‑p-Å s‑N-e-h‑v I‑p-d-ª-X‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑u-l‑r-Z-h‑p-a‑m-b ]-c‑n-l‑m-chpa‑m-
W‑v I‑m-ä‑m-S‑nb-{‑´-§Ä. IÂ-¡-c‑n s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X \‑n-e-b-§Ä ]‑p-d-´-Å‑p-¶ hmXI¯nsâ 94%
h-s‑c I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑m³ t‑k‑m-f‑mÀ ^‑m-a‑p-IÄ-¡‑v I-g‑n-b‑p‑w. CShnfIÄ a-®‑n-s‑â ^-e-`‑q-b‑n-j‑vT-X
hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w {‑]‑m-W‑n-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w t‑c‑m-K-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w k-l‑m-b‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
P-e-þ-I‑m-c‑y-£-a-a‑m-b D-]-I-c-W-§Ä¡‑v P-e D-]-t‑`‑m-K‑w 50%þÂ I‑q-S‑p-XÂ I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-
b‑p‑w. ]qt´m«§Ä h-\-§-Ä t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å l-c‑n-X C-S-§Ä \-K-c-§-s‑f X-W‑p-¸‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w H‑m-I-
‑v-k‑n-P³ DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w h‑m-b‑p a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w ^‑nÂ-«À s‑N-¿‑m-\‑p‑w i‑m-c‑o-c‑n-I {‑]-hÀ-¯-
\-¯‑n-\‑p‑w h‑n-t‑\‑m-Z-¯‑n-\‑p‑w k‑p-c-£‑n-X-a‑m-b C-S-§Ä \Â-I‑m-\‑p‑w A-X‑y‑m-h-i‑y-a‑m-W‑v.
k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\ e-£‑y-§Ä [Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)] s‑F-I‑y-c‑m-
{‑ã-k-` 2015þÂ k‑r-ã‑n-¨-X‑v t‑e‑m-I-s‑¯ s‑a-¨-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w 2030þ-H‑m-s‑S F-Ã‑m B-f‑p-
IÄ-¡‑p‑w k-a‑m-[‑m-\-h‑p‑w k-a‑r-²‑n-b‑p‑w D-d-¸‑m-¡m\‑pa‑mW -‑ v-. Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y‑w‑, ]-«‑n-W‑n‑, tamiw B-t‑c‑m-
K‑y‑w F-¶‑n-h A-h-k‑m-\‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S 17 ]-c-k‑v-]-c-_-Ô‑n-X-a‑m-b B-t‑K‑m-f e-£‑y-
§Ä SDG-IÄ DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p. k-l-{‑k‑m-Ð h‑n-I-k-\ e-£‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S ]‑n³-K‑m-a‑n-b‑m-b‑m-W‑v
SDG-IÄ h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-s‑¨-S‑p-¯n-‑ «pÅXv‑v. F-Ã‑m-hÀ-¡‑p‑w a‑n-I-¨-X‑p‑w k‑p-Ø‑n-c-h‑p-a‑m-b `‑m-h‑n k‑r-
ã‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶-X‑m-W‑v e-£‑y‑w.
2030þ-H‑m-s‑S F-Ã‑m X-c-¯‑n-e‑p-a‑p-Å Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y‑w A-h-k‑m-\‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶-X‑m-W‑v F-k‑v-U‑n-P‑n-
I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w. C‑u e-£‑y-§-s‑f h‑n-i-Z-a‑m-b‑n a-\-Ê‑n-e‑m-¡‑m‑w
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 1. C‑u e-£‑y-¯‑n-\‑v G-g‑v e-£‑y-§-f‑p‑w ]‑p-t‑c‑m-K-X‑n A-f-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-
\‑p-Å 13 k‑q-N-I-§-f‑p-a‑p-ï‑v. I-S‑p-¯ Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y‑w X‑p-S-¨‑p-\‑o-¡‑p-I‑, F-Ã‑m Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y-h‑p‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-
¡‑p-I‑, k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I k‑w-c-£-W k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§Ä Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v e-£‑y‑w. C‑u
e-£‑y‑w s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å a‑mÀ-K-§-f‑nÂ Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y‑w A-h-k‑m-\‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å h‑n-`-
h-§Ä k-a‑m-l-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑p‑w F-Ã‑mX-e-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y \‑nÀ-a‑mÀ-P-\ \-b N-«-¡‑q-S‑p-IÄ k‑r-
ã‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. k‑p-Ø‑n-c I‑r-j‑n t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑q-s‑S ]-«‑n-W‑n A-h-
k‑m-\‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, `-£‑y k‑p-c-£s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-I‑, t‑]‑m-j-I‑m-l‑m-c‑w s‑a-¨-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-
b‑m-W‑v SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 2. C‑u e-£‑y-¯‑n-\‑v F-«‑v e-£‑y-§-f‑p‑w ]‑p-t‑c‑m-K-X‑n A-f-¡‑m-\‑p-Å
14 k‑q-N-I-§-f‑p-a‑p-ï‑v, ]-«‑n-W‑n-b‑p‑w F-Ã‑m-¯-c‑w t‑]‑m-j-I‑m-l‑m-c-¡‑p-d-h‑p‑w A-h-k‑m-\‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑,
I‑mÀ-j‑n-I DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-£-a-X hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, k‑p-Ø‑n-c `-£‑y DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\ k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§Ä
t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I. C‑u e-£‑y‑w s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å a‑mÀ-K-§-f‑nÂ I‑mÀ-j‑n-I h‑n-]-
W‑n-I-f‑n-s‑e h‑y‑m-]‑m-c\‑n-b-{‑´-W-§-f‑p‑w h‑n-I-e-§-f‑p‑w A-`‑n-k‑w-t‑_‑m-[-\ s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑v DÄ-s‑¸-
S‑p-¶‑p.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 3. B-t‑c‑m-K‑y-I-c-a‑m-b P‑o-h‑n-X‑w D-d-¸‑m-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w F-Ã‑m {‑]‑m-b-¯‑n-
e‑p-a‑p-Å F-Ã‑m-hÀ-¡‑p‑w t‑£-a‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I F-¶-X‑m-W‑v. C‑u e-£‑y-
¯‑n-\‑v 13 e-£‑y-§-f‑p‑w ]‑p-t‑c‑m-K-X‑n A-f-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å 28 k‑q-N-I-§-f‑p-a‑p-ï‑v. a‑m-X‑r-þ-i‑n-i‑p
a-c-W-\‑n-c-¡‑v I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I‑, k‑m‑w-{‑I-a‑n-I-h‑p‑w k‑m‑w-{‑I-a‑n-I-a-Ã‑m-¯-X‑p-a‑m-b t‑c‑m-K-§-s‑f s‑N-d‑p-
¡‑p-I‑, a‑m-\-k‑n-I‑m-t‑c‑m-K‑y‑w s‑a-¨-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v e-£‑y‑w. C‑u e-£‑y‑w s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-
¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å a‑mÀ-K-§-f‑nÂ ]‑p-I-b‑n-e \‑n-b-{‑´-W-s‑¯-¡‑p-d‑n-¨‑p-Å t‑e‑m-I‑m-t‑c‑m-K‑y k‑w-L-
S-\-b‑p-s‑S N-«-¡‑q-S‑v I¬-s‑h³-j³ \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-I‑, B-t‑c‑m-K‑y [-\-k-l‑m-b‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑,
B-t‑K‑m-f B-t‑c‑m-K‑y A-]-I-S-k‑m-[‑y-X-IÄ-¡‑p-Å a‑p³-I‑qÀ a‑p-¶-d‑n-b‑n-¸‑v k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§Ä s‑a-
¨-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-I F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 4. F-Ã‑m-h-s‑c-b‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶-X‑p‑w X‑p-e‑y-h‑p-a‑m-b K‑p-W-\‑n-e-h‑m-
c-a‑p-Å h‑n-Z‑y‑m-`‑y‑m-k‑w D-d-¸‑m-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w F-Ã‑m-hÀ-¡‑p‑w B-P‑o-h-\‑m-´ ]T-\ A-h-k-c-§Ä
t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I F-¶-X‑m-W‑v. k‑u-P-\‑y s‑s‑{‑]-a-d‑n‑, s‑k-¡³-U-d‑n h‑n-Z‑y‑m-
`‑y‑m-k‑w \Â-IÂ‑, K‑p-W-t‑a-·-b‑p-Å {‑]‑o-þ-s‑s‑{‑]-a-d‑n h‑n-Z‑y‑m-`‑y‑m-k-¯‑n-\‑v X‑p-e‑y {‑]-t‑h-i-\‑w D-d-
¸‑m-¡Â‑, k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-\‑p‑w B-t‑K‑m-f ]‑u-c-X‑z-¯‑n-\‑p-a‑m-b‑n h‑n-Z‑y‑m-`‑y‑m-k‑w t‑{‑]‑m-
Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡Â F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S ]‑p-t‑c‑m-K-X‑n A-f-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å ]-¯‑v e-£‑y-§-f‑p‑w 11
k‑q-N-I-§-f‑p‑w C‑u e-£‑y-¯‑n-\‑p-ï‑v. C‑u e-£‑y‑w s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å a‑mÀ-K-§Ä DÄ-
s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶-X‑p‑w k‑p-c-£‑n-X-h‑p-a‑m-b k-‑v-I‑q-f‑p-IÄ \‑nÀ-½‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w \-h‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-
¿‑p-I‑, D-¶-X h‑n-Z‑y‑m-`‑y‑m-k k‑v-t‑I‑m-fÀ-j‑n-¸‑p-IÄ h‑n-]‑p-e‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-I‑, t‑b‑m-K‑y-X-b‑p-Å A-[‑y‑m-
]-I-c‑p-s‑S h‑n-X-c-W‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 5. e‑n‑w-K-k-a-X‑z‑w s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w F-Ã‑m k‑v-{‑X‑o-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w s‑]¬-
I‑p-«‑n-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w i‑m-à‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I F-¶-X‑m-W‑v F-k‑v-U‑n-P‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S A-©‑m-a-s‑¯
e-£‑y‑w. t‑P‑m-e‑n-Ø-e-s‑¯ h‑n-t‑h-N-\-h‑p‑w A-{‑I-a-h‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S-b‑p-Å h‑n-t‑h-N-\-§-f‑nÂ
\‑n-¶‑v a‑p-à-a‑m-b‑n P‑o-h‑n-¡‑m³ k‑v-{‑X‑o-IÄ-¡‑p‑w s‑]¬-I‑p-«‑n-IÄ-¡‑p‑w X‑p-e‑yA-h-I‑m-i-§-f‑p‑w
A-h-k-c-§-f‑p‑w \Â-I‑p-I F-¶-X‑m-W‑v C‑u e-£‑y‑w. "B-s‑c-b‑p‑w ]‑n-¶‑n-e‑m-¡-c‑p-X‑v' F-¶
{‑]-X‑n-Ú-b‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p‑w G-ä-h‑p‑w ]‑n-¶‑n-e‑p-Å-hÀ-¡‑v A-X‑n-t‑h-K ]‑p-t‑c‑m-K-X‑n-b‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p‑w C‑u
e-£‑y‑w s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑m-\‑m-I‑p‑w.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 6. k‑q-N-I-§-f‑mÂ A-f-¡‑p-¶ 8 e-£‑y-§Ä s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑q-
s‑S F-Ã‑m-hÀ-¡‑p‑w k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b P-e-h‑p‑w i‑p-N‑n-X‑z ]-c‑n-]‑m-e-\-h‑p‑w D-d-¸‑m-¡‑m³ SDG 6 e-£‑y-
a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p. k‑p-c-£‑n-X-h‑p‑w X‑m-§‑m-\‑m-h‑p-¶-X‑p-a‑m-b I‑p-S‑n-s‑h-Å‑w‑, i‑p-N‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-\‑p‑w i‑p-N‑n-
X‑z-¯‑n-\‑p-a‑p-Å e-`‑y-X‑, s‑a-¨-s‑¸-« P-e-¯‑n-s‑â K‑p-W-\‑n-e-h‑m-c‑w‑, a-e‑n-\-P-e k‑w-kv-I -‑ -c-W‑w‑,
P-e-þ-D-]-t‑b‑m-K I‑m-c‑y-£-a-X-b‑p‑w i‑p-²-P-e h‑n-X-c-W-h‑p‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡Â‑, P-e-h‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-
s‑¸-« B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-I-f‑p-s‑S k‑w-c-£-W‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v B-d‑v "^-e-§-s‑f A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\-
a‑m-¡‑n-b‑p-Å e-£‑y-§Ä". h‑n-I-k‑z-c c‑m-P‑y-§-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑v P-e-þ-i‑p-N‑o-I-c-W ]‑n-´‑p-W h‑n-]‑p-e‑o-
I-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w P-e-þ-i‑p-N‑o-I-c-W ]-c‑n-]‑m-e-\-¯‑n-s‑e {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I C-S-s‑]-S-e‑p-I-s‑f ]‑n-´‑p-W-
b‑v-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I F-¶-X‑m-W‑v e-£‑y-§Ä s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å c-ï‑v a‑mÀ-K-§Ä.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 7. F-Ã‑m-hÀ-¡‑p‑w X‑m-§‑m-\‑m-h‑p-¶-X‑p‑w h‑n-i‑z-k-\‑o-b-h‑p‑w k‑p-Ø‑n-c-
h‑p‑w B-[‑p-\‑n-I-h‑p-a‑m-b D‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑p-Å {‑]-t‑h-i-\‑w D-d-¸‑m-¡‑p-I-b‑m-W‑v SDG 7 e-£‑y-a‑n-
S‑p-¶-X‑v. B-d‑v k‑q-N-I-§-f‑mÂ A-f-¡‑p-¶ A-©‑v e-£‑y-§-f‑m-W‑v e-£‑y-¯‑n-\‑p-Å-X‑v. A-©‑v
e-£‑y-§-f‑nÂ a‑q-s‑¶-®‑w "^-e e-£‑y-§Ä" B-W‑v: B-[‑p-\‑n-I D‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑p-Å k‑mÀ-
h-{‑X‑n-I {‑]-t‑h-i-\‑w; ]‑p-\-c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-KD‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-s‑â B-t‑K‑m-fi-X-a‑m-\‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I;
D‑uÀ-Ö I‑m-c‑y-£-a-X-b‑nÂ C-c-«‑n ]‑p-t‑c‑m-K-X‑n. t‑i-j‑n-¡‑p-¶ c-ï‑v e-£‑y-§Ä "e-£‑y-§Ä
s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å a‑mÀ-¤-§Ä" B-W‑v: K-t‑h-j-W‑w‑, k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I-h‑n-Z‑y‑, i‑p-²-a‑m-b D‑uÀ-
Ö-¯‑nÂ \‑n-t‑£-]‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑n-t‑e-¡‑p-Å {‑]-t‑h-i-\‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I; h‑n-I-k‑z-c c‑m-
P‑y-§Ä-¡‑m-b‑n D‑uÀ-Ö t‑k-h-\-§Ä h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w \-h‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 8. e-£‑y-§Ä s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑q-s‑S k‑p-Ø‑n-c-h‑p-a‑m-b k‑m-¼-
¯‑n-I h-fÀ-¨‑, k-¼‑qÀ-®-h‑p‑w DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-]-c-h‑p-a‑m-b s‑X‑m-g‑nÂ‑, F-Ã‑m-hÀ-¡‑p‑w a‑m-\‑y-a‑m-b
t‑P‑m-e‑n F-¶‑n-h t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-\‑m-W‑v SDG 8 e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑v. k‑p-Ø‑n-c k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I
h-fÀ-¨‑, s‑X‑m-g‑n-e-h-k-c-§Ä k‑r-ã‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å \-b-§-f‑p-s‑S t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l-\‑w‑, k-¼‑qÀ-®
s‑X‑m-g‑n-e‑p‑w a‑m-\‑y-a‑m-b t‑P‑m-e‑n-b‑p‑w‑, b‑p-h‑m-¡-f‑p-s‑S s‑X‑m-g‑n-e‑p‑w ]-c‑n-i‑o-e-\-h‑p‑w‑, B-[‑p-\‑n-I
A-S‑n-a-¯‑w A-h-k‑m-\‑n-¸‑n-¡Â‑, s‑X‑m-g‑nÂ A-h-I‑m-i-§Ä k‑w-c-£‑n-¡Â‑, {‑]-t‑b‑m-P-\-I-c-
h‑p‑w k‑p-Ø‑n-c-h‑p-a‑m-b S‑q-d‑n-k‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡Â‑, k‑mÀ-h-{‑X‑n-I {‑]-t‑h-i-\‑w F-¶‑n-h DÄ-
s‑¸-S‑p-¶ B-Z‑y ]-¯‑nÂ "^-e e-£‑y-§Ä" DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. _‑m-¦‑n‑w-K‑v, C³-j‑p-d³-k‑v, k‑m-¼-
¯‑n-I t‑k-h-\-§Ä F-¶‑n-h- I‑q-S‑m-s‑X‑, e-£‑y-§Ä s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å c-ï‑v a‑mÀ¤§-
f‑p-ï‑v: h‑y‑m-]‑m-c]‑n-´‑p-W-b--¡‑v ‑p-Å k-l‑m-b‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, B-t‑K‑m-fb‑p-h‑m-¡-f‑p-s‑S s‑X‑m-
g‑nÂ X-{‑´‑w h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 9. {‑]-X‑n-t‑c‑m-[-t‑i-j‑n-b‑p-Å ASnØm\kuIcy§Ä \‑nÀ-½‑n-¡‑p-I‑,

DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶-X‑p‑w k‑p-Ø‑n-c-h‑p-a‑m-b h‑y-h-k‑m-b-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, ]-{‑´-
ï‑v k‑q-N-I-§-f‑mÂ A-f-¡‑p-¶ F-«‑v e-£‑y-§Ä s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑q-s‑S \-h‑o-I-c-W-s‑¯
t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p. k‑p-Ø‑n-c-h‑p‑w k‑p-Ø‑n-c-X DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶-X‑p-
a‑m-b C³-{‑^‑m-k‑v-{‑S-I‑v-N-d‑p-IÄ h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, k‑p-Ø‑n-c-h‑p-a‑m-b h‑y-h-k‑m-b-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w
t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I t‑k-h-\-§-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑p‑w h‑n-]-W‑n-I-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑p‑w {‑]-t‑h-i-\‑w
hÀ-[‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, k‑p-Ø‑n-c-X-b‑v-¡‑m-b‑n F-Ã‑m h‑y-h-k‑m-b-§-f‑p‑w A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\ k‑u-I-c‑y-§-
f‑p‑w \-h‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-I‑, K-t‑h-j-W-§-f‑p‑w \-h‑o-I-c-W§-f‑p‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v B-Z‑y-s‑¯ A-©‑v
e-£‑y-§Ä. t‑i-j‑n-¡‑p-¶ a‑q-¶‑v e-£‑y-§Ä h‑n-I-k‑z-c c‑m-P‑y-§Ä-¡‑v k‑p-Ø‑n-c A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\
k‑u-I-c‑y h‑n-I-k-\‑w‑, B-`‑y-´-c k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I h‑n-I-k-\‑w‑, h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-hÂ-¡-c-
W‑w F-¶‑n-h-s‑b ]‑n-´‑p-W-b--¡ ‑v ‑p-I‑, h‑n-h-c‑, B-i-b-h‑n-\‑n-a-b k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I-h‑n-Z‑y-I-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑p-Å
k‑mÀ-h-{‑X‑n-I {‑]-t‑h-i-\‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S t‑\-S‑m-\‑p-Å a‑mÀ-¤-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 10. k‑q-N-I-§Ä D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¨‑v A-f-¡‑p-¶ ]-¯‑v e-£‑y-§Ä s‑s‑I-
h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑q-s‑S c‑m-P‑y-§Ä-¡‑n-S-b‑n-Â h-c‑p-a‑m-\ A-k-a-X‑z‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I-b‑m-W‑v SDG 10
e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑v. h-c‑p-a‑m-\ A-k-a-X‑z-§Ä I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I‑, k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I-h‑p‑w k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I-h‑p‑w
c‑m-{‑ã‑o-b-h‑p-a‑m-b thÀXncnhpIÄ t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑mX‑nc‑n--¡‑p-I‑, X‑p-e‑y A-h-k-c-§Ä D-d-
¸‑m-¡‑p-I- h‑n-t‑h-N-\‑w A-h-k‑m-\‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I- X‑p-e‑y-X t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶ k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I‑, k‑m-
a‑q-l‑n-I \-b-§Ä k‑z‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-I‑, B-t‑K‑m-f k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I h‑n-]-W‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w Ø‑m-]-\-§-f‑p-
s‑S-b‑p‑w \‑n-b-{‑´-W‑w s‑a-¨-s‑¸-S‑p-¯Â F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ B-Z‑y G-g‑v e-£‑y-§-f‑m-W‑v "^-e
e-£‑y-§Ä'. [-\-I‑m-c‑y Ø‑m-]-\-§-f‑nÂ h‑n-I-k‑z-c c‑m-P‑y-§Ä-¡‑p-Å {‑]‑m-X‑n-\‑n-[‑y‑w hÀ-
[‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑; D-¯-c-h‑m-Z‑n-¯-a‑p-Å-X‑p‑w \-¶‑m-b‑n s‑s‑I-I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑p-a‑m-b s‑s‑a-t‑{‑K-j³
\-b-§Ä \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-I; h‑n-I-k‑z-c c‑m-P‑y-§Ä-¡‑p-Å {‑]-t‑X‑y-I-h‑p‑w h‑y-X‑y-k‑v-X-h‑p-a‑m-b N‑n-
I‑n-Õ‑; AhnIknX cmPy§fnte¡pÅ h‑n-I-k‑n-X c‑m-P‑y-§-f‑p-sS- \‑n-t‑£-]-w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-
¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑; I‑p-S‑n-t‑b-ä-¡‑m-c‑p-s‑S ]-W-a‑n-S-]‑m-S‑p-IÄ-¡‑p-Å C-S-]‑m-S‑v s‑N-e-h‑v I‑p-d-b‑v-¡Â F-¶‑n-h-
b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S-b‑p-Å "t‑\-«-¯‑n-\‑p-Å a‑mÀ-¤-§Ä' F¶nhbm-W‑v a-ä‑v a‑q-¶‑v e-£‑y-§Ä.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 11. k‑q-N-I-§Ä D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¨‑v A-f-¡‑p-¶ ]-¯‑v e-£‑y-§Ä s‑s‑I-
h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑q-s‑S \-K-c-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w a-\‑p-j‑y-h‑m-k t‑I-{‑µ-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶-X‑p‑w k‑p-
c-£‑n-X-h‑p‑w {‑]-X‑n-t‑c‑m-[-t‑i-j‑n-b‑p-Å-X‑p‑w k‑p-Ø‑n-c-h‑p-a‑m-¡‑m³ SDG 11 e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p. k‑p-c-
£‑n-X-h‑p‑w X‑m-§‑m-\‑m-h‑p-¶-X‑p-a‑m-b `-h-\-§Ä‑, K-X‑m-K-X k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§Ä‑, k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b
\-K-c-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w‑, t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑â k‑m‑w-kv-I -‑ ‑m-c‑n-I-h‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯-h‑p-a‑m-b s‑s‑]-X‑r-I k‑w-c-
£-W‑w‑, {‑]-I‑r-X‑n Z‑p-c-´-§-f‑p-s‑S {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e ^-e-§Ä I‑p-d-b‑v-¡Â‑, \-K-c-§-f‑p-s‑S ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-
X‑n-I B-L‑m-X-§Ä I‑p-d-b‑v-¡Â‑, F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v G-g‑v "^-e e-£‑y-§Ä". k‑p-c-£‑n-X-a‑m-b
s‑]‑m-X‑p C-S-§-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑p-Å {‑]-t‑h-i-\‑w, i-à-a‑m-b t‑Z-i‑o-b‑, {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I h‑n-I-k-\ B-k‑q-{‑X-
W‑w‑ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å \-b-§Ä‑, h‑n-`-h-t‑i-j‑n‑, Z‑p-c-´-k‑m-[‑y-X I‑p-d-b‑v-¡Â‑, k‑p-Ø‑n-
c-h‑p‑w {‑]-X‑n-t‑c‑m-[-t‑i-j‑n-b‑p-Å-X‑p-a‑m-b s‑I-«‑n-S-§Ä¡v h‑n-I-k‑n-X c‑m-P‑y-§Ä-¡‑p-Å ]‑n-´‑p-W
F-¶‑n-h "t‑\-S‑m-\‑p-Å a‑mÀ-¤-§fn'Â DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 12. SDG 12 e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑v 11 e-£‑y-§Ä s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑q-s‑S
k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b D-]-t‑`‑m-K-h‑p‑w DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\ c‑o-X‑n-I-f‑p‑w D-d-¸‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, k‑p-Ø‑n-c D-]-t‑`‑m-K-h‑p‑w
DÂ-]‑m-Z-\ c‑o-X‑n-I-f‑p‑w k‑w-_-Ô‑n-¨ t‑{‑]‑m-{‑K‑m-a‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S 10 hÀ-j-s‑¯ N-«-¡‑q-S‑v \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-
¡‑p-I‑. {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S k‑p-Ø‑n-c a‑m-t‑\-P‑v-s‑aâ‑p‑w I‑m-c‑y-£-a-a‑m-b D-]-t‑b‑m-K-h‑p‑w s‑s‑I-
h-c‑n-¡‑p-I‑, `-£‑y a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§Ä I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I‑, s‑]‑m-X‑p k‑w-`-c-W‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I, k‑p-
Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b k-{‑¼-Z‑m-b-§Ä. h‑n-I-k‑z-c c‑m-P‑y-§-s‑f A-h-c‑p-s‑S i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑o-b-h‑p‑w k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I-
h‑p-a‑m-b t‑i-j‑n i-à‑n-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v ]‑n-´‑p-W-b‑v-¡‑p-I F¶nhbmWv e-£‑y-§Ä s‑s‑I-
h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å a‑q-¶‑v a‑mÀ-K-§Ä.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 13. \‑q-ä‑m-ï‑n-s‑â a-[‑y-t‑¯‑m-s‑S H-c‑p I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m-þ-\‑n-j--] ‑v -£ t‑e‑m-
I‑w s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\‑w 2 U‑n-{‑K‑n s‑kÂ-j‑y-k‑nÂ X‑m-s‑g-b‑m-b‑n ]-c‑n-a‑n-X-s‑¸-
S‑p-¯‑m-\‑p‑w {‑i-a‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I h-fÀ-¨-b‑v-¡‑v a‑p³-]‑p-Å k-a-b-h‑p-a‑m-b‑n X‑m-c-X-a‑y‑w
s‑N-¿‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ 1. 5 U‑n-{‑K‑n s‑kÂ-j‑y-k‑v F-¶ e-£‑y-t‑¯‑m-s‑S I‑p-d-ª h‑n-I‑n-k‑n-X c‑m-P‑y-§-
s‑f ]‑n-´‑p-W-b‑v-¡‑p-¶-X‑nÂ {‑]-t‑X‑y-I {‑i-² t‑I-{‑µ‑o-I-c‑n-¨‑v, c‑m-P‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø {‑]-X‑n-
t‑c‑m-[-t‑i-j‑n-b‑p‑w A-U‑m-]‑v-ä‑o-h‑v t‑i-j‑n-b‑p‑w i-à‑n-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-I-b‑m-W‑v C-X‑v e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑v.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 14. h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑n k-a‑p-{‑Z-§Ä‑, I-S-e‑p-IÄ‑, k-a‑p-{‑Z h‑n-`-h-§Ä
F-¶‑n-h k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b‑n D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m-\‑m-W‑v SDG 14 e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑v. k-a‑p-{‑Za-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w
I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I‑, B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-s‑b k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w ]‑p-\‑x-Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I‑,
X‑o-c-t‑Z-i-þ-k-a‑p-{‑Z {‑]-t‑Z-i-§Ä k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ G-g‑v ^-ee-£‑y-§-f‑m-
W‑v C-X‑n-\‑v D-Å-X‑v. e-£‑y-§Ä s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å a‑q-¶‑v a‑mÀ-K-§Ä i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑o-b A-d‑n-
h‑v hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, s‑N-d‑p-I‑n-S a-Õ‑y-s‑¯‑m-g‑n-e‑m-f‑n-I-s‑f ]‑n-´‑p-W-b‑v-¡‑p-I‑, A-´‑m-c‑m-{‑ã I-SÂ
\‑n-b-a‑w \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-I- F¶nhbmWv. B-t‑K‑m-f I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑mh‑y-h-Ø-s‑b \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡‑p-¶-
X‑n-\‑v k-a‑p-{‑Z-§Ä \‑nÀ-W‑m-b-I-a‑m-W‑v, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X kap{Z§fmIs« A-d‑n-b-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ Z-i-e-£‑w
P‑o-h‑n-hÀ-K-§-f‑p-s‑S B-h‑m-kt‑I-{‑µ-h‑p-a‑m-W‑v. 3 _‑n-e‑y-W‑n-e-[‑n-I‑w B-f‑p-IÄ X-§-f‑p-s‑S D-]-
P‑o-h-\-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑n k-a‑p-{‑Z-P‑o-h‑n-I-s‑f B-{‑i-b‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. k-a‑p-{‑Z-§-f‑p-s‑S k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b D-]-t‑b‑m-
K‑w s‑a-¨-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v hÀ-²‑n-¨‑p-h-c‑p-¶ k-a‑p-{‑Z-¯‑n-s‑e A-¾‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e^-
e-§Ä e-L‑q-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v ^-e-{‑]-Z-a‑m-b X-{‑´-§Ä B-h-i‑y-a‑m-W‑v.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 15. `‑u-a B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p-s‑S k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑w k‑w-c-
£‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w ]‑p-\‑x-Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w h-\-§-s‑f k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b‑n s‑s‑I-
I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿‑m-\‑p‑w a-c‑p-`‑q-hÂ-¡-c-W-s‑¯ s‑N-d‑p-¡‑m-\‑p‑w `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S \-i‑o-I-c-W‑w X-S-b‑m-\‑p‑w
h‑n-]-c‑o-X-a‑m-¡‑m-\‑p‑w s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y \-ã‑w X-S-b‑m-\‑p‑w SDG 15 e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p. `‑u-a‑, i‑p-²-
P-e B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-I-s‑f k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w ]‑p-\‑x-Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I‑, s‑s‑P-h-
s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-h‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑p‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I‑, kÀ-¡‑mÀ B-k‑q-{‑X-W-
¯‑nÂ B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-s‑b-b‑p‑w s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-s‑¯-b‑p‑w k‑w-t‑b‑m-P‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-
b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S H-¼-X‑v ^-e e-£‑y-§-f‑p-ï‑v. B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-s‑b-b‑p‑w s‑s‑P-h-s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-s‑¯-
b‑p‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w k‑p-Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b‑n D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-a‑p-Å k‑m-¼-¯‑n-It‑{‑k‑m-
X-Ê‑p-IÄ hÀ-[‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, k‑p-Ø‑n-c h-\]-c‑n-]‑m-e-\-¯‑n-\‑v [-\-k-l‑m-b-h‑p‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l-\-
h‑p‑w‑, B-t‑K‑m-f t‑h-«-b‑m-SÂ‑, arKI-S-¯‑v F-¶‑n-h-s‑b s‑N-d‑p-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v e-£‑y-§Ä
s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å a‑q-¶‑v a‑mÀ-K-§Ä. `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S D-]-c‑n-X-e-¯‑n-s‑â 30 i-X-a‑m-\-h‑p‑w
h-\-§Ä DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p‑, Z-i-e-£-¡-W-¡‑n-\‑v P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§Ä-¡‑v k‑p-{‑]-[‑m-\-a‑m-b B-h‑m-
kh‑y-h-Ø-IÄ \Â-I‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-s‑¯ s‑N-d‑p-¡‑p-¶-X‑nÂ CXv \‑nÀ-W‑m-
b-I-a‑m-W‑v.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 16. k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑n k-a‑m-[‑m-\-]-c-a‑m-b‑n- k-a‑q-l-§-s‑f
t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, F-Ã‑m-hÀ-¡‑p‑w \‑o-X‑n e-`‑y-a‑m-¡‑p-I‑, F-Ã‑m X-e-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w ^-e-{‑]-Z-h‑p‑w
D-¯-c-h‑m-Z‑n-¯-a‑p-Å-X‑p‑w Bb Ø‑m-]-\-§Ä s‑I-«‑n-s¸-S‑p-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v SDG 16 e-£‑y-
a‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑v. A-{‑I-a‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I‑, \‑n-b-a-h‑m-g‑v-N t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I‑, \‑o-X‑n-¡‑v X‑p-e‑y-a‑m-b
{‑]-t‑h-i-\‑w D-d-¸‑m-¡‑p-I‑, ^-e-{‑]-Z-h‑p‑w D-¯-c-h‑m-Z‑n-¯-a‑p-Å-X‑p‑w k‑p-X‑m-c‑y-h‑p-a‑m-b Ø‑m-]-\-
§Ä h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S ]-¯‑v D] e-£‑y-§-f‑p-ï‑v. A-{‑I-a‑w X-S-b‑p-¶-X‑n-
\‑p‑w I‑p-ä-I‑r-X‑y-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w `‑o-I-c-X-s‑b-b‑p‑w s‑N-d‑p-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w h‑n-t‑h-N-\-c-l‑n-X-a‑m-b \‑n-b-a-
§-f‑p‑w \-b-§-f‑p‑w t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-b‑n t‑Z-i‑o-b
Ø‑m-]-\-§-s‑f i-à‑n-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v e-£‑y-§Ä s‑s‑I-h-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å c-ï‑v
a‑mÀ-¤-§Ä.
SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 17. SDG 17 \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å a‑mÀ-K-§Ä i-à‑n-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-
\‑p‑w k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑p-Å B-t‑K‑m-f ]-¦‑m-f‑n-¯‑w ]‑p-\-c‑p-Ö‑o-h‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w
e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p. C-X‑n-\‑v 19 D] e-£‑y-§-f‑p‑w 24 k‑q-N-I-§-f‑p-a‑p-ï‑v. A-d‑n-h‑v, s‑s‑h-Z-K‑v-[‑y‑w‑,
k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I-h‑n-Z‑y‑, k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I k-l‑m-b‑w F-¶‑n-h ]-¦‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v aÄ-«‑n-þ-t‑Ì-¡‑v-t‑l‑mÄ-UÀ
]-¦‑m-f‑n-¯‑w h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v F-k‑v-U‑n-P‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S s‑a‑m-¯-¯‑n-e‑p-Å h‑n-P-b-¯‑n-\‑v \‑nÀ-W‑m-
b-I-a‑m-b‑n I‑m-W‑p-¶‑p. e-£‑y‑w h-S-¡‑v-þ-s‑X-¡‑v, s‑X-¡‑v-þ-s‑X-¡‑v k-l-I-c-W‑w s‑a-¨-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-
X‑v DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X k‑n-h‑nÂ k-a‑q-l-§Ä DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ s‑]‑m-X‑p-þ-k‑z-I‑m-c‑y ]-¦‑m-f‑n-
¯‑w {‑]-t‑X‑y-I‑w ]-c‑m-aÀ-i‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
SDG-IÄ \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-¶-X‑v 2016þÂ t‑e‑m-I-s‑a-¼‑m-S‑p‑w B-c‑w-`‑n-¨‑p‑ Ignªp "SDG-IÄ
{‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I-hÂ-¡-c‑n-¡‑p-I' F-¶‑p‑w CXv A-d‑n-b-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. h‑y-à‑n-IÄ‑, kÀ-Æ-I-e‑m-i‑m-e-IÄ‑,
kÀ-¡‑m-c‑p-IÄ‑, Ø‑m-]-\-§Ä‑, F-¶‑n-h H-t‑c k-a-b‑w H-t‑¶‑m A-X‑n-e-[‑n-I-t‑a‑m e-£‑y-§-
f‑nÂ {‑]-hÀ-¯‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. A-´‑m-c‑m-{‑ãmX-e-¯‑n-e‑p-Å G-t‑I‑m-]-\‑w \‑nÀ-W‑m-b-I-a‑m-W‑v. k‑m-¼-
¯‑n-I t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-I-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑v {‑]-t‑h-i-\‑w I‑p-d-h‑p-Å c‑m-P‑y-§Ä-¡‑v I‑q-S‑p-XÂ \-Ã c‑m-P‑y-§-
f‑p-a‑m-b‑n ]-¦‑m-f‑n-¯‑w B-h-i‑y-a‑m-s‑W-¶Xv‑ SDG-IÄ {‑i-²‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
``
BLOCK -4
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n s‑s‑\-X‑n-I-X-b‑p‑w
k-a-I‑m-e‑n-I ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n {‑]-i‑v-\-§-f‑p‑w
UNIT-1
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n s‑s‑\-X‑n-I-X-b‑p-s‑S B-i-b‑w
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-« h‑n-h‑n-[ [‑mÀ-½‑n-I B-i-b-§Ä C-h‑n-s‑S NÀ-¨ s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p.
]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I s‑s‑\-X‑n-I-X-b‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑m-W‑v C-X‑v B-c‑w-`‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v, A-X‑v a-\‑p-t‑j‑y-X-c P‑o-h‑n-
I-s‑f DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶- ]-c-¼-c‑m-K-X [‑mÀ-½‑n-I A-X‑n-c‑p-IÄ h‑n-]‑p-e‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p---Ib‑p‑w- s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p.
a-ä‑v P‑o-h‑n-I-t‑f-¡‑mÄ a-\‑p-j‑yÀ t‑{‑i-j‑vT-c‑m-s‑W-¶ h‑n-i‑z‑m-k-a‑m-b‑m-W‑v B-t‑{‑´‑m-t‑]‑m-s‑k³-{‑S‑n-
k‑w NÀ-¨ s‑N-¿-s‑¸-S‑p-¶-X‑v, A-t‑X-k-a-b‑w _-t‑b‑m-s‑k³-{‑S‑n-k‑w F-Ã‑m P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§Ä-¡‑p‑w
X‑p-e‑y-a‑m-b [‑mÀ-½‑n-I]-c‑n-K-W-\ AÀ-l‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p F-¶‑v h‑n-i‑z-k‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. A-h-k‑m-\-a‑m-b‑n‑,
C-t‑¡‑m-s‑k³-{‑S‑n-k‑w P‑o-h-\‑p-Å-X‑p‑w A-Ã‑m-¯-X‑p-a‑m-b L-S-I-§Ä DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S-b‑p-Å B-h‑m-k-
h‑y-h-Ø-I-f‑p-s‑S A-´À-e‑o-\-a‑m-b a‑q-e‑y‑w X‑n-c‑n-¨-d‑n-b‑p-¶‑p. ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I {‑]-i--\
‑v -§-s‑f-b‑p‑w
k‑w-c-£-W {‑i-a-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w \‑m‑w F-§-s‑\ k-a‑o-]‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p F-¶-X‑nÂ C‑u B-i-b-§Ä-¡‑v
I‑m-c‑y-a‑m-b k‑z‑m-[‑o-\-a‑p-ï‑v.
]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I s‑s‑\-X‑n-I-X X-¯‑z-N‑n-´-b‑p-s‑S H-c‑p i‑m-J-b‑m-W‑v, A-X‑v a-\‑p-t‑j‑y-X-c P‑o-h‑n-
I-s‑f DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑m-b‑n [‑mÀ-½‑n-I]-c‑n-K-W-\-IÄ h‑n-]‑p-e‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. \‑n-b-a‑w‑, k‑m-
¼-¯‑n-I i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w‑, `‑q-a‑n-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w X‑p-S-§‑n \‑n-c-h-[‑n ]T-\t‑a-J-e-I-s‑f C-X‑v k‑z‑m-[‑o-\‑n-¡‑p-
¶‑p. ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n s‑s‑\-X‑n-I-X {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-t‑b‑m-S‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-t‑b‑m-S‑p-a‑p-Å [‑mÀ-½‑n-I k‑z-`‑m-h‑w
t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p. C-X‑v a-\‑p-t‑j‑y-X-c P‑o-h‑n-If‑p-s‑S A-h-I‑m-i-§Ä
A‑w-K‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w k-k‑y-§Ä-¡‑p‑w a‑r-K-§Ä-¡‑p‑w H-¸‑w a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑c k-a‑q-l-¯‑n-s‑â `‑m-K-
a‑m-b‑n I‑m-W‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑p‑w `‑q-a‑n-b‑p‑w X-½‑nÂ \-Ã _-Ô‑w Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑nÂ
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n s‑s‑\-X‑n-I-X \‑nÀ-W‑m-b-I-a‑m-W‑v.
a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑\ [‑mÀ-½‑n-I ]-c‑n-K-W-\-b‑p-s‑S t‑I-{‑µ-¯‑nÂ {‑]-X‑n-j‑vT‑n-¡‑p-¶ H-c‑p h‑n-i‑z‑m-k-a‑m-
W‑v \-c-h‑w-i t‑I-{‑µ‑o-I-c-W‑w. A-X‑v a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑c {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v t‑h-d‑n-«‑p-\‑nÂ-¡‑p-¶-h-
c‑p‑w t‑{‑i-j‑vT-c‑p-a‑m-b‑n I-W-¡‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, C-X‑v ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑¡-X‑n-c‑m-b {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-s‑¯ \‑y‑m-b‑o-
I-c‑n-¡‑m³ I‑mc-Wa‑m-‑I‑‑pw- . F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, N‑n-e ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n s‑s‑\-X‑n-Ih‑m-Z‑n-IÄ \-c-h‑w-i
t‑I-{‑µ‑o-I-c-W-s‑¯ h‑n-aÀ-i‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-s‑\-X‑n-s‑c h‑m-Z‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑. I‑m-c-W‑w A-X‑v \‑n-b-a‑m-\‑p-k‑r-
X-h‑p‑w \‑n-b-a-h‑n-c‑p-²-h‑p-a‑m-b a-\‑p-j‑yX‑mÂ-¸-c‑y-§Ä X-½‑nÂ t‑hÀ-X‑n-c‑n-¨-d‑n-b‑m³ ]-c‑m-P-b-
s‑¸-t‑«-¡‑m‑w. a‑m-\‑p-j‑n-I A-k-a-X‑z-§-s‑f A-`‑n-k‑w-t‑_‑m-[-\ s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑v ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑w-c-
£-W-¯‑n-\‑v A-X‑y-´‑m-t‑]-£‑n-X-a‑m-s‑W-¶‑p‑w B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-IÄ a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑p-s‑S P‑o-h‑n-X
]‑n-´‑p-W‑m k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-a‑m-s‑W-¶‑p‑w A-hÀ h‑m-Z‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. A-h-k‑m-\-a‑m-b‑n‑, a-\‑p-j‑y-c-Ã‑m-¯-h-
c‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S a-ä‑p-Å-h-s‑cb‑p‑w k‑v-t‑\-l‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å H-c‑p X‑p-S-¡-a‑m-b‑n‑ a‑m-dW‑w a‑‑ -\‑p-j‑y-s‑â
B-ß-k‑v-t‑\-l‑w.
[‑mÀ-½‑n-I ]-c‑n-K-W-\-b‑p-s‑S I‑m-c‑y-¯‑nÂ F-Ã‑m P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w X‑p-e‑y-a‑m-b‑n ]-c‑n-K-
W‑n-¡-W-s‑a-¶ B-i-b-a‑m-W‑v _-t‑b‑m-s‑k³-{‑S‑n-k‑w. P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-s‑f D-]-{‑Z-h‑n-¡‑m-X‑n-c‑n-¡‑m-
\‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑ps‑S h‑n-i‑p-²‑n D-bÀ-¯‑n-¸‑n-S‑n-¡‑m-\‑p-a‑p-Å B-{‑K-l-¯‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑m-W‑v C-X‑v D-Û-
h‑n-¨-X‑v. _-t‑b‑m-s‑k³-{‑S‑n-k‑w h‑y-à‑n-K-X L-S-I-§-f‑nÂ {‑i-² t‑I-{‑µ‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑n-Ã‑, ]-I-c‑w
H-c‑p s‑]‑m-X‑pX-e-¯‑nÂ {‑]-hÀ-¯‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. 1986þÂ t‑]‑mÄ s‑S-b--e ‑v À s‑d-k‑v-s‑]-I‑v-ä‑v t‑^‑mÀ t‑\-
¨À {‑]-k‑n-²‑o-I-c‑n-¨‑p‑, A-X‑v P‑o-h‑n-X-s‑¯-¡‑p-d‑n-¨‑p-Å _-t‑b‑m-s‑k³-{‑S‑n-I‑v h‑o-£-W-¯‑n-\‑p-Å
\‑m-e‑v A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\ X-X‑z-§Ä h‑n-h-c‑n-¨‑p.
a-d‑p-h-i-¯‑v, C-t‑¡‑m-s‑k³-{‑S‑n-k‑w h‑n-i‑z-k‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-IÄ-¡‑p‑w A-h-b‑v-
¡‑p-Å‑n-s‑e P‑o-h-\‑p-Å-X‑p‑w A-Ã‑m-¯-X‑p-a‑m-b F-Ã‑m L-S-I-§f‑n-‑e‑p‑w A-´À-e‑o-\-a‑m-b a‑q-e‑y-
a‑p-s‑ï-¶‑v h‑n-i‑z-k‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. C-t‑¡‑m-s‑k³-{‑S‑n-k‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑nt‑I-{‑µ‑o-I‑r-X-a‑m-b a‑q-e‑y-h‑y-h-Ø-s‑b
A‑w-K‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w \-c-h‑w-i t‑I-{‑µ‑o-I-c-W-s‑¯ F-X‑nÀ-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. _-t‑b‑m-s‑k³-
{‑S‑n-k-¯‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v h‑y-X‑y-k‑v-X-a‑m-b‑n‑, C-t‑¡‑m-s‑k³-{‑S‑n-k‑w B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-b‑n-s‑e A-P‑n-t‑b‑m-
«‑n-I‑v L-S-I-§-s‑f [‑mÀ-½‑n-I ]-c‑n-K-W-\-b‑nÂ ]-c‑n-K-W‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n h‑y-h-Ø-b‑v-¡‑v
s‑a‑m-¯-¯‑nÂ {‑]‑m-[‑m-\‑y‑w \Â-I‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. C-t‑¡‑m-s‑k³-{‑S‑n-k‑w BI-s« P‑o-h‑n-hÀ-
K-§Ä‑, B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-Ø-IÄ A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-¡‑v s‑a‑m-¯-¯‑nÂ a‑q-e‑y‑w \Â-I‑p-¶‑p.
I‑q-S‑m-s‑X I‑q-S‑p-XÂ k-a-{‑K-a‑m-b k-a‑o-]-\-h‑p-w AX‑n‑\‑p-ï‑v.
k‑v-{‑X‑o-b‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑p‑w X-½‑n-e‑p-Å _-Ô-¯‑n-\‑v D‑u-¶Â \Â-I‑p-¶ {‑^‑m-t‑¦‑m-b‑n-k‑v U‑n
b‑q-t‑_‑m¬ 1974þÂ B-h‑n-j‑v-I-c‑n-¨ H-c‑p B-i-b-a‑m-W‑v C-t‑¡‑m-s‑^-a‑n-\‑n-k‑w. C-t‑¡‑m F-¶
]-Z‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-s‑b A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑. s‑^-a‑n-\‑n-k‑w k‑v-{‑X‑o-I-s‑f
k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. C-t‑¡‑m-s‑^-a‑n-\‑n-k-a-\‑p-k-c‑n-¨‑v, k‑v-{‑X‑o-I-f‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑p‑w A-h-c‑p-s‑S {‑]-X‑y‑p-
X‑v-]‑m-Z-\ t‑i-j‑n‑, A-h-c‑p-s‑S t‑]‑m-j-Wk‑z-`‑m-h‑w F-¶‑n-§-s‑\ \‑n-c-h-[‑n k-a‑m-\-X-IÄ ]-¦‑n-S‑p-
¶‑p.
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑p‑w A-X‑n-s‑â N‑q-j-W‑w A-h-k‑m-\‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑p‑w
k‑v-{‑X‑o-IÄ-¡‑v H-c‑p {‑]-[‑m-\ ]-¦‑p-ï‑v F-¶-X‑m-W‑v C-t‑¡‑m-s‑^-a‑n-\‑n-k-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-[‑m-\ B-i-
b-§-f‑n-s‑e‑m-¶‑v. k‑v-{‑X‑o-I-f‑p-s‑S t‑a-e‑p-Å B-[‑n-]-X‑y-h‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-s‑b N‑q-j-W‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑p‑w
X-½‑nÂ i-à-a‑m-b _-Ô-a‑p-ï‑v, A-X‑v ]‑p-c‑p-j‑m-[‑n-]-X‑y {‑]-X‑y-b-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-¯‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v ]‑n-´‑p-
S-À¶X‑m‑hm‑w. C‑u {‑]-X‑y-b-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-s‑b k‑w-kv-I -‑ ‑m-c-t‑¯-¡‑mÄ X‑m-g‑v-¶-X‑m-b‑n I‑m-
W‑p-¶‑p‑, k‑v-{‑X‑o-IÄ {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑mÂ A-h-s‑c-b‑p‑w X‑m-g‑v-¶-h-c‑m-
b‑n I-W-¡‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p.
C-X‑n-s‑\‑m-c‑p a‑m-ä‑w s‑I‑m-ï‑p-h-c‑m³‑ C-t‑¡‑m-s‑^-a‑n-\‑n-k‑w‑, ]‑p-c‑p-j-·‑m-c‑p‑w k‑v-{‑X‑o-I-f‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-
X‑n-b‑p‑w X-½‑n-e‑p-Å _-Ô-§-s‑f t‑{‑i-W‑n-I-f-Ã‑m-¯ c‑o-X‑n-b‑nÂ ]‑p-\À-þ-k-¦Â-¸‑n-¡‑m³ B-h-
i‑y-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. k‑v-{‑X‑o-]-£ {‑]-Ø‑m-\-§Ä-¡‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n {‑]-Ø‑m-\-§Ä-¡‑p‑w C‑u e-£‑y-
¯‑n-\‑m-b‑n H-c‑p-a‑n-¨‑v {‑]-hÀ-¯‑n-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w‑. I‑m-c-W‑w A-h c-ï‑p‑w t‑{‑i-W‑n-]-c-h‑p‑w k-a-
X‑z-]-c-h‑p-a‑m-b X-X‑z-§Ä e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p. C-t‑¡‑m-s‑^-a‑n-\‑n-k‑w B-g-¯‑n-e‑p-Å ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n
{‑]-Ø‑m-\-¯‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w s‑^-a‑n-\‑n-k-¯‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w k‑w-t‑b‑m-P-\-s‑¯ {‑]-X‑n-\‑n-[‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, C-h
c-ï‑p‑w h‑n-\‑m-i-I-c-a‑m-b k‑m‑w-kv-I -‑ ‑m-c‑n-I a‑m-\-Z-Þ-§-f‑p‑w k-{‑¼-Z‑m-b-§-f‑p‑w C-Ã‑m-X‑m-¡‑m³
e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p. h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w A-[‑n-I‑m-c-¯‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w ]‑p-c‑p-j I‑p-¯-I-h-X‑v-I-c-W-s‑¯-
¡‑p-d‑n-¨‑p-Å A-h-t‑_‑m-[‑w k‑r-ã‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑p‑w A-X‑n-s‑\ k-a-X‑z-]-c-a‑m-b k-a‑o-]-\-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S a‑m-
ä‑n-Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑p‑w C-X‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
A-h-k‑m-\-a‑m-b‑n‑, C-t‑¡‑m-s‑^-a‑n-\‑n-k‑w k‑v-{‑X‑o-I-s‑f h‑n-I‑m-c-§-t‑f‑m-S‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-t‑b‑m-S‑p‑w
_-Ô-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ ]‑p-c‑p-j-·‑m-s‑c b‑p-à‑n-t‑_‑m-[-h‑p‑w k‑z-b‑w-`-c-W-h‑p‑w t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å h-i-
§-f‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶ ]‑p-c‑p-j‑m-[‑n-]-X‑y a‑m-\-k‑n-I‑m-h-Ø-s‑b X‑n-c‑n-¨-d‑n-b‑p-¶‑p. {‑]-I‑r-
X‑n-s‑b-b‑p‑w k‑v-{‑X‑o-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w ]‑p-c‑p-j-·‑mÀ F-§-s‑\-b‑m-W‑v k-a‑o-]‑n-t‑¡-ï-X‑v F-¶‑p‑w N‑q-ï‑n-
¡‑m-«‑p-¶‑p.
]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I X‑p-e‑y‑X F-¶-X‑v F-Ã‑m k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I‑, k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I‑, c‑m-{‑ã‑o-b t‑a-J-e-I-f‑n-
e‑p-a‑p-Å ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I`‑m-c-§Ä‑, A-]-I-S-§Ä‑, a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-s‑S \‑y‑m-b-a‑m-b
h‑n-X-c-W-a‑m-W‑v. G-X‑v A-k-a-X‑z-h‑p‑w ]-c‑n-K-W‑n-¡‑m-s‑X F-Ã‑m-hÀ-¡‑p‑w X‑p-e‑y A-h-I‑m-i-§-f‑p‑w
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S t‑\-«-§Ä B-k‑z-Z‑n-¡‑m-\‑p-Å A-h-k-c-§-f‑p‑w D-ï‑v F-¶ X-X‑z-s‑¯ A-S‑n-
Ø‑m-\-a‑m-¡‑n, C-X‑v \‑y‑m-b-a‑m-b N‑n-I‑n-Õ-b‑m-b‑n h‑n-`-P‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, A-X‑m-b-X‑v \‑n-b-a-§-f‑p-s‑S-
t‑b‑m \-b-§-f‑p-s‑S-t‑b‑m ^-e-a‑m-b‑n ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I {‑]-X‑n-k-Ô‑n-I-f‑mÂ P-\-k‑w-J‑y-b‑p-s‑S H-c‑p
h‑n-`‑m-K-s‑¯-b‑p‑w B-\‑p-]‑m-X‑n-I-a‑m-b‑n _‑m-[‑n-¡-c‑p-X‑v, AÀ-°-h-¯‑m-b C-S-s‑]-SÂ‑, A-X‑m-b-X‑v
{‑K‑q-¸‑p-IÄ-¡‑v A-h-c‑p-s‑S B-t‑c‑m-K‑y-s‑¯-t‑b‑m ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b-t‑b‑m _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶ X‑o-c‑p-a‑m-\-§-
s‑f-¡‑p-d‑n-¨‑v C³-]‑p-«‑v \Â-I‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w.
D-Û-h‑w‑, h‑w-i‑w‑, hÀ-¤‑w‑, t‑Z-i‑o-b-X F-¶‑n-h ]-c‑n-K-W‑n-¡‑m-s‑X ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n \‑n-b-a-§Ä‑,
\-b-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-s‑S \-S-¸‑m-¡-e‑n-e‑p‑w h‑n-I-k-\-¯‑n-e‑p‑w F-Ã‑m B-f‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w \‑y‑m-b-
h‑p‑w \‑o-X‑n-b‑p-à-h‑p-a‑m-b s‑]-c‑p-a‑m-ä-h‑p‑w ]-¦‑m-f‑n-¯-h‑p-a‑m-W‑v ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n \‑o-X‑n. ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-
X‑n-I A-]-I-S-§Ä‑, a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w F-¶‑n-h-b--s‑v ‑¡-X‑n-s‑c F-Ã‑m-hÀ-¡‑p‑w H-t‑c A-f-h‑n-e‑p-Å
k‑w-c-£-W‑w e-`‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p-s‑ï-¶‑p‑w A-X‑p-s‑I‑m-ï‑p-X-s‑¶ ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-
\‑v I‑m-c‑y-a‑m-b X‑o-c‑p-a‑m-\-§Ä F-S‑p-¡‑p-¶-X‑nÂ H-c‑p ]-¦‑v D-s‑ï-¶‑p‑w C-X‑v e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p.
C-X‑v a-\‑p-j‑y‑m-h-I‑m-i-a‑m-W‑v. B-t‑c‑m-K‑y-I-c-a‑m-b P‑o-h‑n-X‑w \-b‑n-¡‑m³ F-Ã‑m-h-c‑p‑w AÀ-l-c‑m-
W‑v. A-]-I-S-k‑m-[‑y-X-b‑p-Å I-½‑y‑q-W‑n-ä‑n-I-s‑f A-h-c‑p-s‑S A-S‑p-¯‑p-Å {‑]-t‑Z-i-¯‑v h‑n-ja‑m-e‑n-
\‑y-§-f‑p‑w a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-§-f‑p‑w h-e‑n-s‑¨-d‑n-b‑p-¶-X‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å a‑m-\-Z-
Þ-§-f‑p‑w \‑n-b-a-§-f‑p‑w {‑I-a‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑p‑w C‑u kaqls¯ A-]-I-S-¯‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v k‑w-c-
£‑n-¡‑p-¶ kwLS\IÄ¡v‑v {‑K‑mâ‑p-IÄ \Â-I‑p-¶-X‑p‑w C-X‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑p-Ø‑n-c-h‑p‑w, k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I-a‑m-b‑n \‑o-X‑n-b‑p-à-a‑m-b c‑o-X‑n-b‑nÂ DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡-
s‑¸-S‑p-¶X‑p‑w t‑]‑m-j-I-k-a‑r-²-h‑p‑w k‑p-c-£‑n-X-h‑p‑w D-N‑n-X-h‑p-a‑m-b `-£-W-§Ä F-Ã‑m-b--t‑v ‑¸‑m-
g‑p‑w F-Ã‑m B-f‑p-IÄ-¡‑p‑w i‑m-c‑o-c‑n-I-h‑p‑w k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I-h‑p-a‑m-b k‑z‑o-I‑m-c‑y-X \evIpsa¶mWv
`-£‑yk‑p-c-£ AÀ-°-a‑m-¡‑p-¶-X‑v. \-½‑p-s‑S `-£-W‑w DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶ B-f‑p-IÄ-¡‑v a‑m-
\‑y-a‑m-b P‑o-h‑n-X‑w k-¼‑m-Z‑n-¡‑m-s‑a-¶‑p‑w C-X‑n-\À-°‑w. H-c‑p k‑p-Ø‑n-c `-£-W k-{‑¼-Z‑m-b‑w
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n B-t‑c‑m-K‑y‑w‑, k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I D‑uÀ-P‑w‑, a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â B-t‑c‑m-K‑y‑w‑, k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I k-a-X‑z‑w
F-¶‑n-h-b‑nÂ {‑i-² t‑I-{‑µ‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
k‑m-a‑q-l‑y k‑p-c-£ F-¶-X‑v Z‑m-c‑n-{‑Z‑y-s‑¯-b‑p‑w Z‑pÀ-_-e-X-s‑b-b‑p‑w C-Ã‑m-b‑v-a s‑N-¿‑p-¶
\-b D-]-I-c-W-§-f‑p-s‑S H-c‑p s‑a-\‑p-h‑m-W‑v. C-X‑v k-a‑q-l-¯‑n-s‑â H-c‑p G-Pâ‑v F-¶ \‑n-e-b‑nÂ
`-c-W-I‑q-Sw -h‑y-à‑n-I-sf‑ k‑w-c-£‑n--¡‑p-¶ k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-s‑¯ {‑]-X‑n-\‑n-[‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. h‑n-c-a‑n-
¡Â‑, c‑m-P‑n‑, ]‑n-c‑n-¨‑p-h‑n-SÂ‑, a-c-W‑w‑, A‑w-K-s‑s‑h-I-e‑y‑w F-¶‑n-h t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å B-I-k‑v-a‑n-I k‑m-
l-N-c‑y-§-f‑nÂ C-X‑v h‑y-à‑n-I-s‑f k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. Z-c‑n-{‑ZÀ-¡‑p‑w Z‑pÀ-_-eÀ-¡‑p‑w A-h-i-X
A-\‑p-`-h‑n-¡‑p-¶-hÀ-¡‑p‑w H-c‑p k‑w-c-£-W I-h-N-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S Bizmkw \evIm\pÅ N‑p-a-X-e
k‑w-Ø‑m-\-¯‑n-\‑p-ï‑v. k‑p-c-£ hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¨‑v, B-f‑p-I-s‑f I‑q-S‑p-XÂ DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-£-a-X-b‑p-Å-h-
c‑m-¡‑n‑, I-t‑¼‑m-f k-¼-Z--h ‑v ‑y-h-Ø-b‑v-¡‑v A-`‑n-h‑r-²‑n {‑]‑m-]‑n-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p-¶ k‑m-l-N-c‑y-§Ä
k‑r-ã‑n-¨‑p-s‑I‑m-ï‑v ]‑p-t‑c‑m-K-X‑n-s‑b t‑{‑]‑m-Õ‑m-l‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶ k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-I ]-c‑n-hÀ-¯-\-¯‑n-\‑p-Å
H-c‑p D-]-I-c-W-a‑m-b‑n k‑m-a‑q-l‑n-Ik‑p-c-£ A‑w-K‑o-I-c‑n-¡-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. C-´‑y-b‑nÂ‑, k‑m-a‑q-
l‑n-Ik‑p-c-£ ]-c-¼-c‑m-K-X-a‑m-b‑n I‑p-S‑p‑w-_-¯‑n-s‑â/k-a‑q-l-¯‑n-s‑â s‑]‑m-X‑p D-¯-c-h‑m-Z‑n-¯-
a‑m-b‑n-c‑p-¶‑p‑, F-¶‑mÂ h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I-hÂ-¡-c-W/\-K-c-hÂ-¡-c-W-¯‑n-s‑â {‑I-a‑m-\‑p-K-X-a‑m-b
D-bÀ‑¨--t‑b‑m-s‑S‑, B-k‑q-{‑X‑n-X-a‑m-b c‑o-X‑n-b‑nÂ {‑]-i‑v-\‑w ]-c‑n-l-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v Ø‑m-]-\-hÂ-¡-c‑n-
¡-s‑¸-« k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§-f‑p-s‑S B-h-i‑y-I-X D-bÀ-¶‑p-h-¶‑n-«‑p-ï‑v.
UNIT- 2
J-c-a‑m-e‑n-\‑y \nÀ½mÀÖ\w þ
HchtemI\w
\‑n-§-f‑p-s‑S N‑p-ä‑p‑w t‑\‑m-¡‑p-I‑, DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶ h‑n-h‑n-[ X-c‑w a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§Ä \‑n-c‑o-£‑n-
¡‑p-I. C‑u a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§s‑f F-§-s‑\ s‑s‑I-I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p-s‑h-¶‑v \‑n-§Ä F-t‑¸‑m-s‑g-¦‑n-
e‑p‑w N‑n-´‑n-¨‑n-«‑p-t‑ï‑m?
a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w a‑r-K-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w k-k‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w ssZ\wZn\ {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑nÂ
\‑n-¶‑v D-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ A-\‑m-h-i‑y-h‑p‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K-i‑q-\‑y-h‑p-a‑m-b a‑m-e‑n-\‑y h-k‑v-X‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S H-c‑p t‑i-
J-c-a‑m-W‑v J-c-a‑m-e‑n-\‑y‑w. h‑m-W‑n-P‑y‑, ]‑mÀ-¸‑n-S‑, h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑m-W‑v
C-X‑v k‑r-ã‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v. C-Xnsâ k‑w-kv-I -‑ -c-W-s‑¯ J-c-a‑m-e‑n-\‑y k‑w-kv-I -‑ -c-W k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\‑w
F-¶‑v h‑n-f‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
a‑m-e‑n-\‑y k‑w-kv-I -‑ -c-Wk‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-¯‑nÂ B-d‑v {‑]-hÀ-¯-\ L-S-I-§-f‑p-ï‑v. D-]-t‑b‑m-K-t‑b‑m-
K‑y-a-Ã‑m-¯-X‑p‑w N‑n-«-b‑m-b \‑nÀ-½‑mÀÖ\-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑n t‑i-J-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-t‑X‑m h-e‑n-s‑¨-d‑n-b‑p-¶-t‑X‑m
B-b h-k‑v-X‑p-¡-Ä B-W‑v a‑m-e‑n-\‑y DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\‑w Dïm¡p¶Xv. t{kmXÊnÂ¯s¶ s‑s‑I-
I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿Â‑, k‑w-`-c-W‑w‑, k‑w-kv-I -‑ -c-W‑w F-¶‑n-h a‑m-e‑n-\‑y DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\ L-«-¯‑n-s‑e {‑]-hÀ-
¯-\-§-f-mW‑v. s‑N-d‑p-X‑p‑w h-e‑p-X‑p-a‑m-b I-s‑ï-b‑v-\-d‑p-IÄ‑, B-g‑w I‑p-d-ª I‑p-g‑n-IÄ X‑p-S-
§‑n-b k‑w-`-c-W k‑u-I-c‑y-§-f‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-Sp‑-¶‑p. a‑m-e‑n-\‑yt‑i-J-c-W-¯‑n\‑v- a‑m-e‑n-\‑yt‑i-J-c-W
_‑n-¶‑p-IÄ Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-I‑, B _‑n-¶‑p-I-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§Ä t‑i-J-c‑n-¡‑p-I‑, t‑i-J-c-W
h‑m-l-\-§Ä H-g‑n-¨‑n-S‑p-¶ Ø-e-¯‑v a‑m-e‑n-\‑y‑w t‑i-J-c‑n-¡‑p-I X‑p-S-§‑n-b {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä
DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I a‑m-e‑n-\‑y t‑i-J-c-W Ø-e-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v {‑]‑m-t‑Z-i‑n-I a‑m-e‑n-\‑y \‑nÀ-
a‑mÀ-Ö-\ Ø-e-t‑¯-¡‑v a‑m-e‑n-\‑y‑w a‑m-ä‑p-¶-X‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶ {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑m-W‑v a‑m-
e‑n-\‑y s‑s‑I-a‑m-ä-h‑p‑w K-X‑m-K-X-h‑p‑w. a‑m-e‑n-\‑yk‑w-kv-I -‑ -c-W-h‑p‑w h‑o-s‑ï-S‑p-¡-e‑p‑w F-¶-X‑v a‑m-e‑n-
\‑y{‑]-h‑m-l-¯‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v ]‑p-\-c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m-h‑p-¶-t‑X‑m ]‑p-\À-\‑nÀ-½‑n-¡‑m-h‑p-¶-t‑X‑m B-b
h-k‑v-X‑p-¡Ä h‑o-s‑ï-S‑p-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w a‑m-e‑n-\‑yk‑w-kv-I -‑ -c-W-¯‑n-s‑â a-ä‑v {‑]-hÀ-¯-\ L-S-I-
§-f‑p-s‑S ^-e-{‑]‑m-]‑v-X‑n s‑a-¨-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶ k‑u-I-c‑y-§Ä‑, D-]-I-c-W-
§Ä‑, k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I-X-IÄ F-¶‑n-h-s‑b k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. a‑m-e‑n-\‑y\‑nÀ-½‑mÀ-Ö-\-¯‑n-s‑â A-h-
k‑m-\ L-«-a‑m-W‑v a‑m-e‑n-\‑y \‑nÀ--½‑mÀ-P-\‑w‑, A-X‑nÂ a‑m-e‑n-\‑y\‑nÀ-½‑mÀ-Ö-\ t‑I-{‑µ-§Ä A-s‑Ã-
¦‑nÂ a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-¯‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v D‑uÀ-Öw Is‑ï¯Â t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å ]‑m-g‑vh-k‑v-X‑p-¡Ä N‑n-«-b‑m-b
c‑o-X‑n-b‑nÂ \‑o-¡‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑v DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
H‑m¬-þ-s‑s‑k-ä‑v U‑n-k‑v-t‑]‑m-kÂ F-¶-X‑v A-X‑n-s‑â DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\ Ø-e-¯‑v a‑m-e‑n-\‑y‑w s‑s‑I-
I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑n-s‑\ k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. I-½‑y‑q-WÂ ]‑n-ä‑v U‑n-k‑v-t‑]‑m-kÂ F-¶-X‑v G-ä-h‑p‑w
e-f‑n-X-a‑m-b J-c-a‑m-e‑n-\‑y k‑w-kv-I -‑ -c-W k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-a‑m-W‑v, C-h‑n-s‑S D-]-t‑`‑m-à‑m-¡Ä a‑m-e‑n-\‑y‑w
t‑\-c‑n-«‑v I‑p-g‑n-b‑n-t‑e-¡‑v X-Å‑p-¶‑p. a-X‑n-b‑m-b C-S-a‑p-Å‑n-S-¯‑v ^‑m-a‑n-e‑n ]‑n-ä‑p-IÄ a‑n-I-¨ Z‑oÀ-L-
I‑m-e H‑m-]‑v-j³ \Â-I‑n-t‑b-¡‑m‑w. I-½‑y‑q-WÂ _‑n-¶‑p-I-t‑f‑m I-s‑ï-b--\ ‑v -d‑p-I-t‑f‑m c‑q-]-IÂ-¸-\
s‑N-b‑v-X‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§Ä t‑i-J-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w I‑m-t‑ä‑m a‑r-K-§-t‑f‑m h-g‑n N‑n-X-d‑p-¶-X‑v
X-S-b‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p.
H‑m-^‑v-þ-s‑s‑k-ä‑v U‑n-k‑v-t‑]‑m-kÂ H‑m-]--j‑v -\‑p-I-f‑m-W‑v s‑s‑k-ä‑n-\‑v ]‑p-d-¯‑p-Å a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§Ä
A-´‑n-a-a‑m-b‑n k‑w-k--I ‑v -c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I X‑n-c-s‑ª-S‑p-¸‑p-IÄ. `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e H-c‑p
h-e‑n-b I‑p-g‑n-b‑nÂ/I‑n-S-§‑nÂ a‑m-e‑n-\‑y‑w \‑n-t‑£-]‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑m-W‑v e‑m³-U--^ ‑v ‑n-Ã‑n‑w-K‑v, H‑m-t‑c‑m Z‑n-h-
k-h‑p‑w a‑m-e‑n-\‑y‑w S‑n-¸‑p-s‑N-¿‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ I‑p-g‑n-¨ a-®‑v h‑o-ï‑p‑w \‑n-d-b‑v-¡‑p-¶‑p. I-¯‑p-¶ a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-
§Ä I-¯‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑m-W‑v Z-l‑n-¸‑n-¡Â‑, ]-e-t‑¸‑m-g‑p‑w a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§Ä H‑m-^‑v-þ-s‑s‑k-ä‑v A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ
h‑m-k-Ø-e-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v K-W‑y-a‑m-b Z‑q-c-t‑¯-¡‑v k‑w-kv-I -‑ -c‑n-¡‑m³ D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
k‑o-t‑d‑m t‑h-Ì‑v F-¶-X‑v H-c‑p X-¯‑z-N‑n-´-b‑m-W‑v, A-X‑v D-]-t‑b‑m-K-¯‑n-s‑â A-h-k‑m-\ a‑m-t‑\-
P‑v-s‑aâ‑n-\‑v {‑]‑m-t‑b‑m-K‑n-I-a‑m-b H‑m-]‑v-j-\‑p-I-s‑f‑m-¶‑p-a‑n-Ã‑m-s‑X s‑a-ä‑o-c‑n-b-e‑p-IÄ C-Ã‑m-X‑m-¡‑m³
e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p. C‑u k-a‑o-]-\‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§Ä k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w t‑hÀ-X‑n-c‑n-s‑¨-S‑p-
¡Â‑, DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\‑w‑, \‑nÀ--½‑mÀ-Ö-\‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w
s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. k‑o-t‑d‑m t‑h-Ì‑v t‑{‑]‑m-{‑K‑m-a‑p-IÄ-¡‑m-b‑p-Å X-{‑´-§-f‑nÂ D-t‑]-£‑n-¡-s‑¸-«-h ]‑p-\-
c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-I‑, D-]-t‑`‑m-K‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I‑, k-a-{‑K-a‑m-b ]‑p-\-c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-K-h‑p‑w I-t‑¼‑m-Ì‑n‑w-K‑p‑w‑,
]‑u-c ]-¦‑m-f‑n-¯‑w‑, a‑m-e‑n-\‑y‑w I-¯‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑p‑w A-\-[‑n-I‑r-X-a‑m-b‑n X-Å‑p-¶-X‑p‑w \‑n-t‑c‑m-[‑n-¡-
e‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
AÀ-²-þ-k‑n-´-ä‑n-I‑v A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ k‑n-´-ä‑n-I‑v H‑mÀ-K‑m-\‑n-I‑v k‑w-b‑p-à-§Ä s‑I‑m-ï‑v \‑nÀ-½‑n-¨
s‑s‑h-h‑n-[‑y-a‑mÀ-¶ h-k‑v-X‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S H-c‑p ]-Z-a‑m-W‑v ¹‑m-Ì‑n-I‑v. \‑nÀ-½‑m-W-¯‑n-s‑â e‑m-f‑n-X‑y‑w‑, I‑p-
d-ª N‑n-e-h‑v, c‑m-k-h-k‑v-X‑p-¡-t‑f‑m-S‑p-Å {‑]-X‑n-t‑c‑m-[‑w‑, X‑m-]-\‑n-e‑, {‑]-I‑m-i‑w F-¶‑n-h I‑m-c-
W‑w A-h h‑n-i‑m-e-a‑m-b DÂ-¸-¶-§-f‑nÂ D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. s‑s‑a-t‑{‑I‑m-¹‑m-Ì‑n-I‑v F-¶-d‑n-b-s‑¸-
S‑p-¶ s‑N-d‑n-b I-W‑n-I-IÄ h‑n-h‑n-[ t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-I-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑m-W‑v h-c‑p-¶-X‑v. s‑s‑a-t‑{‑I‑m-¹‑m-Ì‑n-I‑v
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-¡‑v `‑o-j-W‑n-b‑m-W‑v, A-h-b‑p-s‑S B-t‑c‑m-K‑y-]-c-a‑m-b {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä ]‑qÀ-®-a‑m-
b‑n a-\-Ê‑n-e‑m-¡-s‑¸-«‑n-«‑n-Ã. A-h-b‑p-s‑S D-d-h‑n-S-s‑¯ B-{‑i-b‑n-¨‑v A-h-s‑b {‑]‑m-Y-a‑n-I-t‑a‑m Z‑z‑n-
X‑o-b-t‑a‑m B-b‑n X-c‑w-X‑n-c‑n-¡‑m‑w‑, I‑q-S‑m-s‑X t‑e‑m-I-s‑a-¼‑m-S‑p-a‑p-Å h‑n-Z‑q-c Ø-e-§-f‑nÂ I-s‑ï-
¯‑m-\‑p‑w I-g‑n-b‑p‑w.
¹‑m-Ì‑n-I‑v A-h-i‑n-ã-§-f‑p-a‑m-b‑n P‑o-h‑n-IÄ C-S-]-g-I‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ‑, A-X‑v {‑]-X‑y-£-h‑p‑w ]-t‑c‑m-
£-h‑p-a‑m-b \‑n-c-h-[‑n {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä D-ï‑m-¡‑p‑w. CX‑ns‑â A-\-´-c-^-e-§-f‑nÂ B-i-
¦-b‑p-ï‑m-¡‑m‑w. k-a‑p-{‑Z-¯‑n-Â h-e‑n-b ¹‑m-Ì‑n-I‑v h-k‑v-X‑p-¡Ä I‑p-S‑p-§‑n-t‑¸‑m-I‑p-¶-X‑v ]‑p-X‑n-b
B-h‑m-kh‑y-h-Ø-IÄ k‑r-ã‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w d‑m-^‑v-ä‑n‑w-K‑n-e‑q-s‑S N‑n-X-d‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w I‑m-c-W-a‑m-
I‑p‑w. P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§Ä ¹‑m-Ì‑n-I‑v h-k‑v-X‑p-¡-f‑nÂ I‑p-S‑p-§‑n-t‑¸‑m-I‑p-¶-X‑p‑w h‑n-g‑p-§‑p-¶-X‑p‑w t‑Z‑m-j-
t‑a‑m a-c-W-t‑a‑m D-ï‑m-¡‑p‑w. i-c‑o-c-¯‑n-\‑p-Å‑nÂ F-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-t‑\-¡‑mÄ a‑m-c-I-a‑m-W‑v ¹‑m-Ì‑n-I‑v
a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-¯‑nÂ I‑p-c‑p-§‑n-b‑p-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ A-]-I-S-§Ä F-¶‑v ]T-\-§Ä ]-d-b‑p-¶‑p.
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑n-s‑e s‑s‑a-t‑{‑I‑m-¹‑m-Ì‑n-¡‑n-s‑â k‑z-`‑m-h‑w a-\-Ê‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-¶-X‑nÂ K-t‑h-j-W‑w
]‑p-t‑c‑m-K-X‑n-b‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-¨‑p‑, ]-t‑£ C-t‑¸‑m-g‑p‑w A-Ú‑m-X-a‑m-b ]-e-X‑p-a‑p-ï‑v. s‑s‑a-t‑{‑I‑m-¹‑m-
Ì‑n-¡‑v s‑N-d‑p-X‑p‑w h-e‑p-X‑p-a‑m-b ¹-h-I-§-Ä, k-k‑v-X-\‑n-IÄ‑, ]-£‑n-IÄ‑, a-Õ‑y‑w X‑p-S-§‑n-b
P‑o-h‑n-IÄ-¡‑v B-K‑n-c-W‑w s‑N-¿‑m-h‑p-¶-X‑m-W‑v. P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑nÂ s‑s‑a-t‑{‑I‑m-¹‑m-Ì‑n-¡‑n-s‑â k‑z‑m-[‑o-
\‑w D-ï‑m-I‑m³ k‑m-[‑y-X-b‑p-Å-X‑v i‑zk‑n¡‑p¶X‑ne‑qs‑Sb‑p‑w ¹‑m-Ì‑n-¡‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å c‑m-k-h-
k‑v-X‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S t‑N‑mÀ-¨‑, Ø‑n-c-a‑m-b H‑mÀ-K‑m-\‑n-I‑v a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w, ]‑n-.H-.]‑n‑ t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å s‑s‑a-
t‑{‑I‑m-¹‑m-Ì‑n-¡‑v B-K‑n-c-W‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶ a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-§-f‑p-a‑m-b‑p-Å k-¼À-¡‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v.
s‑s‑a-t‑{‑I‑m-¹‑m-Ì‑n-I‑v Z-l-\-\‑m-f-s‑¯ X-S-Ê-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-I-b‑p‑w B-´-c‑n-I ]-c‑n-¡‑p-IÄ D-ï‑m-¡‑p-
I-b‑p‑w `-£-W D-]-t‑`‑m-K‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p‑w‑, C-X‑v ]-«‑n-W‑n-b‑n-e‑p‑w a-c-W-¯‑n-e‑p‑w I-e‑m-
i‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. h‑m-b‑p i‑z-k‑n-¡‑p-¶ P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑nÂ‑, s‑s‑a-t‑{‑I‑m-¹‑m-Ì‑n-¡‑p-IÄ i‑z‑m-k-t‑I‑m-i-§-f‑nÂ
X-§‑n-\‑nÂ-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w i‑z-k-\-{‑]-{‑I‑n-b-b‑v-¡‑v X-S-Ê‑w D-ï‑m-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p.
UNIT-3
B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\-¯‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø-
b‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w B-i-b‑w
F-´‑m-W‑v B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\‑w?
A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑nÂ k‑q-c‑y-s‑â X‑m-]-s‑¯ X-S-ª‑p-\‑nÀ-¯‑p-¶ I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-
U‑v‑, I‑mÀ-_¬ t‑a‑m-t‑W‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v X‑p-S-§‑n-b h‑m-X-I-§-f‑p-s‑S k‑m-¶‑n-[‑y‑w a‑q-e‑w `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S
D-]-c‑n-X-e-¯‑n-s‑e X‑m-]-\‑n-e {‑I-a‑m--X‑o-X-a‑m-b‑n hÀ-²‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑m-W‑v B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\‑w. C‑u h‑m-
X-I-§-f‑p-s‑S A-\‑p-]‑m-X‑w I‑q-S‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ A-X‑v X‑m-]‑w DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w I‑m-e-{‑I-t‑a-W `‑q-a‑n-
b‑p-s‑S X‑m-]-\‑n-e hÀ-²‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. C‑u {‑]-X‑n-`‑m-k-s‑¯ B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\‑w F-¶‑v
h‑n-f‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, C-X‑v l-c‑n-X-K‑r-l {‑]-`‑m-h‑w F-¶‑p‑w A-d‑n-b-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\-¯‑n-s‑â- {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä F-s‑´‑m-s‑¡-b‑m-W‑v?

B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\‑w ^-e-`‑q-b‑n-j‑vT-a‑m-b t‑a-J-e-I-f‑n-s‑e C‑uÀ-¸-¯‑n-s‑â A-f-h‑v I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I‑,
h-c-ï \‑n-e-§-f‑p‑w a-c‑p-`‑q-a‑n-I-f‑p‑w B-¡‑n a‑m-ä‑p-I‑, h-cÄ-¨ D-ï‑m-¡‑p-I‑, I‑mÀ-j‑n-t‑I‑m-X‑v-]‑m-Z-\‑w
I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I‑, {‑[‑p-h‑o-b l‑n-a-]‑m-f‑n-IÄ D-c‑p-I‑p-I‑, k-a‑p-{‑Z-\‑n-c-¸‑v D-b-c‑p-I‑, Z-i-e-£-¡-W-¡‑n-\‑v
B-f‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S Ø‑m-\-N-e-\-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S K‑p-c‑p-X-c-a‑m-b {‑]-X‑y‑m-
L‑m-X-§Ä D-ï‑m-¡‑m‑w. h-cÄ-¨‑, s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, ]-«‑n-W‑n‑, I‑p-S‑n-s‑b‑m-g‑n-¸‑n-¡Â X‑p-S-§‑n-b
I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m k‑m-l-N-c‑y-§-f‑mÂ _‑p-²‑n-a‑p-«‑p-¶ "I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m A-`-b‑mÀ-°‑n-I-s‑f' k‑r-ã‑n-
¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\‑w C-S-b‑m-¡‑p‑w.
I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑mh‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-[‑m-\ t‑{‑]-c-I-§Ä F-s‑´‑m-s‑¡-b‑m-

W‑v?
I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v, a‑o-s‑Y-b‑v³‑, P-e \‑o-c‑m-h‑n F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S-b‑p-Å l-c‑n-
X-K‑r-l h‑m-X-I-§-f‑m-W‑v I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]‑m-Y-a‑n-I N‑m-e-I-§Ä. C‑u h‑m-
X-I-§Ä A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑nÂ N‑q-S‑v ]‑n-S‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\-¯‑n-\‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-h‑p-I-b‑p‑w
s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑n-e‑q-s‑S‑, {‑]-[‑m-\-a‑m-b‑p‑w D‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-\‑p‑w K-X‑m-K-X-
¯‑n-\‑p-a‑m-b‑n t‑^‑m-k‑nÂ C-Ô-\-§Ä I-¯‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-e‑q-s‑S ]‑p-d-´-Å‑p-¶ {‑]‑m-Y-a‑n-I l-c‑n-X-
K‑r-l h‑m-X-I-a‑m-W‑v I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v. I‑r-j‑n‑, t‑^‑m-k‑nÂ C-Ô-\ D-X‑v-]‑m-Z-\‑w
F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S h‑n-h‑n-[ t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-I-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v ]‑p-d-´-Å‑p-¶ a-s‑ä‑m-c‑p i-à-a‑m-b l-c‑n-
X-K‑r-l h‑m-X-I-a‑m-W‑v a‑o-s‑Y-b‑v³. G-ä-h‑p‑w k-a‑r-²-a‑m-b l-c‑n-X-K‑r-l h‑m-X-I-a‑m-b P-e-_‑m-j‑v-
]‑w a-ä‑v l-c‑n-X-K‑r-l h‑m-X-I-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å N‑q-S‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v, a‑o-s‑Y-b‑v³‑, s‑s‑\-{‑S-P³ H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v, ^‑v-e‑q-d‑n-t‑\-ä-U‑v h‑m-
X-I-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑S `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-s‑e N‑n-e h‑m-X-I-§-f‑m-W‑v l-c‑n-X-
K‑r-l {‑]-`‑m-h‑w D-ï‑m-¡‑p-¶-X‑v. C‑u h‑m-X-I-§Ä `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S D-]-c‑n-X-e-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v N‑q-S‑v B-K‑n-
c-W‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I-b‑p‑w X‑n-c‑n-s‑I \Â-I‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p‑, C-X‑v A-[‑n-I X‑m-] D‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-s‑â
t‑i-J-c-W-¯‑n-\‑p‑w A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-s‑e i-c‑m-i-c‑n X‑m-]-\‑n-e-b‑p-s‑S hÀ-²-\-h‑n-\‑p‑w I‑m-c-W-a‑m-
I‑p-¶‑p. t‑^‑m-k‑nÂ C-Ô-\-§-f‑p‑w a-ä‑p‑w‑ I-¯‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v k-a‑o-] Z-i-I-§-f‑nÂ l-c‑n-X-K‑r-l
h‑m-X-I-§-f‑p-s‑S K-W‑y-a‑m-b hÀ-²-\-h‑n-\‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-b‑n. C‑u {‑]-X‑n-`‑m-k‑w `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S I‑m-e‑m-
h-Ø-b‑nÂ X‑m-]-\‑n-e‑, X‑o-{‑ha-g‑ F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S-b‑p-Å a‑m-ä-§Ä-¡‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-b‑n. I‑m-
e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-w a‑q-e‑w I‑r-j‑n Z‑pÀ-_-e-a‑m-W‑v, I‑m-c-W‑w X‑m-]-\‑n-e-b‑n-e‑p‑w a-g-b‑n-e‑p‑w
a‑m-ä-§Ä h‑n-f-h‑v I‑p-d-b‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w I‑o-S-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w t‑c‑m-K-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w k-½À-±‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-
¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w B-t‑K‑m-f `-£‑y k‑p-c-£-s‑b `‑o-j-W‑n-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶ a-ä‑v s‑h-Ã‑p-h‑n-f‑n-IÄ-¡‑p‑w
C-S-b‑m-¡‑p‑w. a‑m-d‑p-¶ I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m k‑m-l-N-c‑y-§-f‑p-a‑m-b‑n s‑]‑m-c‑p-¯-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ ]‑p-X‑n-b C-\‑w
h‑n-f-IÄ h‑n-I-k‑n-¸‑n-¡‑m³ ¹‑mâ‑v {‑_‑o-UÀ-a‑mÀ {‑]-hÀ-¯‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
D-bÀ-¶ A-f-h‑nep-Å I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v h‑n-f-s‑h-S‑p-¸‑n-s‑\ _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p‑w. D-bÀ-
¶ CO A-f-h‑v k-k‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S h-fÀ-¨ hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-s‑a-¶‑v N‑n-e ]T-\-§Ä k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p-
2
s‑ï-¦‑n-e‑p‑w‑, X‑m-]-\‑n-e‑, H‑m-t‑k‑m¬‑, P-e‑w‑, t‑]‑m-j-I ]-c‑n-a‑n-X‑n-IÄ F-¶‑n-h a‑m-d‑p-¶-X‑v t‑]‑m-

e‑p-Å a-ä‑v L-S-I-§Ä C‑u k‑m-[‑y-X-s‑b C-Ã‑m-X‑m-¡‑p‑w. I‑q-S‑m-s‑X‑, D-bÀ-¶ CO , BÂ-^‑, 2
t‑k‑m-b‑m-_‑o³ X‑p-S-§‑n-b h‑n-f-I-f‑p-s‑S K‑p-W-\‑n-e-h‑m-c‑w \-ã-s‑¸-S‑p-¶-X‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-

¡‑p-¶‑p‑, C-X‑v t‑{‑]‑m-«‑o-\‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w s‑s‑\-{‑S-P-s‑â-b‑p‑w A-f-h‑v I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
t‑a-¨‑nÂ I-¶‑p-I‑m-e‑n-I--f‑p-s‑S h-f-À--¨s‑b ]‑n-´‑p-W-b‑v-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å t‑a-¨‑nÂ-¸‑p-d-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w
t‑d-©‑v e‑mâ‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w I-g‑n-h‑v I‑p-d-b‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v C-X‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p‑w.
s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, h-cÄ-¨‑ X‑p-S-§‑n-b I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-§-f‑p‑w h‑n-f-I-s‑f t‑Z‑m-j-
I-c-a‑m-b‑n _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w h‑n-f-h‑v I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p‑w. D-Z‑m-l-c-W-¯‑n-\‑v, 2010þ-e‑p‑w
2012þ-e‑p‑w D-bÀ-¶ c‑m-{‑X‑n-I‑m-e X‑m-]-\‑n-e b‑p. F-k‑v. t‑I‑m¬ s‑_Â-ä‑nÂ D-S-\‑o-f-a‑p-Å [‑m-\‑y-
h‑n-f-h‑n-s‑\ _‑m-[‑n-¨‑p. t‑h-\Â-¡‑m-e X‑m-]-\‑n-e D-b-c‑p-¶-X‑v a-®‑v h-c-ï-X‑m-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v I‑m-c-
W-a‑m-t‑b-¡‑m‑w‑, C-X‑v N‑n-e {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ h-cÄ-¨-s‑b t‑\-c‑n-S‑p-¶-X‑n\v‑ H-c‑p s‑h-Ã‑p-h‑n-f‑n-b‑m-W‑v.
t‑{‑]‑m-«‑o-\‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w A-h-i‑y [‑m-X‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w k‑m-{‑µ-X I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-¶ CO A-f-h‑v hÀ-²‑n-
2
¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑mÂ a‑n-¡ `-£‑y-h‑n-f-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w t‑]‑m-j-I-a‑q-e‑y‑w I‑p-d-b‑p‑w.

I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w I-¶‑p-I‑m-e‑n-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. X‑m-] X-c‑w-K-§Ä X‑m-
] k-½À-±‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¨‑v, {‑]-X‑y‑pÂ-¸‑m-Z-\- £-a-X-b‑p‑w ]‑m-e‑p-X‑v-¸‑m-Z-\-h‑p‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I‑, t‑c‑m-
K-_‑m-[ hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-b‑n-e‑q-s‑S I-¶‑p-I‑m-e‑n-I-s‑f t‑\-c‑n-«‑v `‑o-j-W‑n-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶‑p.
h-cÄ-¨‑, t‑a-b‑p-¶ I-¶‑p-I‑m-e‑n-IÄ-¡‑v e-`‑y-a‑m-b K‑p-W-t‑a-·-b‑p-Å X‑o-ä-b‑p-s‑S A-f-h‑v I‑p-d-b‑v-
¡‑p‑w‑, C-X‑v X‑o-ä£‑m-a-¯‑n-\‑v C-S-b‑m-¡‑p‑w. I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w I-¶‑p-I‑m-e‑n-I-s‑f _‑m-[‑n-
¡‑p-¶ ]-c‑m-¶-t‑`‑m-P‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w t‑c‑m-K-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w h‑y‑m-]-\-h‑p‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p‑w.
I‑o-S-§Ä‑, ]-c‑m-¶-t‑`‑m-P‑n-IÄ‑, k‑q-£‑v-a‑m-W‑p-¡Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑n-s‑e I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m t‑{‑]-c‑n-X
a‑m-ä-§-t‑f‑m-S‑p-Å {‑]-X‑n-I-c-W-a‑m-b‑n I-¶‑p-I‑m-e‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S B-t‑c‑m-K‑y‑w \‑n-e-\‑nÀ-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v s‑h-
ä-d‑n-\-d‑n c‑o-X‑n-IÄ a‑m-t‑d-ï-X‑p-ï‑v. F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, C-X‑v I‑o-S-\‑m-i‑n-\‑n-IÄ `-£‑y i‑r‑w-J-e-b‑n-
t‑e-¡‑v I-S-¡‑m-\‑p-Å k‑m-[‑y-X hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p‑w, A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ I‑o-S-\‑m-i‑n-\‑n {‑]-X‑n-t‑c‑m-[-¯‑n-s‑â
]-c‑n-W‑m-a-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-t‑¨-¡‑m‑w‑, I-¶‑p-I‑m-e‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w a-Õ‑y-¡‑r-j‑n DÂ¸‑-¶-§-f‑p-s‑S-
b‑p‑w k‑p-c-£‑, h‑n-X-c-W‑w‑, D-]-t‑`‑m-K‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑nÂ X‑p-SÀ-¶‑p-Å {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä D-ï‑m-
I‑m‑w. A-h-k‑m-\-a‑m-b‑n‑, A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-s‑e CO s‑â hÀ-²-\-h‑v I-¶‑p-I‑m-e‑n-IÄ-¡‑v `-£-W‑w
2
\Â-I‑p-¶ k-k‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S DÂ-]‑m-Z-\-£-a-X hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-s‑a-¦‑n-e‑p‑w‑, t‑a-¨‑nÂ-¸‑p-d-§-f‑nÂ I‑m-

W-s‑¸-S‑p-¶ N‑n-e X‑o-ä-I-f‑p-s‑S K‑p-W-\‑n-e-h‑m-c‑w D-bÀ-¶ CO I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p¶
2
‑- ‑p.
a-Õ‑y-_-Ô-\-¯‑n-s‑e B-L‑m-X‑w:
I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w I‑m-c-W‑w P-e-P‑o-h‑n-IÄ X-W‑p-¯ {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-t‑e-t‑¡‑m h-S-¡‑v
X‑o-c-¯‑n-t‑e-t‑¡‑m \‑o-§‑n-t‑b-¡‑m‑w‑, F-¶‑mÂ C-X‑v `-£-W-¯‑n-\‑p‑w h‑n-`-h-§Ä-¡‑p-a‑m-b‑n a-ä‑v
P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-a‑m-b‑p-Å a-Õ-c-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v \-b‑n-t‑¨-¡‑m‑w. D-bÀ-¶ P-e X‑m-]-\‑n-e-b‑p‑w A-g‑n-a‑p-
J-s‑¯ e-h-W‑m‑w-i-h‑p‑w ]-c‑m-¶-t‑`‑m-P‑n-IÄ ]-S-c‑m³ A-\‑p-h-Z‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑mÂ‑, I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m
h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-h‑p-a‑m-b‑n k-a‑p-{‑Zt‑c‑m-K-§Ä s‑]‑m-«‑n-¸‑p-d-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. X‑m-]-\‑n-e-b‑n-e‑p‑w E-X‑p-¡-f‑n-e‑p‑w
D-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ a‑m-ä-§Ä P-e-P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S ]‑p-\-c‑pÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-s‑¯-b‑p‑w t‑Z-i‑m-S-\ k-a-b-s‑¯-b‑p‑w
_‑m-[‑n-¡‑p‑w.
h-\ h-fÀ-¨-b‑n-e‑p‑w DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-£-a-X-b‑n-e‑p‑w B-L‑m-X‑w:

N‑q-S‑m-I‑p-¶ X‑m-]-\‑n-e h-f-c‑p-¶ k‑o-k-W‑n-s‑â s‑s‑ZÀ-L‑y‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w N‑n-e h‑r-£-
§-f‑p-s‑S `‑q-a‑n-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-]-c-a‑m-b t‑{‑i-W‑n-IÄ a‑m-ä‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-
\‑w h-cÄ-¨-b‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w A-X‑n-i-à-a‑m-b a-g-b‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w A-]-I-S-k‑m-[‑y-X hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p‑w‑, C-X‑v
a-c-§-s‑f \-i‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w I‑m-«‑p-X‑o k‑m-[‑y-X hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p‑w. A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-
s‑e CO2 s‑â hÀ-²-\-h‑v h‑r-£-§-s‑f I‑q-S‑p-XÂ DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-£-a-a‑m-¡‑m³ {‑]‑m-]‑v-X-a‑m-¡‑n-t‑b-
¡‑m‑w‑, F-¶‑mÂ C-X‑v P-e-s‑¯-b‑p‑w t‑]‑m-j-I e-`‑y-X-s‑b-b‑p‑w B-{‑i-b‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
h-\\ioIcW¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä:
I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w‑, {‑]‑m-W‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S h‑w-i-\‑m-i‑w, B-{‑I-a-W-I‑m-c‑n-I-f‑m-b P‑o-h‑n-
IÄ‑, I‑m-«‑p-X‑o‑, s‑I‑m-S‑p-¦‑m-ä‑p-IÄ F-¶‑n-§-s‑\-b‑p-Å h-\i-e‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S B-h‑r-¯‑n-b‑p‑w X‑o-
{‑h-X-b‑p‑w a‑m-ä‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w. h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W‑w h-\ DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-£-a-X I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑m-\‑p‑w h‑r-£
C-\-§-f‑p-s‑S h‑n-X-c-W-¯‑nÂ a‑m-ä‑w h-c‑p-¯‑m-\‑p‑w I-g‑n-b‑p‑w‑.
h-\-t‑a-J-e-b‑nÂ I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-¯‑n-s‑â B-L‑m-X‑w:

I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w h-\-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-s‑e N‑q-S‑p-Å I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø-b‑p‑w D-bÀ-¶ CO 2
\nebpwa‑q-e-a‑p-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ h-fÀ-¨-b‑p‑w h-g‑n B-t‑K‑m-f X-S‑n DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p‑w‑, C-X‑v

h‑n-e I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w a-c‑w _-t‑b‑m-a‑m-k‑v D‑uÀ-Ö-¯‑n-s‑â a-ä‑v D-]-t‑b‑m-K-§-s‑f _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-I-
b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p‑w.
s‑s‑P-h C-Ô-\-¯‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w _-t‑b‑m-a‑m-k‑v D‑uÀ-P-¯‑n-s‑â-b‑p‑w B-h-i‑y-I-X-b‑n-e‑p‑w hÀ-[-\-
b‑p-ï‑m-t‑b-¡‑m‑w. I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w P-e-t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-I-f‑nÂ h-e‑n-b k‑z‑m-[‑o-\‑w s‑N-
e‑p-¯‑p-¶‑p‑, A-X‑v k-a‑q-l-¯‑n-\‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n h‑y-h-Ø-IÄ-¡‑p‑w \‑nÀ-W‑m-b-I-a‑m-W‑v. I‑r-j‑n‑,
DuÀtÖmÂ-¸‑m-Z-\‑w‑, \‑m-h‑n-t‑K-j³‑, h‑n-t‑\‑m-Z‑w‑, DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\‑w X‑p-S-§‑n-b \‑n-c-h-[‑n {‑]-hÀ-¯-
\-§Ä-¡‑v s‑h-Å‑w B-h-i‑y-a‑m-W‑v, I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w C‑u h‑n-`-h-§-f‑nÂ I‑q-S‑p-XÂ
k-½À-±‑w s‑N-e‑p-¯‑p-s‑a-¶‑v {‑]-X‑o-£‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
N‑q-S‑p-Å X‑m-]-\‑n-e A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v P-e-¯‑n-s‑â _‑m-j‑v-]‑o-I-c-W \‑n-c-¡‑v hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-
¡‑p-¶‑p‑, C-X‑v N‑n-e {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ h-cÄ-¨-b‑v-¡‑p‑w a-ä‑p-Å‑n-S-¯‑v I-\-¯ a-g-b‑v-¡‑p‑w C-S-b‑m-
¡‑p‑w. a-g-b‑p-s‑S c‑o-X‑n-b‑n-e‑p-Å a‑m-ä-§Ä C-X‑n-\-I‑w X-s‑¶ P-e-N-{‑I-s‑¯ _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. C-X‑v
I‑r-j‑n‑, h-\‑w‑, D‑uÀ-P‑w‑, I‑p-S‑n-s‑h-Å‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑nÂ K‑p-c‑p-X-c-a‑m-b {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä D-ï‑m-
¡‑p‑w. P-e-t‑k-N-\ I‑r-j‑n‑, P-e-s‑s‑h-Z‑y‑p-X D-X‑v-]‑m-Z-\‑w‑, i‑o-X‑o-I-c-W P-e-¯‑n-s‑â D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑w
X‑p-S-§‑n-b {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-s‑f P-e-e-`‑y-X I‑p-d-b‑p-¶-X‑v _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p‑w. I-\-¯ a-g-s‑b X‑p-SÀ-¶‑v
s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡k‑m-[‑y-X-b‑p‑w hÀ-[‑n-¡‑m-\‑n-S-b‑p-ï‑v. k-a‑p-{‑Z-\‑n-c-¸‑v D-b-c‑p-¶-X‑p‑w h-cÄ-¨-b‑p‑w a‑q-
e‑w X‑o-c-t‑Z-i-s‑¯ P-e-t‑{‑k‑m-X-Ê‑p-IÄ I‑q-S‑p-XÂ e-h-W‑m‑w-i-a‑p-Å-X‑m-I‑m³ I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p‑w.
a-g hÀ-[‑n-¡‑p-¶ {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ P-e-¯‑n-s‑â K‑p-W-\‑n-e-h‑m-c‑w t‑a‑m-i-a‑m-t‑b-¡‑m‑w. I-\-
¯ a-g s‑]-¿‑p-¶ k‑w-`-h-§Ä P-e-¯‑n-s‑â a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, a‑r-K-§-f‑p-s‑S A-h-i‑n-ã-§Ä‑,
a-ä‑v h-k‑v-X‑p-¡Ä F-¶‑n-h P-e-h‑n-X-c-W-¯‑nÂ H-g‑p-I‑n A-h D-]-t‑b‑m-K-i‑q-\‑y-t‑a‑m k‑p-c-£‑n-X-
a-Ã‑m-¯-tX‑m- BI‑p-¶-X‑v {‑]-i--\ ‑v -§Ä D-ï‑m-¡‑p‑w. I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w `‑q-KÀ-`-P-e d‑o-
N‑mÀ-P‑n-s‑\ _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w N‑n-e {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ I‑p-S‑n-s‑h-Å-¯‑n-\‑p-Å `‑q-KÀ-`-P-e-¯‑n-s‑â
e-`‑y-X I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑pI-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p‑w.
]-hÀ ¹‑mâ‑p-IÄ‑, d‑n-s‑s‑^-\-d‑n-IÄ‑, ]‑p-I DÂ-]‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶ h‑y-h-k‑m-b-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑nÂ
\‑n-¶‑p-Å kÄ-^À k‑w-b‑p-à-§-f‑p-s‑S ]pd´ÅÂ \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å s‑N-e-h‑v I‑m-
c-W‑w DïmIp¶ B-k‑n-U‑v a-g‑, A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ A-¾a-g‑, a-c-§Ä-¡‑p‑w a-ä‑v k-k‑y-§Ä-¡‑p‑w
l‑m-\‑n-I-c-a‑m-W‑v, C-X‑v k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä D-ï‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p. A¾ag B-h‑m-k-h‑y-h-
Ø-s‑b {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e-a‑m-b‑n _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑. C-X‑v h-\-§Ä‑, \-Z‑n-IÄ‑, h-b-e‑p-IÄ‑, X-S‑m-I-§Ä
F-¶‑n-h-b‑n-s‑e [‑m-X‑p k-´‑p-e‑n-X‑m-h-Ø-sb XIÀ¡p¶p. C-X‑v k‑q-£‑v-a‑m-W‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S DÂ-¸‑m-
Z-\-£-a-X-s‑b _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑. P-e-¯‑n-s‑â D-]-c‑n-X-e-¯‑n-e‑p-Å P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S {‑]-X‑n-t‑c‑m-[-t‑i-
j‑n I‑p-d-b‑p-¶‑p‑, a‑q-e-I-§-f‑p-s‑S k‑z‑m-`‑m-h‑n-IN-{‑I-§-s‑f _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. B-k‑n-U‑v a-g X-S-b‑m³‑,
A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-s‑e CO , SO , NO h‑m-X-I-§Ä I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w A-h-b‑p-s‑S h‑y‑m-]-\‑w \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-
2 2 2
¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w t‑h-W‑w.
I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-s‑¯ t‑\-c‑n-S‑m³‑, t‑^‑m-k‑nÂ C-Ô-\]-hÀ t‑Ì-j-\‑p-IÄ A-S-¨‑v
A-h-b‑v-¡‑v ]-I-c‑w B-W-t‑h‑mÀ-Ö‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¨‑v I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v ]‑p-d-´-
ÅÂ I‑p-d-b‑v-t‑¡-ï-X‑v B-h-i‑y-a‑m-W‑v. h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I c‑m-P‑y-§Ä CXv ]-c‑n-a‑n-X-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-
X‑n-\‑v h‑n-I-k‑z-c c‑m-P‑y-§-s‑f k-l‑m-b‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w F-Ã‑m c‑m-P‑y-§-f‑p‑w A-h-c‑p-s‑S h‑n-jw ]‑p-d-´-
ÅÂ ]-c‑n-a‑n-X-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v t‑Z-i‑o-bX-{‑´-§Ä \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w t‑h-W‑w. c‑m-P‑y-§Ä
A-h-c‑p-s‑S \-b-§-f‑n-s‑e I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-§Ä X‑n-c‑n-¨-d‑n-b‑p-I-b‑p‑w ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I
{‑]-i‑v-\-§-f‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-« s‑]‑m-X‑p A-h-t‑_‑m-[‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w t‑h-W‑w‑, {‑]-t‑X‑y-I‑n-
¨‑v B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\‑w. I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-s‑¯ t‑\-c‑n-S‑m³ B-t‑K‑m-f k-l-I-c-W-h‑p‑w
A-´‑m-c‑m-{‑ã K-t‑h-j-W {‑i-a-§-f‑p‑w B-h-i‑y-a‑m-W‑v.
k‑v-{‑S‑m-t‑ä‑m-k‑v-^‑n-b-d‑nÂ t‑I-{‑µ‑o-I-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶ H‑m-t‑k‑m¬ ]‑m-f‑n‑, t‑Z‑m-j-I-c-a‑m-b AÄ-
{‑S‑m-h-b-e-ä‑v h‑n-I‑n-c-W-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v `‑q-a‑n-s‑b k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, H‑m-t‑k‑m¬
]‑m-f‑n-b‑p-s‑S t‑i‑m-j-W‑w H-c‑p {‑]-[‑m-\ ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I {‑]-i‑v-\-a‑m-b‑n a‑m-d‑n-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, C-X‑v
{‑]‑m-Y-a‑n-I-a‑m-b‑n A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v t‑¢‑m-t‑d‑m-^‑v-e‑q-t‑d‑m-I‑mÀ-_-W‑p-IÄ (CFCs) ]‑p-d-¯‑p-h‑n-S‑p-
¶-X‑v a‑q-e-a‑m-W‑v. H‑m-t‑k‑m¬ ]‑m-f‑n-b‑p-s‑S t‑i‑m-j-W‑w X‑z-¡‑v I‑m³-kÀ‑, X‑n-a‑n-c‑w‑, a-ä‑v B-t‑c‑m-K‑y-
{‑]-i‑v-\-§Ä F-¶‑n-h hÀ-[‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p¶‑p.-‑ H‑m-t‑k‑m¬ ]‑m-f‑n-b‑p-s‑S t‑i‑m-j-
W‑w X-S-b‑m³‑ CFC I-f‑p-s‑S D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑w \‑nÀ-¯-W‑w.
H‑m-t‑k‑m¬ ]‑m-f‑n-b‑p-s‑S t‑i‑m-j-W‑w a-\‑p-j‑yÀ-¡‑p‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-¡‑p‑w t‑Z‑m-j-I-c-a‑m-b {‑]-X‑y‑m-
L‑m-X-§Ä D-ï‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p. k‑q-c‑y-\‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å AÄ-{‑S‑m-h-b-e-ä‑v h‑n-I‑n-c-W‑w‑, H‑m-t‑k‑m¬
t‑i‑m-j-W‑w a‑q-e‑w a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑nÂ NÀ-½-t‑c‑m-K-§Ä‑, I‑m³-kÀ‑, k‑q-c‑y‑m-L‑m-X‑w‑, X‑n-a‑n-c‑w‑, s‑]-
s‑«-¶‑p-Å h‑mÀ-²-I‑y‑w‑, Z‑pÀ-_-e-a‑m-b {‑]-X‑n-t‑c‑m-[-t‑i-j‑n X‑p-S-§‑n-b B-t‑c‑m-K‑y-{‑]-i‑v-\-§Ä-¡‑v
I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p‑w. H‑m-t‑k‑m¬ ]‑m-f‑n-b‑p-s‑S t‑i‑m-j-W‑w a‑r-K-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑, I‑m-c-W‑w
AÄ-{‑S‑m-h-b-e-ä‑v h‑n-I‑n-c-W‑w t‑\-c‑n-«‑v ]X‑n¡‑p-¶X‑v NÀ-½-¯‑n-e‑p‑w I-®‑n-e‑p‑w I‑m³-k-d‑n-\‑v I‑m-
c-W-a‑m-I‑p‑w. I‑q-S‑m-s‑X‑, i-à-a‑m-b AÄ-{‑S‑m-h-b-e-ä‑v c-i‑v-a‑n-IÄ I‑m-c-W‑w s‑N-S‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S h-fÀ-¨‑,
]‑q-h‑n-SÂ‑, {‑]-I‑m-i-k‑w-t‑Ç-j-W‑w F-¶‑n-h I‑p-d-b‑p-¶‑p‑, C-X‑v h-\-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w k-a‑p-{‑Z-P‑o-h‑n-I-s‑f-
b‑p‑w t‑Z‑m-j-I-c-a‑m-b‑n _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. {‑]-t‑X‑y-I‑n-¨‑v P-e-`-£-W i‑r‑w-J-e-b‑nÂ I‑q-S‑p-X-e‑p-Å
¹-h-I-§-f‑p-s‑S \‑m-i‑w `-£‑yi‑r‑w-J-e-b‑n-s‑e a-ä‑v P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑nÂ {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e ^-e-§Ä
D-ï‑m-¡‑p‑w.
UNIT-4
ImÀ_¬ ImÂ¸mSpw B-i-b-h‑p‑w
\‑nÀ-h-N-\-h‑p‑w
B-t‑K‑m-f I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑mh‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-h‑p‑w a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â I‑mÀ-_¬ I‑mÂ-¸‑m-S‑p‑I-f-p‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-
¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v k-k‑y-§Ä‑, a-®‑v, `‑q-a‑n-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-]-c-a‑m-b c‑q-]-§Ä‑, k-a‑p-{‑Z‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑nÂ I‑mÀ-
_¬ k‑w-`-c‑n-¡‑m-\‑p-Å H-c‑p a‑mÀ-K-a‑m-W‑v I‑mÀ-_¬ t‑hÀ-X‑n-c‑n-¡Â. A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑nÂ
\‑n-¶‑v I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v \‑o-¡‑w s‑N-b‑v-X‑v h‑o-ï‑p‑w A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑nÂ {‑]-t‑h-i‑n-
¡‑m-¯ Ø-e-¯‑v k‑q-£‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶ e-£‑y-t‑¯‑m-s‑S C-X‑v k‑z‑m-`‑m-h‑n-I-a‑m-b‑p‑w I‑r-{‑X‑n-a-a‑m-
b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑m‑w.
{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z-¯-a‑m-b I‑mÀ-_¬ t‑i-J-c-W‑w s‑s‑P-h‑, c‑m-k‑, `‑u-X‑n-I {‑]-{‑I‑n-b-I-f‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑m-
W‑v k‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v, I‑r-{‑X‑n-ac‑o-X‑n-I-f‑nÂ h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I-a‑m-b‑n DÂ-¸‑m-Z‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶ I‑mÀ-_¬
s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v ]‑n-S‑n-s‑¨-S‑p-¡‑p-¶-X‑p‑w k‑w-`-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑p‑w CXnÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\‑w I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I‑, I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v ]‑p-d-´-ÅÂ e-L‑q-I-c‑n-
¡‑p-I‑, h-\-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w k-a‑p-{‑Z-P‑o-h‑n-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡Â F-¶‑n-h I‑mÀ-_¬ t‑hÀ-X‑n-c‑n-¡-
e‑n-s‑â {‑]-t‑b‑m-P-\-§-f‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, d‑n-kÀ-t‑h‑m-bÀ U‑n-s‑s‑k³ X-I-c‑m-
d‑p-I-f‑p‑w s‑S-I‑v-t‑ä‑m-W‑n-I‑v {‑]-{‑I‑n-b-I-f‑p‑w I‑m-c-W‑w k‑w-`-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶ I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-
s‑s‑k-U‑n-s‑â {‑]-I‑m-i-\‑w‑, k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I-h‑n-Z‑y-b‑p-s‑S D-bÀ-¶ h‑n-e X‑p-S-§‑n-b N‑n-e t‑Z‑m-j-§-f‑pw
CXnepï.v‑
I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v I-S-¡‑m-¯ h‑n-[-¯‑nÂ k‑w-`-c‑n-
¡‑p-¶ {‑]-{‑I‑n-b-s‑b-b‑m-W‑v I‑mÀ-_¬ k‑o-I‑z-k‑v-t‑{‑S-j³ F-¶‑v ]-d-b‑p-¶-X‑v. k-k‑y-§Ä‑, a-®‑v,
k-a‑p-{‑Z-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-b‑nÂ s‑s‑P-hI‑mÀ-_¬ t‑hÀ-X‑n-c‑n-¡Â k‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. k-a‑p-{‑Z-§-f‑nÂ‑,
I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v c-ï‑v Z‑n-i-I-f‑n-t‑e-¡‑p‑w t‑]‑m-I‑p-¶‑p‑, k-a‑p-{‑Z-¯‑n-s‑â X-W‑p-¯‑,
t‑]‑m-j-I k-¼-¶-a‑m-b `‑m-K-§Ä N‑q-S‑p-Å `‑m-K-§-s‑f-¡‑mÄ I‑q-S‑p-XÂ I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-
I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v B-K‑n-c-W‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. {‑]-I‑m-i-k‑w-t‑Ç-j-W-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S a-®‑n-\‑v I‑mÀ-_¬ k‑w-`-c‑n-
¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w‑. h-\-\-i‑o-I-c-W-h‑p‑w I‑m-«‑p-X‑o-b‑p‑w A-h-b‑p-s‑S ^-e-{‑]‑m-]‑v-X‑n I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-s‑a-¦‑n-
e‑p‑w‑, h-\-§Ä-¡‑p‑w ]‑pÂ-t‑a-S‑p-IÄ-¡‑p‑w I‑mÀ-_¬ ]‑n-S‑n-s‑¨-S‑p-¡‑m³ \¶mbn I-g‑n-b‑p‑w. `‑q-KÀ-
` ]‑m-d-I-f‑nÂ I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v k‑w-`-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v P‑n-t‑b‑m-f-P‑n-¡Â I‑mÀ-_¬
k‑o-I‑z-k‑v-t‑{‑S-j-\‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I I‑mÀ-_¬ AhtimjWw C-Ô-\‑w
I-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v a‑p-t‑¼‑m t‑i-j-t‑a‑m ]-hÀ ¹‑mâ‑p-I-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v han¡p¶ I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-
I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v ]‑n-S‑n-s‑¨-S‑p-¡‑p-¶‑p‑. I‑q-S‑p-XÂ H‑m-Iv-k -‑ ‑n-P-\‑nÂ C-Ô-\‑w I-¯‑n-¨‑v A-X‑n-s‑â ^-e-a‑m-
b‑n D-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ F-Ã‑m h‑m-X-I-§-f‑p‑w k‑w-`-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v ]‑n-S‑n-s‑¨-
S‑p-¡‑m³ thïnbpÅ {‑K‑m-^‑o³ DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\‑w‑, t‑\-c‑n-«‑p-Å h‑m-b‑p ]‑n-S‑n-s‑¨-S‑p-¡Â‑, F-©‑n-\‑o-b-
d‑n‑w-K‑v X-·‑m-{‑X-IÄ X‑p-S-§‑n-b k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I-h‑n-Z‑y-IÄ k‑m-t‑¦-X‑n-I I‑mÀ-_¬ t‑hÀ-X‑n-c‑n-¡‑m³
D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. a-\‑p-j‑y-s‑â {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S A-´-c‑o-£-¯‑n-t‑e-¡‑v ]‑p-d-s‑¸-S‑p-h‑n-
¡‑p-¶ l-c‑n-X-K‑r-l h‑m-X-I-§-f‑p-s‑S A-f-h‑m-W‑v I‑mÀ-_¬ I‑mÂ-¸‑m-Sv‑ AYhm ImÀ-_¬
^qSv{]nâ v. h‑y-à‑n-IÄ-t‑¡‑m I‑p-S‑p‑w-_-§Ä-t‑¡‑m C-hâ‑p-IÄ-t‑¡‑m H‑mÀ-K-s‑s‑\-t‑k-j-\‑p-IÄ-
t‑¡‑m A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ a‑p-g‑p-h³ c‑m-P‑y-§Ä-¡‑pt‑a‑m‑ t‑]‑m-e‑p‑w C-X‑v A-f-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w. H-c‑p I‑mÀ-
_¬ I‑mÂ-¡‑p-t‑e-ä-d‑n-\‑v h‑y-à‑n-I-s‑f A-h-c‑p-s‑S s‑s‑Z-\‑w-Z‑n-\ {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä l-c‑n-X-K‑r-l
h‑m-X-I D-Z--h ‑v -a-\-¯‑n-\‑v F-§-s‑\ k-l‑m-b‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p-s‑h-¶‑v a-\-Ê‑n-e‑m-¡‑m³ CXphgn k-l‑m-
b‑n-¡‑p‑w.
I‑q-S‑p-XÂ I‑m-c‑y-£-a-a‑m-b h‑m-l-\-§Ä H‑m-S‑n-¡‑p-I A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ \‑n-e-h‑n-e‑p-Å h‑m-l-\-
§Ä i-c‑n-b‑m-b‑n ]-c‑n-]‑m-e‑n-¡‑p-I‑, s‑]‑m-X‑p-K-X‑m-K-X‑w Iq-SpXÂ D]tbmKn¡pI‑, D‑uÀ-Ö-þ-
I‑m-c‑y-£-a-a‑m-b D-]-I-c-W-§Ä D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-I‑, h‑o-S‑p-IÄ C³-k‑p-t‑e-ä‑v s‑N-¿‑p-I‑, Ipd¨v
a‑m‑w-k‑w I-g‑n-¡‑p-I‑, X‑p-S-§‑n-b h‑n-h‑n-[c‑o-X‑n-I-f‑n-e‑q-s‑S I‑mÀ-_¬ a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-Ww I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑m³
I-g‑n-b‑p‑w. I‑p-d-ª I‑mÀ-_¬ a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-Ww D-d-¸‑m-¡‑p-¶ I-¼-\‑n-IÄ-¡‑v I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑{‑I-
U‑n-ä‑p-I-f‑p‑w h‑m-§‑m‑w‑. A-h-c‑p-s‑S N‑n-e D-Z--h
‑v -a-\‑w H‑m-^--s‑v ‑k-ä‑v s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑{‑I-U‑n-ä‑p-
IÄ F-¶-X‑v H-c‑p S¬ CO A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ a-s‑ä‑m-c‑p l-c‑n-X-K‑r-l h‑m-X-I-¯‑n-\‑v X‑p-e‑y-a‑m-b ]‑p-d-
2
´-Å‑m-\‑p-Å A-h-I‑m-i‑w D-S-a-b‑v-¡‑v \Â-I‑p-¶ t‑{‑S-U-_‑nÄ s‑]À-a‑n-ä‑p-I-f‑m-W‑v. H-c‑p \‑n-Ý‑n-X

A-f-h‑nÂ I‑mÀ-_¬ s‑s‑U H‑m-I‑v-s‑s‑k-U‑v ]‑p-d-´-Å‑m³ H-c‑p I-¼-\‑n-s‑b-t‑b‑m a-ä‑v Ø‑m-]-\-
s‑¯-t‑b‑m A-\‑p-h-Z‑n-¡‑p-¶ s‑{‑I-U‑n-ä‑p-IÄ h‑m-§‑m-\‑p‑w h‑nÂ-¡‑m-\‑p‑w I‑mÀ-_¬ t‑{‑S-U‑n‑w-K‑v
A-\‑p-h-Z‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. h‑n-h‑n-[ c‑m-P‑y-§-f‑nÂ I‑mÀ-_¬ t‑{‑S-U‑n‑w-K‑v t‑{‑]‑m-{‑K‑m-a‑p-IÄ Ø‑m-]‑n-¨‑n-
«‑p-ï‑v. I‑q-S‑m-s‑X I-¼-\‑n-IÄ-¡‑n-S-b‑nÂ F-a‑n-j³ s‑{‑I-U‑n-ä‑p-IÄ h‑nÂ-¡‑m³ I‑y‑m-]‑v B³-U‑v
t‑{‑S-U‑v A-\‑p-h-Z‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. I-¼-\‑n-IÄ-¡‑n-S-b‑nÂ \-S-¯‑p-¶ I‑mÀ-_¬ h‑y‑m-]‑m-c-¯‑n-s‑â H-c‑p
h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-a‑m-W‑v I‑y‑m-]‑v B³-U‑v t‑{‑S-U‑v k‑n-Ì‑w‑. H‑m-t‑c‑m I-¼-\‑n-¡‑p‑w ]-c-a‑m-h-[‑n I‑mÀ-_¬
a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W A-e-h³-k‑v \Â-I‑p‑w. D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m-¯ A-e-h³-k‑p-IÄ a-ä‑v I-¼-\‑n-IÄ-¡‑v
h‑nÂ-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p‑w‑.
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n h‑n-`-h-§Ä I‑q-S‑p-XÂ I‑m-c‑y-£-a-a‑m-b‑n h‑n-\‑n-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑m³ e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶ k‑m-
¼-¯‑n-I i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-¯‑n-s‑â H-c‑p D-]-h‑n-`‑m-K-a‑m-W‑v ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑m-¼-¯‑n-Ii‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w. k‑m-¼-
¯‑n-I i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-¯‑n-s‑â C‑u t‑a-J-e D-N‑n-X-a‑m-b ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I \-b-§Ä c‑q-]-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-
¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w \‑n-e-h‑n-e‑p-Å-t‑X‑m \‑nÀ-t‑±-i‑n-¨-t‑X‑m B-b \-b-§-f‑p-s‑S ^-e-§-f‑p‑w K‑p-W-§-f‑p‑w
h‑n-i-I-e-\‑w s‑N-¿‑m\‑p‑w- k-l‑m-b‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. I‑m-c‑y-£-a-a-Ã‑m-¯ {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h h‑n-l‑n-X‑w‑, h‑n-]-
W‑n ]-c‑m-P-b‑w‑, \‑n-t‑j-[‑m-ß-I-a‑m-b _‑m-l‑y-L-S-I-§Ä‑, s‑]‑m-X‑p-N-c-¡‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S a‑m-t‑\-P‑v-s‑aâ‑v
X‑p-S-§‑n-b {‑]-i‑v-\-§Ä ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w s‑s‑I-I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p. C-X‑v
{‑]‑n-k--{‑v ‑I‑n-]‑v-ä‑o-h‑v A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ C³-s‑kâ‑o-h‑v A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\-a‑m-¡‑n-b‑p-Å-X‑m-I‑m‑w. A-X‑n-s‑â {‑]-[‑m-
\ s‑h-Ã‑p-h‑n-f‑n-IÄ A-´À-t‑Z-i‑o-b k‑z-`‑m-h-h‑p‑w H-c‑p k-a‑q-l-¯‑n-s‑â h‑n-h‑n-[ `‑m-K-§-f‑nÂ s‑N-
e‑p-¯‑p-¶ k‑z‑m-[‑o-\-h‑p-a‑m-W‑v.
h‑y‑m-h-k‑m-b‑n-I {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w hÀ-²‑n-¨‑p-h-c‑p-¶ B-i-¦-b‑m-
b‑n a‑m-d‑n-b 1960þ-I-f‑n-e‑m-W‑v ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-¯‑n-s‑â D-Û-h‑w. ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-
X‑n-I k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I h‑n-Z-K‑v-[À ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b {‑]-I‑r-X‑n a‑q-e-[-\-¯‑n-s‑â H-c‑p c‑q-]-a‑m-b‑n I‑m-
W‑p-¶‑p‑. A-X‑v `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-s‑e \‑n-h‑m-k‑n-IÄ-¡‑v k‑u-I-c‑y-§-f‑p‑w P‑o-h‑n-X ]‑n-´‑p-W‑m{‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-
f‑p‑w \Â-I‑p-¶‑p. I‑m-c‑y-£-a-a-Ã‑m-¯ {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h h‑n-l‑n-X‑w‑, h‑n-]-W‑n ]-c‑m-P-b‑w‑, s‑\-K-ä‑o-h‑v
_‑m-l‑y-L-S-I-§Ä‑, s‑]‑m-X‑p h-k‑v-X‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S a‑m-t‑\-P‑v-s‑aâ‑v X‑p-S-§‑n-b {‑]-i‑v-\-§Ä s‑s‑I-I‑m-
c‑y‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶ \‑n-t‑b‑m-¢‑m-k‑n-¡Â k-a‑o-]-\-s‑¯ A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\-a‑m-¡‑n-b‑p-Å-X‑m-W‑v ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-
X‑n k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w. 1972þÂ s‑F-I‑y-c‑m-{‑ã ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n t‑{‑]‑m-{‑K‑m‑w (UNEP) t‑]‑m-e‑p-Å
]‑p-X‑n-b ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n Ø‑m-]-\-§Ä Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-t‑e-¡‑v C-X‑v \-b‑n-¨‑p.
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I i‑m-k‑v-{‑X‑w k‑p-Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\‑w‑, h‑n-]-W‑n ]-c‑m-P-b‑w‑, _‑m-l‑y-
L-S-I-§Ä‑, a‑q-e‑y-\‑nÀ-®-b‑w‑, s‑N-e-h‑v-þ-B-\‑p-I‑q-e‑y h‑n-i-I-e-\‑w F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¡‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p.
"`‑m-h‑n X-e-a‑p-d-b‑p-s‑S k‑z-´‑w B-h-i‑y-§Ä \‑n-d-t‑h-ä‑m-\‑p-Å I-g‑n-h‑nÂ h‑n-«‑p-h‑o-g‑v-N s‑N-¿‑m-s‑X
C-¶-s‑¯ B-h-i‑y-§Ä \‑n-d-t‑h-ä‑p-¶ h‑n-I-k-\‑w F-¶‑m-W‑v b‑p-. F³. -C. -]‑n-.b‑p-s‑S k‑p-
Ø‑n-c h‑n-I-k-\‑w \‑nÀ-h-N‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑v. H-c‑p s‑]À-s‑^-I‑v-ä‑v a‑mÀ-¡-ä‑n-s‑â {‑]-hÀ-¯-\‑w X-I-
c‑m-d‑n-e‑m-b‑mÂ a‑mÀ-¡-ä‑v ]-c‑m-P-b‑w k‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I {‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§-f‑p-s‑S A-{‑i-
²-a‑m-b A-\-´-c-^-e-§-f‑m-W‑n‑X‑v. A-X‑n-e‑p-]-c‑n-b‑m-b‑n A-X‑nÂ t‑\-c‑n-«‑v GÀ-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶
B-f‑p-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w CXv _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑p‑w. ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-¯‑n-s‑â H-c‑p
{‑]-[‑m-\ h-i-a‑m-W‑v a‑q-e‑y-\‑nÀ-®-b‑w‑, I‑m-c-W‑w ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑nh‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S-
b‑p‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S s‑h-Ã‑p-h‑n-f‑n-IÄ s‑s‑I-I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å h‑n-h‑n-[ H‑m-]‑v-j-\‑p-
IÄ h‑n-e-b‑n-c‑p-¯‑m³ C-X‑v k-l‑m-b‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. t‑I‑m-Ì‑v s‑_-\‑n-^‑n-ä‑v A-\‑m-e‑n-k‑nÊ‑n-Â H-c‑p
t‑]‑m-f‑n-k‑n-b‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v D-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ t‑\-«-§Ä {‑K-l‑n-¨ B-\‑p-I‑q-e‑y-§Ä-¡‑v F-X‑n-c‑m-b‑n I-W-
¡‑m-¡‑p-¶-X‑v DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
{‑K‑o³ F-¡-t‑W‑m-a‑n A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ {‑K‑o³ C-¡-t‑W‑m-a‑n-Iv-k -‑ ‑v F-¶-X‑v k‑m-¼-¯‑n-I i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-
¯‑n-s‑â H-c‑p c‑o-X‑n-i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-a‑m-W‑v. A-X‑v a-\‑p-j‑y-c‑p‑w {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-b‑p‑w X-½‑n-e‑p-Å t‑b‑m-P‑n-¸‑p-Å
C-S-s‑]-S-e‑n-s‑\ ]‑n-´‑p-W-b‑v-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w `‑m-h‑n-X-e-a‑p-d-b‑p-s‑S k‑z-´‑w B-h-i‑y-§Ä \‑n-d-t‑h-ä‑m-
\‑p-Å I-g‑n-h‑nÂ h‑n-«‑p-h‑o-g‑v-N s‑N-¿‑m-s‑X hÀ-¯-a‑m-\-I‑m-e B-h-i‑y-§Ä \‑n-d-t‑h-ä‑m³ {‑i-a‑n-
¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶‑p.
DÂ-¸-¶-§-f‑p-s‑S ]‑p-\-c‑p-]-t‑b‑m-K‑w‑, A-ä-I‑p-ä-¸-W‑n-IÄ‑, \-h‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, ]-¦‑n-SÂ F-¶‑n-h-
b‑nÂ {‑i-² t‑I-{‑µ‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶ H-c‑p DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\‑, D-]-t‑`‑m-K a‑m-X‑r-I-b‑m-W‑v kÀ-¡‑p-eÀ F-¡-
t‑W‑m-a‑n. DÂ-¸-¶-§-f‑p-s‑S P‑o-h‑n-XN-{‑I‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§Ä I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w
s‑N-¿‑p-I F-¶-X‑m-W‑v C-X‑n-s‑â e-£‑y‑w. t‑hÄ-U‑v C-¡-t‑W‑m-a‑n-I‑v t‑^‑m-d‑w C-X‑n-s‑\ H-c‑p h‑y‑m-
h-k‑m-b‑n-I k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-a‑m-b‑n \nÀÆN‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑. h‑n-jc‑m-k-h-k‑v-X‑p-¡-f‑p-s‑S D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑w H-g‑n-h‑m-
¡‑p-¶‑p‑. s‑a-ä‑o-c‑n-b-e‑p-IÄ‑, DÂ-¸-¶-§Ä‑, k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§Ä‑, _‑n-k‑n-\-Ê‑v t‑a‑m-U-e‑p-IÄ F-¶‑n-
h-b‑p-s‑S c‑q-]-IÂ-¸-\-b‑n-e‑q-s‑S a‑m-e‑n-\‑y\‑nÀ-a‑mÀÖ-\‑w e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p. t‑{‑]‑m-P-I‑v-ä‑v B-k‑q-{‑X-
WN-{‑I-¯‑n-s‑â X‑p-S-¡-¯‑nÂ t‑{‑]‑m-P-I‑v-ä‑n-s‑â ^-e-§-f‑p‑w A-X‑n-s‑â e-L‑q-I-c-W-h‑p‑w {‑]-h-N‑n-
¨‑p-s‑I‑m-ï‑v H-c‑p \‑nÀ-±‑n-ã t‑{‑]‑m-P-I‑v-ä‑n-s‑â ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä h‑n-e-b‑n-c‑p-¯‑p-¶
H-c‑p {‑]-{‑I‑n-b-b‑m-W‑v EIA. \‑nÀ-±‑n-ã ]-²-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S k‑m-[‑y-a‑m-b ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-I{‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä
X‑n-c‑n-¨-d‑n-b‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e^-e-§Ä e-L‑q-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑pa-‑ ‑pÅ -‑ \-S-]-S‑n-IÄ \‑nÀ-t‑±-i‑n-
¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w e-L‑q-I-c-W‑w \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-¡‑n-b-X‑n-\‑v t‑i-j-h‑p‑w I‑m-c‑y-a‑m-b {‑]-X‑n-I‑q-e ]‑m-c‑n-Ø‑n-
X‑n-I {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä D-ï‑m-I‑p-t‑a‑m F-¶‑v {‑]-h-N‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w C-X‑v k-l‑m-b‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. EIA
{‑]-{‑I‑n-b-b‑nÂ k‑v-{‑I‑o-\‑n‑w-K‑v, k‑v-t‑I‑m-¸‑n‑w-K‑v, A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\ U‑m-ä t‑i-J-c-W‑w‑, C‑w-]‑m-Î‑v {‑]-h-N-
\‑w‑, e-L‑q-I-c-W \-S-]-S‑n-IÄ‑, EIA d‑n-t‑¸‑mÀ-«‑v, ]-»‑n-I‑v l‑n-b-d‑n‑w-K‑v, X‑o-c‑p-a‑m-\-s‑a-S‑p-¡Â‑, ]-c‑n-
Ø‑n-X‑n a‑m-t‑\-P‑v-s‑aâ‑v¹‑m-\‑n-s‑â \‑n-c‑o-£-W-h‑p‑w \-S-¸‑m-¡-e‑p‑w‑, _-Z-e‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S h‑n-e-b‑n-c‑p-¯Â‑,
e-L‑q-I-c-W\-S-]-S‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S \‑nÀ-®-b‑w‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n B-L‑m-X d‑n-t‑¸‑mÀ-«‑v, A-]-I-S-k‑m-[‑y-X
F-¶‑n-h DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. EIA {‑]-{‑I‑n-b-b‑n-s‑e ]-¦‑m-f‑n-I-f‑nÂ ]-²-X‑n \‑nÀ-t‑±-i‑n-¡‑p-¶-h-c‑p‑w ]-c‑n-
Ø‑n-X‑n I¬-kÄ-«â‑p-a‑m-c‑p‑w a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W \‑n-b-{‑´-W t‑_‑mÀ-U‑p-I-f‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
UNIT-5
C-´‑y-b‑n-s‑e {‑]-a‑p-J {‑]-I‑r-X‑n
Z‑p-c-´-§-f‑ps‑S H-c‑p {‑l-k‑z A-h-t‑e‑m-I-\‑w
a-®‑n-S‑n-¨‑nÂ‑, `‑q-I-¼-§Ä‑, A-K‑v-\‑n-]À-Æ-X k‑v-t‑^‑m-S-\-§Ä‑, s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, N‑p-g-e‑n-¡‑m-
ä‑p-IÄ‑, I‑m-«‑p-X‑o F-¶‑n-h {‑]-I‑r-X‑nZ‑p-c-´-§-f‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. N-c‑n-h‑n-s‑â A-S‑n-`‑m-K‑w I‑p-
¯-s‑\ I‑q-S‑p-I‑, N-c‑n-h‑n-s‑e t‑e‑m-U‑n‑w-K‑v, {‑l-k‑z-I‑m-e k-½À-±-§Ä‑, {‑]-{‑I‑n-b-IÄ F-¶‑n-§-
s‑\-b‑p-Å N-c‑n-h‑n-s‑â k‑z‑m-`‑m-h‑n-I Ø‑n-c-X-b‑n-s‑e X-I-c‑m-d‑p-IÄ I‑m-c-W‑w ]‑m-d-t‑b‑m A-h-i‑n-
ã-§-t‑f‑m N-c‑n-h‑n-e‑q-s‑S X‑m-t‑g-¡‑v \‑o-§‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ a-®‑n-S‑n-¨‑n-e‑p-IÄ k‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. A-X‑v H-c‑p
N-c‑n-h‑n-s‑e s‑a-ä‑o-c‑n-b-e‑n-s‑â I-{‑X‑n-Ii-à‑n-s‑b Z‑pÀ-_-e-a‑m-¡‑p-¶‑p. a-®‑n-S‑n-¨‑n-e‑p-IÄ s‑]-s‑«-
¶‑v A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ Z‑oÀ-L-I‑m-e-t‑¯-¡‑v k‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑m‑w‑. H-c‑p N-c‑n-h‑n-s‑e h-k‑v-X‑p-¡-f‑nÂ s‑h-Å‑w
\ndbpt¼mÄ, H-c‑p N-c‑n-h‑n-s‑â A-S‑n-`‑m-K‑w t‑i‑m-j-W‑w k‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ‑, N-c‑n-h‑v t‑I‑m-W‑nÂ
I‑p-¯-s‑\-b‑p-Å-X‑m-b‑n-¯‑o-c‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ‑, A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ a-\‑p-j‑y{‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä D-ï‑m-I‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ
a®nSn¨nÂ D-ï‑m-I‑m-\‑p-Å k‑m-[‑y-X I‑q-S‑p-X-e‑m-W‑v. J-\-\‑w A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ \-K-c-hÂ-¡-c-W‑w
C-Xn\v B¡w Iq«pw. a-®‑n-S‑n-¨‑n-e‑n-s‑\ N-e-\-¯‑n-s‑â X-c-h‑p‑w s‑a-ä‑o-c‑n-b-e‑n-s‑â X-c-h‑p‑w A-\‑p-
k-c‑n-¨‑v X-c‑w X‑n-c‑n-¡‑m‑w. {‑]-I‑r-X‑n-Z‑p-c-´-§Ä X-S-b‑m-\‑p--Å a‑mÀ-K-§-Ä‑, a‑p³-I‑qÀ a‑p-¶-d‑n-b‑n-¸‑v
k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§Ä‑, A-S‑n-b-´-c X-¿‑m-s‑d-S‑p-¸‑v ]-²-X‑n-IÄ‑, s‑a-¨-s‑¸-« `‑q-h‑n-\‑n-t‑b‑m-K B-k‑q-{‑X-
W‑w X‑p-S-§‑n-b \-S-]-S‑n-I-f‑n-e‑q-s‑S A-h-b‑p-s‑S ^-e-§Ä I‑p-d-b‑v-¡‑m-\‑m-I‑p‑w.
t‑e‑m-I-¯‑n-s‑â ]-e `‑m-K-§-f‑n-e‑p‑w‑, {‑]-t‑X‑y-I‑n-¨‑v P-\-k‑w-J‑y-b‑p‑w k-¼-Z--h
‑v ‑y-h-Ø-b‑p‑w A-X‑n-
t‑h-K‑w h-f-c‑p-¶ {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ‑, a-®‑n-S‑n-¨‑n-e‑p-IÄ B-f‑p-I-f‑p-s‑S P‑o-h‑n-X-¯‑n-\‑p‑w D-]-P‑o-h-\-
¯‑n-\‑p‑w A-]-I-S-I-c-a‑m-W‑v. C‑u A-]-I-S-§Ä e-L‑q-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v, a-®‑n-S‑n-¨‑n-e‑n-s‑â N-c‑n-{‑X-
a‑p-Å {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å P-\-X--s‑b \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡‑p-I-t‑b‑m \‑o-¡‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I-t‑b‑m‑, N-c‑n-h‑p-
I-f‑p-s‑S A-Ø‑n-c-X-b‑p-Å {‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-s‑e N‑n-e `‑q-h‑n-\‑n-t‑b‑m-K X-c-§Ä ]-c‑n-a‑n-X-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-I-
t‑b‑m, a‑p³-I‑qÀ a‑p-¶-d‑n-b‑n-¸‑v k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§Ä Ø‑m-]‑n-¡‑p-I-t‑b‑m sN¿pI-bmWv A`nImayw.
N-c‑n-h‑ns‑â-‑ P‑y‑m-a‑n-X‑n-b‑nÂ a‑m-ä‑w h-c‑p-¯‑p-I‑, N-c‑n-h‑p-Å h-k‑v-X‑p-¡Ä i-à‑n-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-
\‑v Cu amÀ¤§Ä D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-I‑, s‑s‑]-e‑p-I-f‑p‑w k‑w-c-£-W `‑n-¯‑n-I-f‑p‑w Ø‑m-]‑n-¡Â‑,
]‑m-dk-Ô‑n-I-f‑p‑w h‑n-Å-e‑p-I-f‑p‑w {‑K‑u-«‑v s‑N-¿Â‑, A-h-i‑n-ã-§Ä h-g‑n-X‑n-c‑n-¨‑p-h‑n-SÂ‑, D-]-c‑n-X-
e-¯‑n-e‑p‑w s‑h-Å-¯‑n-\-S‑n-b‑n-e‑p‑w s‑{‑U-b‑n-t‑\-P‑v Hgp¡n-h‑n-SÂ F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v a-®‑n-S‑n-¨‑nÂ X-S-
b‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-Å t‑\-c‑n-«‑p-Å a‑mÀ-¤-§Ä. F-¶‑n-c‑p-¶‑m-e‑p‑w‑, C‑u t‑\-c‑n-«‑p-Å c‑o-X‑n-IÄ s‑N-e-h‑v,
a-®‑n-S‑n-¨‑n-e‑n-s‑â h‑y‑m-]‑v-X‑n‑, B-h‑r-¯‑n‑, A-]-I-S-k‑m-[‑y-X-b‑p-Å a-\‑p-j‑y-h‑m-k t‑I-{‑µ-§-f‑p-s‑S
h-e‑p-¸‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑mÂ ]et¸mgpw ]-c‑n-a‑n-X-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑n-b‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø-b‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-« {‑]-I‑r-X‑nZ‑p-c-´-§-f‑n-Â G-ä-h‑p‑w k‑m-[‑m-c-W-h‑p‑w h‑y‑m-]-
I-h‑p-a‑m-W‑v s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w. k‑m-[‑m-c-W-b‑m-b‑n h-c-ï`‑q-a‑n-b‑n-t‑e-¡‑v s‑h-Å‑w I\¯coXnbnÂ
H-g‑p-I‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ A-h k‑w-`-h‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. I-\-¯a-g-b‑p-s‑S k-a-b-t‑¯‑m‑, I-SÂ X‑n-c-a‑m-e-IÄ I-c-
b‑n-t‑e-¡‑v h-c‑p-t‑¼‑m-t‑g‑m‑, a-ª‑v s‑]-s‑«-¶‑v D-c‑p-I‑p-t‑¼‑m-t‑g‑m‑, A-W-s‑¡-«‑p-I-t‑f‑m aSItfm X-I-
c‑p-t‑¼‑m-t‑g‑m s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w D-ï‑m-I‑m‑w. A-h s‑]-s‑«-¶‑v A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ ImemImeamtbm k‑w-
`-h‑n-¡‑m‑w‑, Z‑n-h-k-§-t‑f‑m B-g‑v-N-I-t‑f‑m A-X‑n-e-[‑n-I-t‑a‑m \‑o-ï‑p-\‑nÂ-¡‑m‑w. h³-t‑X‑m-X‑n-e‑p-Å
a-g‑, I-c-I-h‑n-s‑ª‑m-g‑p-I‑p-¶ \-Z‑n-IÄ‑, A-W-s‑¡-«‑p-IfpsS X-IÀ-¨‑, a-ª‑p-a-e-IÄ‑, h-\-\-i‑o-
I-c-W‑w‑, I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\‑w X‑p-S-§‑n-b k‑z‑m-`‑m-h‑n-I I‑m-c-W-§-f‑mÂ s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w
D-ï‑m-I‑m‑w. l-c‑n-X-K‑r-l h‑m-X-I-§-f‑p-s‑S ]‑p-d‑w-X-ÅÂ‑, X-IÀ-¶ h‑n-X-c-Ws‑s‑e-\‑p-IÄ‑, i-c‑n-
b‑m-b a-e‑n-\-P-e k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§-f‑p-s‑S A-`‑m-h‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑m-W‑v s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡-¯‑n-s‑â a-\‑p-j‑y-
\‑nÀ-½‑n-X I‑m-c-W-§-f‑nÂ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶-X‑v. A-©‑v X-c‑w s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡-§-f‑p-ï‑v: \-Z‑n-b‑n-s‑e s‑h-
Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, X‑o-c-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-s‑e s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑, a-gbpw Imäpw aqeapÅ s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w‑,
\-K-c s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡‑w. \-Z‑n-b‑n-s‑e s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡-¯‑n-s‑â I‑m-c-W-§-f‑nÂ k‑m-[‑m-c-W-b‑m-b‑n
D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑ s‑I‑m-S‑p-¦‑m-ä‑v k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\-§-f‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å A-a‑n-X-a‑m-b a-g‑, I-c-b‑n-t‑e-¡‑v h‑o-
g‑p-¶ i-à-a‑m-b C-S‑n-a‑n-¶Â‑, H-t‑c {‑]-t‑Z-i-¯‑v Z‑oÀ-L-t‑\-c‑w \‑o-ï‑p-\‑nÂ-¡‑p-¶ C-S‑n-a‑n-¶Â‑,
k‑w-t‑b‑m-P‑n-X a-g-b‑p‑w a-ª‑p-h‑o-g‑v-N-b‑p‑w DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p. I-SÂ t‑h-e‑n-t‑b-ä‑w‑, D-bÀ-¶ I‑m-ä‑v, D-j‑v-
W-t‑a-J-e‑m N‑p-g-e‑n-¡‑m-ä‑p-IÄ‑, k‑p-\‑m-a‑n-IÄ, I-S-e‑n-s‑e s‑I‑m-S‑p-¦‑m-ä‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑p-Å _‑m-t‑c‑m-
s‑a-{‑S‑n-I‑v aÀ-±‑w F-¶‑n-h-b‑p-s‑S k‑w-t‑b‑m-P-\-a‑m-W‑v X‑o-c-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-s‑e s‑h-Å-s‑¸‑m-¡-¯‑n-\‑v
k‑m-[‑m-c-W-b‑m-b‑n I‑m-c-W-a‑m-I‑p-¶-X‑v. I‑m-ä‑v, X‑n-c-a‑m-e-IÄ‑, X‑m-g‑v-¶ A-´-c‑o-£-aÀ-±‑w F-¶‑n-h
a‑q-e-a‑p-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ ]-X‑n-h‑v t‑h-e‑n-t‑b-ä-‑w aqehpw X‑o-c-{‑]-t‑Z-i-§-f‑n-s‑e P-e-\‑n-c-¸‑v A-k‑m-[‑m-c-W-
a‑m-b‑n Dbcmdpïv.
N‑p-g-e‑n-¡‑m-ä‑p-IÄ-¡‑v I‑m-c-W‑w H-c‑p X‑m-g‑v-¶ aÀ-±-a‑p-Å {‑]-t‑Z-i-¯‑n-\‑v N‑p-ä‑p-a‑p-Å h‑m-b‑p
k½À±§fmWv‑v. {‑Z‑p-X-K-X‑n-b‑n-e‑p-Å h‑m-b‑p k-©‑m-c-¯‑n-s‑â k-h‑n-t‑i-j-X -aq-ew s‑I‑m-S‑p-¦‑m-
ä‑p‑w t‑a‑m-i‑w I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø-b‑p‑w D-ï‑m-I‑p-¶‑p. N‑p-g-e‑n-¡‑m-ä‑p-IÄ X‑m-g‑v-¶ A-´-c‑o-£-aÀ-±-a‑p-Å
H-c‑p t‑I-{‑µ{‑]-t‑Z-i-¯‑n-\‑v N‑p-ä‑p‑w h‑o-i‑p-¶ I‑m-ä‑v a‑q-e-a‑p-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ I-d-§‑p-¶ h-e‑n-b D-j‑v-W-t‑a-
J-e‑m s‑I‑m-S‑p-¦‑m-ä‑p-I-f‑m-W‑v. D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m N‑p-g-e‑n-¡‑m-ä‑p-IÄ h‑y‑m-k-¯‑nÂ h-f-s‑c s‑N-d‑p-X‑p‑w
`‑q-a-[‑y-t‑c-J-t‑b‑m-S‑v t‑NÀ-¶‑v c‑q-]‑w s‑I‑m-Å‑p-¶-X‑p-a‑m-W‑v. I‑p-d-ª A-´-c‑o-£-aÀ-±‑w‑, D-bÀ-¶
I‑m-ä‑v, I-\-¯ a-g F-¶‑n-h-b‑p‑w k-a‑p-t‑{‑Z‑m-]-c‑n-X-e-¯‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v D‑uÀ-P‑w h-e‑n-s‑¨-S‑p-¡‑p-¶-X‑p-
a‑m-W‑v C-h-b‑p-s‑S k-h‑n-t‑i-j-X. A-[‑n-I D-j‑v-W-t‑a-J-e‑m N‑p-g-e‑n-¡‑m-ä‑p-IÄ a-[‑y-`‑m-K-§-f‑n-t‑e‑m
D-bÀ-¶ A-£‑m‑w-i-§-f‑n-t‑e‑m c‑q-]‑w s‑I‑m-Å‑p-¶‑p‑. h-e‑n-b X‑n-c-Ý‑o-\ X‑m-]-\‑n-e h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-
§Ä D-Å {‑]-t‑Z-i-§sf‑‑ {‑^-ïÂ t‑k‑m-W‑p-IÄ F-¶‑v h‑n-f‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p.
]‑m-d-I-f‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p-Å `‑q-I-¼X-c‑w-K-§Ä I-S-¶‑p-t‑]‑m-I‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ D-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S s‑]-
s‑«-¶‑p-Å I‑p-e‑p-¡-s‑¯bmW‑v‑ `‑q-I-¼§sf-¶‑v k‑q-N‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-¶X‑v‑. `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S ]‑p-d‑w-t‑X‑m-S‑nÂ
k‑w-`-c‑n-¨‑n-c‑n-¡‑p-¶ G-s‑X-¦‑n-e‑p‑w X-c-¯‑n-e‑p-Å D‑uÀ-Ö‑w s‑]-s‑«-¶‑v ]‑p-d-¯‑p-h-c‑p-t‑¼‑m-g‑m-W‑v
`‑q-I-¼ X-c‑w-K-§Ä D-ï‑m-I‑p-¶-X‑v. `‑q-I-¼‑w B-c‑w-`‑n-¡‑p-¶ `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S D-]-c‑n-X-e-¯‑n-\‑v X‑m-
s‑g-b‑p-Å Ø-e-s‑¯ s‑s‑l-t‑¸‑m-s‑kâÀ F-¶‑p‑w `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S D-]-c‑n-X-e-¯‑nÂ t‑\-c‑n-«‑v a‑p-I-
f‑n-e‑p-Å Ø-e-s‑¯ {‑]-`-h-t‑I-{‑µ‑w F-¶‑p‑w h‑n-f‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. `‑q-I-¼-§Ä t‑c-J-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑v
k‑o-k‑v-t‑a‑m-{‑K‑m-^‑v F-¶ D-]-I-c-W-w D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¨‑m-W‑v. C-X‑v I‑p-e‑p-¡-h‑p‑w N-e-\-c-l‑n-X-h‑p-a‑m-b
`‑m-K-§Ä X-½‑n-e‑p-Å Ø‑m-\h‑y-X‑y‑m-k‑w t‑c-J-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶‑p. H-c‑p `‑q-I-¼-¯‑n-s‑â Ø‑m-\‑w
I-s‑ï-¯‑m³ i‑m-k‑v-{‑X-ÚÀ {‑X‑n-t‑I‑m-W‑w D-]-t‑b‑m-K‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑. A-X‑nÂ A-X‑n-s‑â Ø‑m-\‑w
\‑nÀ-®-b‑n-¡‑m³ a‑q-¶‑v k‑o-k‑v-t‑a‑m-{‑K‑m-^‑p-IÄ DÄ-s‑¸-S‑p-¶‑p.
`‑q-I-¼X-c‑w-K-§Ä `‑q-a‑n-b‑p-s‑S D-Å‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p‑w A-X‑n-s‑â D-]-c‑n-X-e-¯‑n-e‑q-s‑S-b‑p‑w k-©-c‑n-
¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p-¶ X-c‑w-K-§Ä t‑]‑m-s‑e-b‑m-W‑v. `‑q-a‑n-b‑n-e‑q-s‑S k-©-c‑n-¡‑p-¶ c-ï‑v X-c‑w t‑_‑m-
U‑n X-c‑w-K-§-f‑p-ï‑v. ]‑n X-c‑w-K-§-f‑p‑w F-k‑v X-c‑w-K-§-f‑p‑w ]‑ns‑¶ D-]-c‑n-X-e-¯‑nÂ k-©-c‑n-
¡‑p-¶ D-]-c‑n-X-e X-c‑w-K-§-f‑p‑w. `‑q-I-¼‑w D-ï‑m-I‑p-t‑¼‑mÄ k‑o-k‑v-t‑a‑m-{‑K‑m-^‑p-I-f‑nÂ ]-X‑n-¡‑p-¶
B-Z‑y-s‑¯ X-c‑w-K-a‑m-W‑v ]‑n X-c‑w-K-§Ä‑, A-h t‑c-J‑m‑w-i X-c‑w-K-§-f‑m-W‑v. F-k‑v X-c‑w-K-§Ä
k‑o-k‑v-t‑a‑m-{‑K‑m-^‑p-I-f‑nÂ ]-X‑n-¡‑p-¶ c-ï‑m-a-s‑¯ X-c‑w-K-a‑m-W‑v. J-c-h-k‑v-X‑p-¡-f‑n-e‑q-s‑S a‑m-{‑X‑w
k-©-c‑n-¡‑m³ I-g‑n-b‑p-¶ X‑n-c-Ý‑o-\ X-c‑w-K-§-f‑m-W‑v Ah. `‑q-I-¼-§Ä a‑q-e-a‑p-ï‑m-I‑p-¶
\‑m-i‑w {‑]‑m-Y-a‑n-I-a‑m-b‑n D-]-c‑n-X-e X-c‑w-K-§-Ä aqeamWv‑v.
UNIT-6
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑w-c-£-W-¯‑n-\‑m-b‑p-Å
{‑]-[‑m-\-s‑¸-« {]hÀ¯\§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w
\‑n-b-a-§-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w ]-«‑n-I
C-´‑y-b‑n-s‑e h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n k‑w-c-£-W \‑n-b-a‑w‑ (1972‑) c‑m-P‑y-s‑¯ h-\‑y-a‑r-K-§Ä‑, ]-£‑n-IÄ‑,
k-k‑y-P‑m-e-§Ä F-¶‑n-h-s‑b k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑m³ e-£‑y-a‑n-S‑p-¶‑p. \‑n-c-h-[‑n a‑r-K-§-s‑f t‑h-«-b‑m-S‑p-
¶-X‑v C‑u \‑n-b-a‑w aqew \‑n-t‑c‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p‑ 2006þ-e‑m-W‑v A-h-k‑m-\-a‑m-b‑n t‑`-Z-K-X‑n s‑N-b‑v-X-X‑v.
C-´‑y³ `-c-W-L-S-\-b‑p-s‑S BÀ-«‑n-¡‑nÄ 48A ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w s‑a-¨-s‑¸-S‑p-
¯‑m-\‑p‑w h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n-I-s‑f-b‑p‑w h-\-§-s‑f-b‑p‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑m-\‑p‑w k‑w-Ø‑m-\-§-t‑f‑m-S‑v \‑nÀ-t‑±-
i‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. C-´‑y-b‑n-s‑e P-\-§-f‑p-s‑S-t‑aÂ N‑n-e A-S‑n-Ø‑m-\ I-S-a-IÄ BÀ-«‑n-¡‑nÄ 51 F
N‑p-a-¯‑p-¶‑p‑. {‑]-I‑r-X‑ntbbpw ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-tbbpw k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑a-¨-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-I-b‑p‑w
s‑N-¿‑p-I‑, P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-t‑f‑m-S‑v A-\‑p-I-¼ I‑m-W‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-b‑pÄ-s‑¸-s‑Sb‑mWh. 1887þÂ
{‑_‑n-«‑o-j‑v C-´‑y³ K-h¬-s‑aâ‑v B-Z‑y-s‑¯ h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n k‑w-c-£-W \‑n-b-a‑w ]‑m-k‑m-¡‑n‑. X‑p-SÀ-
¶‑v 1912þÂ c-ï‑m-a-s‑¯ \‑n-b-a‑w ]‑m-k‑m-¡‑n. h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S k‑w-c-£-W-¯‑n-\‑p‑w N‑n-e P‑o-
h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-s‑S h‑w-i-\‑m-i‑w X-S-b‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w 1960þÂ a‑p³-K-W-\ \Â-I‑n. C‑u \‑n-b-a‑w B-d‑v
s‑j-U‑y‑q-f‑p-IÄ D-ï‑m-¡‑n. k-k‑y-P-´‑p-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-s‑S k‑w-c-£-W-¯‑n-s‑â h‑y-X‑y-k‑v-X A-f-h‑p-
IÄ, \‑m-j-WÂ t‑_‑mÀ-U‑v t‑^‑mÀ s‑s‑hÂ-U‑v s‑s‑e-^‑v, \‑m-j-WÂ s‑s‑S-KÀ I¬-kÀ-t‑h-j³
A-t‑X‑m-d‑n-ä‑n F-¶‑n-h \‑n-b-a‑m-\‑p-k‑r-X k‑w-L-S-\-I-f‑m-b‑n c‑q-]‑o-I-c‑n-¨‑p. h‑w-i-\‑m-i-`‑o-j-W‑n
t‑\-c‑n-S‑p-¶ P‑o-h‑n-I-s‑f t‑h-«-b‑m-SÂ‑, NqjWw sN¿Â F-¶‑n-h-b‑nÂ \‑n-¶‑v k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶
k-t‑¦-X-§Ä DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S‑, A-©‑p {‑]-[‑m-\ k‑w-c-£‑n-X `‑m-K-§-f‑m-W‑v \‑n-b-a-¯‑n-e‑p-Å-X‑v. X-S‑n
h‑n-f-s‑h-S‑p-¸‑v, s‑N-d‑p-I‑n-S h-\ DÂ-¸-¶-§Ä t‑i-J-c‑n-¡Â‑, k‑z-I‑m-c‑y D-S-a-Ø‑m-h-I‑m-i‑w X‑p-S-
§‑n-b a-\‑p-j‑y{‑]-hÀ-¯-\-§Ä a‑r-K-§-f‑p-s‑S t‑£-a-¯‑nÂ C-S-s‑]-S‑m-¯‑n-S-t‑¯‑m-f‑w I‑m-e‑w
h-\‑y-P‑o-h‑n k-t‑¦-X-§-f‑nÂ A-\‑p-h-Z-\‑o-b-a‑m-W‑v.
C-´‑y-b‑nÂ h‑m-b‑p-a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-s‑â Z‑q-j‑y-^-e-§Ä X-S-b‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡‑p-¶-
X‑n-\‑p-a‑m-b‑n 1981þ-s‑e h‑m-b‑p (a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w X-S-b-e‑p‑w \‑n-b-{‑´-W-h‑p‑w‑) \‑n-b-a‑w C-´‑y³ ]‑mÀ-
e-s‑aâ‑v ]‑m-k‑m-¡‑n. 1972 P‑q-W‑nÂ t‑Ì‑m-¡--t‑v ‑l‑m-a‑nÂ \-S-¶ a-\‑p-j‑y ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑w-_-Ô‑n-¨
s‑F-I‑y-c‑m-{‑ã k-t‑½-f-\-¯‑nÂ C-´‑y ]-s‑¦-S‑p-¯ X‑o-c‑p-a‑m-\-§Ä-¡‑p-Å a-d‑p-]-S‑n-b‑m-b‑n-c‑p-¶‑p
C‑u \‑n-b-a‑w. h‑m-b‑p a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W‑w‑, ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n‑, a-\‑p-j‑yÀ‑, k-k‑y-§Ä‑, a‑r-K-§Ä‑, A-s‑Ã-
¦‑nÂ h-k‑v-X‑p-h-I-IÄ F-¶‑n-h-s‑b t‑Z‑m-j-I-c-a‑m-b‑n _‑m-[‑n-¡‑p-I-t‑b‑m \-i‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-I-t‑b‑m s‑N-
¿‑p-¶ G-s‑X-¦‑n-e‑p‑w J-c-t‑a‑m {‑Z‑m-h-I-t‑a‑m h‑m-X-I-t‑a‑m B-b ]-Z‑mÀ-°-§-s‑f h‑m-b‑p a-e‑n-\‑o-
I-c-W--s‑a-¶‑v \‑nÀ-h-N‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. 1987þ-s‑e \‑n-b-a t‑`-Z-K-X‑n-b‑nÂ i-Ð-s‑¯b‑p‑w t‑Z‑m-j-I-c-a‑m-b
h-k‑v-X‑p-h‑m-b‑n t‑NÀ-¯‑p. C-´‑y-b‑n-s‑e h‑m-b‑p a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-s‑¯ s‑N-d‑p-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v t‑I-{‑µ a-e‑n-
\‑o-I-c-W \‑n-b-{‑´-W t‑_‑mÀ-U‑p‑w (CPCB) k‑w-Ø‑m-\ a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W \‑n-b-{‑´-W t‑_‑mÀ-U‑p‑w
(SPCB) C‑u \‑n-b-a‑w \S¸nem¡p¶p ï¶v Dd¸phcp¯p¶p.
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑w-c-£-W \‑n-b-a‑w‑ (1986‑) ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n k‑p-c-£-b‑p-s‑S Z‑oÀ-L-I‑m-e B-h-
i‑y-I-X-IÄ ]T‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w B-k‑q-{‑X-W‑w s‑N-¿‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w \-S-¸‑n-e‑m-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p-a‑p-Å H-c‑p
N-«-¡‑q-S‑v \Â-I‑p-¶‑p‑. I‑q-S‑m-s‑X ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-s‑b `‑o-j-W‑n-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶ k‑m-l-N-c‑y-§-t‑f‑m-S‑v t‑h-
K-¯‑n-e‑p‑w a-X‑n-b‑m-b {‑]-X‑n-I-c-W-¯‑n-\‑p-Å H-c‑p k‑w-h‑n-[‑m-\‑w c‑q-]-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-I-b‑p‑w s‑N-¿‑p-
¶‑p. 1974þ-s‑e P-e-\‑n-b-a-¯‑n-\‑p‑w F-bÀ B-Î‑n-\‑p‑w I‑o-g‑nÂ Ø‑m-]‑n-X-a‑m-b t‑I-{‑µ-þ-k‑w-Ø‑m-\
A-[‑n-I‑m-c‑n-I-f‑p-s‑S G-t‑I‑m-]-\-¯‑n-\‑v H-c‑p N-«-¡‑q-S‑v \Â-I‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑v c‑q-]-IÂ-¸-\ s‑N-b‑v-X H-c‑p
\‑n-b-a-\‑nÀ-½‑m-W-a‑m-W‑v C‑u \‑n-b-a‑w. a-e‑n-\‑o-I-c-W-¯‑n-s‑â ]‑p-d-´-Å-e‑n-\‑p‑w a‑m-\-Z-Þ-§Ä
\‑n-Ý-b‑n-¨‑v, h‑y-h-k‑m-b-§-f‑p-s‑S Ø‑m-\‑w \‑n-b-{‑´‑n-¡‑p-I‑, A-]-I-S-I-c-a‑m-b a‑m-e‑n-\‑y-§Ä
s‑s‑I-I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿‑p-I‑, s‑]‑m-X‑p-P-\‑m-t‑c‑m-K‑y-h‑p‑w t‑£-a-h‑p‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-I F-¶‑n-h-b‑n-e‑q-s‑S
]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n-b‑p-s‑S K‑p-W-\‑n-e-h‑m-c‑w k‑w-c-£‑n-¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w s‑a-¨-s‑¸-S‑p-¯‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑p‑w B-h-
i‑y-a‑m-b \-S-]-S‑n-IÄ s‑s‑I-s‑¡‑m-Å‑m³ C‑u \‑n-b-a‑w t‑I-{‑µ kÀ-¡‑m-c‑n-s‑\ A-[‑n-I‑m-c-s‑¸-S‑p-
¯‑p-¶‑p. ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑nsb s‑s‑I-I‑m-c‑y‑w s‑N-¿Â‑, A-]-I-S-I-c-a‑m-b ]-Z‑mÀ-°‑w‑, F-¶‑n-§-s‑\
H‑m-t‑c‑m ]-Z-h‑p‑w C‑u \‑n-b-a‑w I‑r-X‑y-a‑m-b‑n h‑n-i-Z‑o-I-c‑n-¡‑p-¶‑p. \‑n-b-a‑w ]‑m-e‑n-¡‑m-¯-X‑n-t‑\‑m
e‑w-L-\-¯‑n-t‑\‑m D-Å i‑n-£-b‑m-b‑n ]‑n-g-b‑p‑w X-S-h‑p‑w DÄ-s¸Sp¯nbn«pïv. \‑n-b-a-e‑w-L-I-
\‑v A-©‑v hÀ-j‑w h-s‑c X-S-t‑h‑m 1‑,00‑,000 c‑q-] h-s‑c ]‑n-g-t‑b‑m A-s‑Ã-¦‑nÂ c-ï‑p‑w I‑q-S‑n-t‑b‑m
i‑n-£ e-`‑n-¡‑m‑w. i‑n-£‑n-¡-s‑¸-« X‑o-b-X‑n-¡‑v t‑i-j‑w H-c‑p hÀ-j-¯‑n-\-¸‑p-d‑w e‑w-L-\‑w X‑p-SÀ-
¶‑mÂ‑, I‑p-ä-h‑m-f‑n-¡‑v G-g‑v hÀ-j‑w h-s‑c X-S-h‑v i‑n-£ e-`‑n-¡‑p‑w.

Handbook - Environmental Studies - Final

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SREENARAYANAGURU OPEN UNIVERSITY

G-ä-h‑p‑w {‑]-[‑m-\-s‑¸-« A-©‑v {‑]-I‑r-X‑nh‑n-`-h-§Ä C-h-b‑m-W‑v:

{‑]-I‑r-X‑n-h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S k‑w-c-£-W‑w F-¶mÂ {‑]-I‑r-X‑n \Â-I‑p-¶ h‑n-`-h-§-f‑p-s‑S

h-\-hÂ-¡-c-W-h‑p‑w ]‑p-\À-\‑nÀ-½‑m-W-h‑p‑w X-½‑n-e‑p-Å h‑y-X‑y‑m-k‑w:

3. ^p-U--sv h-_v þ `-£-W h-e

a-\‑p-j‑y³ DÄ-s‑¸-s‑S-b‑p-Å P‑o-h-P‑m-e-§-f‑p-s‑S \‑n-e-\‑nÂ-¸‑n-\‑v B-h-i‑y-a‑m-b ]-c‑n-Ø‑n-X‑n

SDG-I-f‑p-s‑S e-£‑y‑w 9. {‑]-X‑n-t‑c‑m-[-t‑i-j‑n-b‑p-Å ASnØm\kuIcy§Ä \‑nÀ-½‑n-¡‑p-I‑,

B-t‑K‑m-f-X‑m-]-\-¯‑n-s‑â- {‑]-X‑y‑m-L‑m-X-§Ä F-s‑´‑m-s‑¡-b‑m-W‑v?

I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑mh‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-¯‑n-s‑â {‑]-[‑m-\ t‑{‑]-c-I-§Ä F-s‑´‑m-s‑¡-b‑m-

s‑ï-¦‑n-e‑p‑w‑, X‑m-]-\‑n-e‑, H‑m-t‑k‑m¬‑, P-e‑w‑, t‑]‑m-j-I ]-c‑n-a‑n-X‑n-IÄ F-¶‑n-h a‑m-d‑p-¶-X‑v t‑]‑m-

t‑k‑m-b‑m-_‑o³ X‑p-S-§‑n-b h‑n-f-I-f‑p-s‑S K‑p-W-\‑n-e-h‑m-c‑w \-ã-s‑¸-S‑p-¶-X‑p-a‑m-b‑n _-Ô-s‑¸-«‑n-c‑n-

¡‑p-¶-X‑n-\‑mÂ a‑n-¡ `-£‑y-h‑n-f-I-f‑p-s‑S-b‑p‑w t‑]‑m-j-I-a‑q-e‑y‑w I‑p-d-b‑p‑w.

\Â-I‑p-¶ k-k‑y-§-f‑p-s‑S DÂ-]‑m-Z-\-£-a-X hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p-s‑a-¦‑n-e‑p‑w‑, t‑a-¨‑nÂ-¸‑p-d-§-f‑nÂ I‑m-

h-\ h-fÀ-¨-b‑n-e‑p‑w DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\-£-a-X-b‑n-e‑p‑w B-L‑m-X‑w:

h-\-t‑a-J-e-b‑nÂ I‑m-e‑m-h-Ø‑m h‑y-X‑n-b‑m-\-¯‑n-s‑â B-L‑m-X‑w:

\nebpwa‑q-e-a‑p-ï‑m-I‑p-¶ h-fÀ-¨-b‑p‑w h-g‑n B-t‑K‑m-f X-S‑n DÂ-¸‑m-Z-\‑w hÀ-²‑n-¸‑n-¡‑p‑w‑, C-X‑v

´-Å‑m-\‑p-Å A-h-I‑m-i‑w D-S-a-b‑v-¡‑v \Â-I‑p-¶ t‑{‑S-U-_‑nÄ s‑]À-a‑n-ä‑p-I-f‑m-W‑v. H-c‑p \‑n-Ý‑n-X

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