Cement and Concrete Composites 122 (2021) 104155

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Cement and Concrete Composites

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconcomp

Mix design concepts for 3D printable concrete: A review

Chao Zhang a, Venkatesh Naidu Nerella b, Anurag Krishna c, Shen Wang c, Yamei Zhang a, *,
Viktor Mechtcherine b, **, Nemkumar Banthia c, ***
a
Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Construction Materials, School of Material Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, PR China
b
Institute of Construction Materials, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Applied Science, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Over the past decade, 3D concrete printing has shown enormous application potential for the industry. The new
3D concrete printing technology poses specific requirements on 3D printable concrete (3DPC), especially on its rheological properties
Printable concrete in the fresh state. The current codes and standards for conventional concrete construction are not applicable for
Mix design
guiding the mix design of 3DPC. Developing robust mix-design guidelines of printable concrete while considering
Printability
the principles of sustainability, use of indigenous materials and available printer characteristics contributes to a
Rheological properties
Static yield stress broader practical application of 3DPC. This article presents state-of-the-art on mix design concepts for 3DPC. In
this, various aspects of mixture compositions and their effects on properties of 3DPC are highlighted and mix
design approaches are described. While currently and out of necessity, a trial and error approach remains the
norm, for finding the appropriate mix composition for 3DPC, it would clearly be beneficial to develop rational
and scientific guidelines for a particular set of parameters. Thus, the use of models providing a quantitative
relationship between the rheological parameters of fresh concrete and its composition is instrumental to guide
the mix design of printable concrete. Some such models do exist already, but considerable research is still needed
to develop them into reliable mix design tools. Furthermore, the contemporary mix design for 3DPC mainly
focuses on the printability of concrete in fresh state, while the characteristics of hardened concrete such as
strength or durability are often not targeted explicitly. Given the engineering application of 3DPC, further
research is needed to develop mix design concepts involving the targeted properties of hardened concrete under
consideration of process-induced anisotropy.

1. Introduction
3D concrete printing is an emerging and innovative technology that
shows great potential with respect to the increase of productivity and
safety in construction [1,2]. The most widespread and as of yet,
economically feasible concrete printing approaches are based on layered
extrusion [3,4]. In this context, 3D printable concrete (3DPC) is a “tai­
lor-made” material that can be delivered by the pumping system and
extruded through the nozzle of a 3D printer, and then, after deposition,
maintain its shape stable under the gravitational load of subsequent
printed concrete layers without the support by formwork. Compared to
conventional concrete, 3DPC, as a keystone of a novel, automatic, digital
technology, brings numerous benefits to construction, like highly flex­
ible architectural design [5,6], formwork-free fabrication [7], faster
construction [8], better working conditions [4], material savings [9],
etc. All that is very promising also with respect to the cost-efficiency of
construction. Over the past decade, 3D concrete printing has attracted
more and more attention in the whole world, and the number of projects
involving 3DPC has been increasing exponentially [3,10,11]. 3DPC has
been successfully utilized in fabricating bridges, houses, bus stations,
and many other objects [12–14].
A fundamental issue of 3DPC is the selection of raw materials and the
mix design so as to meet the pumpability, extrudability and buildability
which are key process-related material characteristics required for a
successful 3D concrete printing. Note that these characteristics go far
beyond the common requirements to concrete as described in codes and
guidelines by consistency classes and corresponding workability testing.
As yet, many studies have been conducted on the selection of suitable

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
*** Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ymzhang@seu.edu.cn (Y. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.104155
Received 6 February 2021; Received in revised form 11 June 2021; Accepted 25 June 2021
Available online 29 June 2021
0958-9465/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Zhang et al.
raw materials and optimization of the mix proportions for 3DPC. In
doing so, different types of binders, including Portland cement, sulfoa­
luminate cement, composite cements and geopolymers, have been used
[15–21]. Regarding aggregate, natural sand, lightweight aggregate, and
some types of solid-waste-based aggregates, like copper tails, iron tails,
and recycled aggregate, have been employed in 3DPC compositions
[22–26]. Additionally, silica fume, nano-clay, nano-silica, and viscosity
modifier agent (VMA) and other materials have been utilized as
rheology modifiers to adjust properties of fresh concrete [27–30]. Apart
from “ordinary” concrete, various concretes with specific properties in
the hardened state have been developed, such as high-performance
concrete (HPC) [31–33], strain-hardening cement-based composites
(SHCC/ECC) [34–37], or even printable foam concrete [38–40]. As for
the mix design of 3DPC, several optimum mixture proportions of
printable concrete were proposed for particular application cases [32,
41–44], and some empirical methods of mix design were developed as
well [45,46].
Currently, most 3DPC compositions are characterized by a high
binder content and relatively small aggregate size. Coarse aggregates are
seldom used in printable concrete as most existing 3D printing tech­
nologies work with small-size nozzles and hoses thus enabling fabrica­
tion of the filigree structures [4]. As for specific printability
requirements are concerned, consequently, fine-grained compositions
are not covered by the current codes and standards. Accordingly, the
common mix design methods for conventional concrete are not suitable
for guiding the mix design of 3DPC. Although some empirical mix design
methods for 3DPC have been suggested in recent studies, there are still
no commonly accepted mix design methods, which is not surprising
given the brief history of research and applications with 3DPC.
The aim of this paper is to present the mix design concepts of 3D
printable concrete. In this context, at the outset, the material re­
quirements for 3DPC are discussed. These fresh-state and hardened-state
requirements are design targets that should be achieved for designing an
optimal mix for 3DPC. Thereafter, the compositions of 3DPC and the
parameters of mix design, as well as their impact on the said design
targets, are reviewed to give readers a fundamental understanding of the
processes behind designing a mix for 3DPC. Finally, both empirical and
theoretical mix design methods are comprehensively reviewed, which is
also highlighted in the paper. It offers some scientific insights and sug­
gestions regarding mix design concepts to researchers and engineers for
the purposeful further development of 3D concrete printing technology
in general and 3DPC compositions in particular.
2. Material requirements of printable concrete
2.1. Fresh-state requirements
2.1.1. Pumpability
Pumpability is defined as the characteristic of the print mix to be
workable enough to be mobilized through a pumping system under
pressure to the printing head while retaining its initial properties for the
entire interval of time. And the requirements are somewhat contradic­
tory. While a highly workable material is needed for 3D concrete
printing to ensure easy transportability (usually by pumping) to the
printing head, the extruded material is required to be relatively stiff to
ensure that the deposited filaments retain their shape [47]. The pump­
ability is, hence, dependent on a number of printing pump setup pa­
rameters like pumping distance, pumping methodology and the hose
diameter. A pumpable mix should possess low plastic viscosity and a
moderate value of yield stress.
Pumpability requirements also demand a high recovery rate of vis­
cosity in fresh concrete for shape post-printing stability, for which high
pumping pressures are needed comparatively. While concrete moves in
the pipes, a smearing layer is formed on the walls and the coarse ag­
gregates accumulate towards the center of the pipe [48]. Thus, for better
pumpability, the mix material should be able to resist segregation under
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Cement and Concrete Composites 122 (2021) 104155
such high pumping pressures. Segregation under high-pressure pumping
can cause the smearing layer to be lost, thereby leading to blockage of
material in the pipe [49]. The pumping speed is therefore required to be
adjusted on the basis of the shape and size of the object to be printed. At
locations in the printing trajectory where there is a change of angle, the
speed of pumping needs to be controlled to prevent the material from
being deposited in larger quantities [49].
The optimal pressures required for concrete pumping have been
quantified and defined in great detail by researchers [50–52]. Tay et al.
[53] introduced a dimensionless parameter called the pumpability index
to estimate the pumpability of mixtures. The weight of the mixture
transported through the pump at a constant speed of 2890 rpm for 30 s
was measured and the flow rate was obtained in volume per second. The
pumpability index was calculated as the ratio of the flow rate of the
mixture to that of water. The index was found to be directly proportional
to the slump-flow value of samples and inversely proportional to the
pumping speed needed to maintain a required flow rate. A sliding pipe
rheometer [47] uses a relationship between the concrete flow rate and
the pressure of concrete at the piston head to measure the pumpability.
Other methods like using rheographs, viscometers, tribometers and
rheometers are also in practice.
2.1.2. Extrudability
Extrudability can be defined as the ability of the print mix material to
be extruded smoothly as a continuous filament exiting the nozzle at the
printhead with an unhindered material flow. Extrudability has been
defined in the context of 3D concrete printing by various researchers
[32,54,55]. It is primarily affected by the composition and size distri­
butions of the dry constituents in the mix [54]. An extrudable mix
should possess optimum yield stress and a low plastic viscosity.
The nozzle also plays an important role in the extrusion process and
is responsible for the formation of concrete layer and its appearance
during printing. Nozzles of various orifice shapes such as rectangular,
square, circular and elliptical are in use. The nozzle orifice shape may be
chosen as per the intended use. Circular nozzles offer ease of printing at
corners or changes in angle of the structure to be printed. But the lesser
contact area between extruded beads may affect the stability of layers
[32]. A square orifice creates better surface finishability [56] and a
greater ease of construction [57] than a circular or elliptical orifice. The
nozzle should be oriented tangentially to the tool path in order to avert
twisting the freshly deposited layer [58]. The dimension of the orifice for
extrusion is influenced by the shape and size of the objects to be printed.
The hydraulic conductivity of the materials needs to be taken into
consideration while controlling the rate of extrusion to observe uniform
printing and to avoid blockage at the nozzle. Hence, the hydraulic
conductivity of the materials shouldn’t be higher than the speed of
extrusion [59–61].
Applying the principle of ram extrusion, Perrot et al. [62] investi­
gated the extrudability of cement mortars. Consequently, ram extruders
are used for characterizing extrudability for printing applications.
Penetration resistance method [63] and squeezing-test method [64] are
also in practice for measuring the extrudability of cementitious mate­
rials. Le et al. [32] evaluated the extrudability using filaments
measuring 9 mm in width. Results were reported as ‘success’ when the
complete continuous filament length of 4,500 mm was deposited
without a blockage or failure. Ma et al. [23] introduced an extrudability
coefficient to optimize the design of printability. The study concluded
that there exists a closely connected inter-relationship between extrud­
ability, extrusion rate of fresh paste and the speed of printing. A labo­
ratory evaluation method was developed by Rushing et al. [43] using a
Bailey Ceramics Standard 9 clay extruder assembly. In order to have the
extrudability characterization independent of geometry-induced arti­
facts, it is essential that the chosen extrudability testing device works on
a principle that is similar to the one in the machine deployed for printing
applications. Nerella et al. [65] proposed one such 3D-printer extrud­
ability test which involved measuring the energy needed for extrusion in
C. Zhang et al.
terms of the electric power consumed and the flow rate of the extrudate.
2.1.3. Buildability
Buildability can be defined as the ability of the print material to
continue exiting in the form of bonded layers as it comes out of the
nozzle via extrusion and endure the overburdened weight of the suc­
cessive layers accumulated by the printing phenomenon. Foremost, the
extruded filament should maintain a stable shape, which is a pre-
requisite to achieve high buildability [66]. Meanwhile, it is necessary
that the printing mix has enough early ‘green’ strength such that the first
layer can endure the weight of subsequent layers being deposited on the
top without excessive distortion and failures. In addition to this, the
layers should also intermix well so that cold joints are not formed. A
buildable mix should possess a high value of both plastic viscosity and
yield stress. Buildability is associated with setting time, printing interval
gap, green strength and the bonding capacity among the layers of the
mix. In 3D printing, buildability is a challenging material issue and to
overcome it, the freshly extruded material should regain its initial vis­
cosity and yield stress prior to the deposition of the next layer over it
[42]. Layer deformations may cause instability. This concern does not
arise in the case of traditional construction method as it uses formwork
to support concrete, but since 3D concrete printing is a type of formless
construction technique, the printed concrete must be self-sustaining
[49]. The most common method of assessing the buildability of a mix
is the maximum stable printing height achievable for a given vertical
buildup (or construction) rate. A higher vertical construction rate will
lead to a smaller buildability and vice versa [31,67,68]. The procedures
followed for the buildability test vary depending on the desired appli­
cation [23,69–73]. Buildability is closely related to the yield stress [19,
74,75] which is discussed in section 2.3.
There are many ways to achieve the buildability of 3D printed
structures. The buildability is dependent on the rate of structural build-
up which in turn is dependent on the flocculation of particles and the
hydration mechanisms of cement. For better interlocking, it is recom­
mended to use a rectangular or square nozzle orifice as compared to a
circular one since the contact area between the extruded beads is larger
in the former cases. The study by Li et al. [32] suggested increasing the
number of adjacent filament layers for enhanced buildability. Conse­
quently, 57, 60, 61 and 61 layers could be printed for groups containing
2, 3, 4 and 5 filaments. Failure was observed for just one filament of each
group. Filament, in the context of 3D concrete printing, refers to a
printed concrete layer resembling a slender thread-like object [49].
Printing wider filaments reduces the possibility of buckling failure and
in turn enhances the buildability. It has been shown that below a certain
given critical height, strength-based failure caused by the weight of
upper layers is prominent, whereas, above this height, buckling failure
becomes critical [76,77]. Attapulgite nano-clay has been found to be
quite effective in improving the buildability in 3DPC and is thus rec­
ommended by various researchers [42,70,78]. Incorporating calcium
sulphoaluminate cement in the mix increases the hydration and the rate
of structural build-up of mortar leading to enhanced buildability of
3DPC mixes [19,72]. The use of accelerators added either to the mixer or
at print head [54,79], has also been reported to improve the buildability.
Nerella et al. [79] used an alkali-free setting accelerator at the printhead
while Bhattacherjee et al. [80] applied alkali-free accelerating admix­
ture post-printing on the printed structure via spraying.
Few recent studies have tried to numerically model the buildability
behavior to optimize the printing process. Wolfs et al. [81] developed a
numerical model based on time-dependent Mohr-Coulomb theory and
linear stress-strain relationship, to investigate the mechanical perfor­
mance of fresh 3DPC. The study could accurately predict the
failure-deformation mode and recommended geotechnical-based tests to
assess the early behavior of printed concrete. Jayathilakage et al. [82]
established the buildability criteria as per the green strength of concrete
using the strength-based failure models.
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Cement and Concrete Composites 122 (2021) 104155
2.1.4. Conclusion on conflicting requirements of fresh-state properties
As is evident from the discussions above, fresh state characterization
of 3DPC has certain requirements that often disagree with one another.
From mixer to the deposition of concrete for printing, the chronological
order of fresh state properties involved is pumpability, extrudability and
buildability. The mix material is required to be transported through
pipes to the nozzle for extrusion and then be deposited to print the object
layer upon layer. For the material to be easily pumpable through the
hose and extrudable through the nozzle, it needs to have low plastic
viscosity and optimum yield stress (in particular, low dynamic yield
stress to let the material flow). However, buildability requirements de­
mand that the material possesses high static yield stress so as to limit
flow of the material and thus support upper concrete layers being
deposited. The print mix rheology should be modified to reach a balance
between these conflicting requirements. The printing speed remains an
important consideration as well while discussing these conflicts. On the
one hand, the printing speed needs to be adequately high so as to allow
better bond strength between the printed layers and to ensure that the
printing process remains cost-effective. However, on the other hand, the
print speed has to be sufficiently low to let the layers be fresh enough to
bond well with the next layer [74,83]. Apart from these considerations,
the mix for printing should also be thixotropic, densely packed, and
setting suitably [55]. These conflicting requirements have been depicted
in Fig. 1.
2.2. Hardened-state requirements
2.2.1. Interlayer strengths
Due to the inherently layered deposition, structures made of 3DPC
are prone to possess weak layer-to-layer (or interlayer) strengths. This
property of 3DPC depends both on material composition and process
parameters. On the one hand, rheological properties that depend on the
composition of 3DPC affect the characteristics of the interlayer bonds
and their strengths. On the other hand, process parameters such as
deposition time interval, extrusion pressure, nozzle geometry and
ambient condition can all be of crucial influence in controlling the
interlayer strengths. It must be noted that the bond between two con­
crete depositions has been studied even before the advent of 3DPC.
Earlier researchers and design codes such as Eurocode 2, CEB-FIP Model
code 1990 designated the following parameters as decisive for interfa­
cial bond strengths: (a) roughness of the substrate, (b) cohesion and
friction coefficients of the interface, (c) moisture content and saturation
level of the substrate, (d) porosity of the substrate, (e) ambient and
substrate temperatures, (f) stress normal to the interface, (g) composi­
tion of overlay concrete, especially the usage of bonding agents, (h)
substrate age, and (i) if used, degree and orientation of reinforcement, i.
e., connecting substrate and the overlay. For a list of decisive parameters
that influence interlayer bond strengths, refer to Ref. [84]. This existing
knowledge is of critical significance but not adequate for understanding
the interlayer bonds in 3DPC.
In accordance with its importance, interlayer strength of 3DPC has
attracted significant research interest from various researchers including
Le et al. [31], Zareiyan et al. [85], Panda et al. [67], Sanjayan et al. [86],
Nerella et al. [84] and Keita et al. [87], etc. The thixotropic behavior of
3DPC contributes to its pumpability, extrudability, and buildability.
However, higher thixotropy (structuration of microstructure) is detri­
mental to the interlayer strength of 3DPC, see Ref. [88]. As is expected, it
has been shown that the deposition time interval between the layers
inversely influences the interlayer bond strength. However, the degree
of interlayer bond strength reduction with increasing time intervals can
be greatly reduced by optimizing the mixture design [84], by protecting
printed layers from drying [87], by depositing a “glue” between the
layers [89], and through increasing the extrusion pressure [67]. Please
see Section 3 for the influence of composition on interlayer bond
strengths.
C. Zhang et al.
Fig. 1. Conflicting rheological requirements of the processes involved in 3D concrete printing.
2.2.2. General mechanical properties and durability
Compressive, flexural and tensile strengths requirements of 3DPC are
not particularly different from other types of concretes. Researchers
were able to successfully develop printable concretes with low, e.g. 8
MPa in Ref. [39], to very high mechanical strengths, e.g., 100 MPa in
Ref. [84]. This wide range of strength values make 3DPC applicable in a
wide range of applications. However, 3DPC elements face particular
challenges while fulfilling general durability requirements of concrete
structures.
Most importantly, weak interlayer joints are of serious concern when
it comes to durability. Weak joints enable capillary intake of water and
other harmful fluids deep into the structural elements, which can
severely reduce both the durability of the printed concrete and its pro­
tective function with regards to steel reinforcement, if present [90].
Layer to layer interfaces being easy pathways for external fluids is
phenomena that could be observed often in 3D-printed elements, see
Fig. 1 in Ref. [84], for example.
Other durability challenge in 3DPC emanate from mixture compo­
sition and absence of protective formwork. Usage of high cement and
paste content and no or low amount of coarse aggregates lead to an
increase in the likelihood of plastic shrinkage cracks in fresh state, as
well as drying shrinkage cracks in hardened state. The absence of
formwork in combination with limited possibilities for curing measures
also leads to higher shrinkage and other forms of cracking in printed
concretes. Often buildability requirements in fresh state are achieved by
using high-dosages of accelerators, which results in durability issues due
to potential salt crystallization from the high dosage of the calcium
nitrate-based accelerators [91]. Similarly, many new binder combina­
tions and admixtures are being used in 3DPC to fulfill the complex fresh
state requirements. The long-term durability consequences of the usage
of new constituents are not yet fully established. Despite these chal­
lenges, durability of 3DPC is an important in-service requirement and
needs to be ensured.
2.3. Characterization of 3D printable concrete
It is now clear that the process of 3D concrete printing requires a
tighter control of the material rheology. In order to predict the behavior
of 3DPC, it is important to study a few parameters that help us rationally
characterize 3DPC. They are discussed in the following sections.
2.3.1. Static yield stress
Static yield stress refers to the maximum stress which is needed to
make the material flow from its state of rest. Below the yield stress, the
material exhibits elastic behavior and does not flow.
In the printing process, as layers get deposited one above the other,
there is an increase in the compressive stress experienced by the bottom-
most layer. Each layer in the printed structure must possess adequate
yield stress in order to sustain the concrete layers deposited over it
without any deformations. Bingham model [92] for non-newtonian
fluids and a time-dependent model by Perrot et al. [74] are generally
used to describe the concrete behavior in 3DPC. These models are
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Cement and Concrete Composites 122 (2021) 104155
represented by Eqs. (1) and (2) respectively. The yield stress (τy0) of the
concrete is not a constant but rather a function of time which increases
with the age of concrete in the early fresh state due to flocculation and
hydration which leads to the formation of calcium silicate hydrate [93].
τy = τy0 + μγ (1)
( )
τy (t) = Athix tc et/tc − 1 + τy0 (2)
τy, μ and γ represent the shear stress, plastic viscosity and the shear
rate of the material, respectively. τy0 stands for the initial yield stress i.e.,
the yield stress of the layer first deposited in the printing process (Fig. 2
(a)). Athix is the structuration rate of 3DPC and tc, known as characteristic
time, is a parameter of curve for best-fit with the experimental data.
Additionally, the re-flocculation rate of 3DPC is often noted as Rthix [29].
Dynamic yield stress is the yield stress needed to maintain the state of
flow of a material once it is set in motion (Fig. 2 (b)). The ratio of the
static yield stress to dynamic yield stress, Ithix, can be used as a thixot­
ropy index of the material [94]. Higher yield stress leads to better
buildability. In order to avoid plastic failure during the printing process,
the yield stress after time t at the bottom most layer should be greater
than c(t) + σ n tan ϕ in accordance with the time-dependent Mohr-Cou­
lomb failure criterion, where c(t), σn and ϕ are cohesion, normal stress
and the friction angle of 3DPC, respectively [82]. Researchers have tried
to investigate the effect of various constituents of the mix on the static
yield stress. Mahaut et al. [95] suggested that the static yield stress is
enhanced by the coarse particles in a cement paste and provided a
corresponding mathematical equation. Similar attempts have been
made to relate the yield stress of the cement paste to that of the mortar
[96,97]. Using Fuller Thompson theory and Marson-Percy model, Weng
et al. [41] showed the influence of silica sand to achieve a sand grada­
tion that improved the buildability of mixtures. Consequently, a math­
ematical equation for printing hollow cylindrical columns was proposed.
In 3DPC, the yield stress could vary very fast by a factor that is between
25 and 150 [83]. This is represented by Eq. (3), where h is the height of a
layer being printed while τf and τi are the final and initial yield stresses at
the bottom layer respectively.
τf H τf
= ; 25 ≤ ≤ 150 (3)
τi h τi
2.3.2. Penetration resistance
Penetration resistance is closely related to the structural build-up
rate of cementitious materials and is used to evaluate their stiffness
development in the fresh state. It is obtained by measuring the resistance
offered by a mix when a standard needle is allowed to penetrate it [98].
Significant amount of previous work in this area is related to shotcrete
where penetration resistance was related to use of silica fume, w/c,
yield, build-up and even rebound [99–101]. Due to the existence of a
linear relationship between the penetration resistance and the static
yield stress [72], the structural build-up of cementitious materials can be
characterized using penetration resistance. Using sulphoaluminate
cement and attapulgite in the print mix was reported to significantly
C. Zhang et al.
Fig. 2. (a) Shear stress and shear rate curve for flow of different fluids and (b) rheological behavior of the thixotropic material at a constant shear rate.
increase the penetration resistance. Khalil et al. [19] used a cylindrical
plunger based penetration resistance measurement to obtain the yield
stress of the printed material, keeping the samples without any agitation
[102]. The study compared penetration resistances of mortar with only
ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and with partial replacement of OPC
with calcium sulphoaluminate cement. In the latter case, the stiffening
was quite fast and as a result, the yield stress and penetration resistance
were increased significantly. Bhattacherjee et al. [80] observed that the
penetration resistance increased with an increase in the dosage of the
alkali-free aluminium sulfate accelerator in the print mix.
2.3.3. Green strength
Green strength refers to strength in the early stages of the concrete.
As discussed above, it is essential for a mix used in 3D printing to gain
enough strength in the early stage to support the subsequently deposited
layers. The evaluation of early age mechanical strength gives particu­
larly valuable insights in this regard [103,104]. Until 90 min after
mixing with water, the destructive compression test has been reported to
be linearly related to the non-destructive ultrasonic test for the evolution
of strength in concrete for 3D printing applications [105]. Compressive
strength test and ultrasonic measurement have been used to measure the
green strength evolution, its relation with the concrete’s microstructure
has been established [106].
Researchers have measured this green strength using the principle of
unconfined uniaxial compression tests commonly used in Soil Me­
chanics. Perrot et al. [71] used a plate deposition method, Panda et al.
[107] used a similar setup to conduct green strength tests of high volume
fly ash mortar. The green strength was improved by the use of highly
purified attapulgite clay. The evolution of green strength with time was
observed to follow a pattern similar to that of the yield strength.
Cementitious mixtures achieve a significant increase in their green
strength by the incorporation of nanoclay since the colloidal nanoclay
particles flocculate very effectively [108,109].
2.3.4. Slump and slump flow
Slump test is a quick evaluation test that can be easily carried out in
the field or in the laboratory [110]. The height of the slump after lifting
up the mould is reported as the slump value. Slump flow value is the
diameter measured as the material spreads after 25 drops. Slump value
and slump flow are related to static yield stress and dynamic yield stress
respectively. The dynamic yield stress varies in inverse proportion to the
slump value [111]. As 3DPC is a type of formless construction, a very
low to zero slump concrete is preferable for the process.
Tay et al. [53] carried out extensive statistical research (factorial mix
design and analysis of variance) to assess the ease of printability of mixes
prior to the actual printing process by using slump and slump flow tests.
As expected, low slump mixes can be characterized by rough surface
5
Cement and Concrete Composites 122 (2021) 104155
texture of printed filaments, large surface cracks and low pumpability
but greater retention of shape after printing. Conversely, high slump
mixes possess comparatively smooth surface, lesser cracks but high
pumpability and consequently, reduced shape retention. For print­
ability, the authors suggested that the mix should have a slump value
ranging from 2 mm to 12 mm and a slump flow value of 130 mm–210
mm. Further in this defined region, it was shown that a better surface
finishability and enhanced buildability can be obtained by mixes pos­
sessing slump of 4 mm–8 mm and slump flow of 150 mm–190 mm as
shown in Fig. 3.
3. Compositions and their impact on properties of 3D printable
concrete
Depending on the dosage and presence of other components, the
effectiveness and influence of some constituents may vary. Thus, it is not
trivial to make a general statement about the influences of various in­
gredients on the properties of 3DPC. In this section, general but not
necessarily universal influences of ingredients on selected properties of
3DPC are presented to provide a first impression to the reader.
3.1. Binder, additives, paste volume
High (>50%) paste volume and low (<50%) dosage of aggregates
enables better pumpability and extrudability at a constant concrete
consistency. It must be noted that the appropriate way to design com­
positions with high paste volume is to use additives as replacement of
Portland cement clinker. For example, mixtures developed in Ref. [112]
have 52.5% paste volume with relatively low cement content and,
importantly, are characterized by a long 2 h open time for extrudability
and pumpability while having a sufficient buildability throughout. In­
fluence of paste volume on buildability depends on the hydration ki­
netics of the binder. If paste volume is increased by increasing cement
content or with another early reacting binder, then buildability is ex­
pected to improve with paste volume. In contrast, if the paste volume is
increased by adding inert or slow reacting additives, then buildability
may remain the same or even decrease. Paste volume and composition
also strongly influence plastic shrinkage of 3DPC. Higher paste volume
enables achieving a smoother surface of printed elements. Depending on
the constituents, higher paste volume may increase or decrease the
compressive and flexural strengths of 3DPC. At constant paste volume,
replacing Portland cement with additives such as fly ash and micro silica
lead to a reduction in early compressive strength and improvement of
interlayer-bond strength [112].
Paste volume and its composition i.e. type of binders/additives and
their proportions are very effective tools to control both fresh and
hardened state properties of 3DPC. It was shown that by optimizing
C. Zhang et al.
Fig. 3. (a) Printable and non-printable regions (b) Correlation of slump, pumpability index and maximum printed layer achieved [53].
paste in 3DPC, high strength, well printable and well bonded 3DPC
could be developed [31,32,65,84,113]. Optimization of the paste
rheological properties to obtain lower yield stress and plastic viscosities
with high re-flocculation rate is preferable to ensure pumpability,
extrudability and buildability.
3.2. Aggregates size and volume fraction
When it comes to aggregates, in fact, aggregates generally adopted in
3DPC are mainly fine sand in most cases. Even though a few research
groups and companies are making progress in developing and use of
printable concrete with coarse aggregates [4,22,43,116], in general,
3DPCs are basically in the scale of mortar so far. Dedicated studies on
aggregate size and grading influence on various properties of 3DPC are
still due and are highly anticipated. The general influences of paste
volume presented above could be inversely applied for the volume of
aggregates. Increasing aggregate volume fraction increases the required
pumping pressures [114], due to the increase in viscosity. Usage of
coarse aggregates significantly influences the pumpability and extrud­
ability of the 3DPC. If a particular maximum aggregate size is critical or
not is dependent on the pump and printhead setup, especially the nozzle
diameter. Majority of the pumping and printhead machinery that are
applied in 3DPC so far are not applicable for coarse aggregate concrete
and specific new developments are necessary [4]. Coarser aggregate
compositions in general also contain relatively lower paste volume
leading to further challenges in pumping and extrusion. Extensive
experimental investigations are required to ensure printability of
coarse-aggregate 3DPC. Alternatively, numerical simulations by using
Discrete Element Method (DEM) can be used to determine the maximum
diameter of aggregates and optimum aggregate grading for a particular
printhead setup, see Ref. [115].
Without changing the volume and maximum size of aggregates, fresh
and hardened state properties of 3DPC can be improved by optimizing
aggregate grading. At constant aggregate volume, finer aggregates in­
crease the yield stress and buildability while decreasing extrudability if
a screw extruder is used [65]. 3DPC with coarse aggregates e.g. 8 mm,
have relatively lower compressive strengths, see Refs. [4,84] for
example. Usage of coarser aggregates often leads to a relatively rougher
layer surface. However, surface roughness could be improved by opti­
mizing particle size distribution and increasing paste volume. Fuller
Thompson theory can be used as a guideline to optimize particle size
distribution of aggregate for 3DPC. The 3DPC made with aggregate that
complies with Fuller gradation could yield better printability and me­
chanical properties, see Ref. [41].
6
Cement and Concrete Composites 122 (2021) 104155
3.3. Admixtures and fibers
Admixtures play a significant role in the fresh state rheological and
hardened state properties of 3DPC, and their usage is essential to ensure
process stability of 3D printing. Marchon et al. [116] analyzed various
admixture types in conjunction with requirements for concrete appli­
cation in the digital construction process and provided their potential
applications and limitations. 3DPC in general has low water content
with an average water-to-binder ratio for most mixtures being 0.3, see
Section 5.1. Therefore, use of superplasticizer, especially PCEs is
necessary to ensure pumpability and extrudability and high mechanical
strength at a particular consistency. Usage of setting and hydration ac­
celerators increases static yield stress and therefore improves build­
ability of 3DPC [79,80,83,117]. While this is generally true, the
effectiveness of accelerators and their “side effects” vary significantly
based on the type of accelerator used. For instance, calcium chloride
(CaCl2) while being the most efficient inorganic concrete accelerator
leads to corrosion of steel reinforcement [118]. Usage of accelerators
also influences the interlayer bond strength and therefore hardened state
properties and durability. Recent developments such as C-S-H seeds
based accelerator leads to increased buildability through earlier onset of
hydration acceleration period [116]. Usage of any accelerator also re­
quires adjustment of superplasticizer dosage through iterative experi­
mental studies to ensure printability over required time duration. A
particular concern with usage of accelerators is the loss of pumpability
and extrudability in case of any delays in the printing process.
Alternative admixtures and additions such as attapulgite nanoclay
and nano silica can accelerate the restructuration kinetics and lead to an
increase of buildability [119]. While such addition also influences
extrudability, especially after process interruption giving material suf­
ficient time for structural build-up, the built-up is reversible by applying
external shear or vibration. Multi-purpose admixtures are also used in
3DPC, such as cellulose ethers, which can be used to control viscosity,
improve water retention in printed specimens and potentially enhance
bond strength and buildability. Some researchers use retarders to extend
the printability time window. Common retarders such as sucrose effec­
tively delay the cement hydration [116] and therefore reduce the
development of yield stress and viscosity, consequently, prolonging
pumping and extrusion time limits.
Fiber addition improves the mechanical performance of 3DPC
significantly as demonstrated by various researchers [34,35,120]. In
contrast, fiber addition decreases pumpability, extrudability and surface
evenness. Though dedicated studies on this subject are still not pub­
lished, fiber addition at low dosages is expected to enhance shrinkage
resistance and buildability in freshly deposited 3DPC.
C. Zhang et al.
4. Parameters in mix design
A clear understanding of the parameters available for mixture
composition and their effect on the performance of 3DPC facilitates the
mix design. For conventional concrete it has been well researched and
verified in engineering application for decades, the commonly accepted
concepts have been braced in the relevant standards like ACI 211.1, ACI
211.4R and JGJ55-2011 [121–123]. The general approach can be
summarized as follows: i) the (compressive) strength of concrete is
dominated by water-to-binder ratio, while its development over time is
also significantly impacted by cement types and the use of mineral
cement substitution materials; secondary parameters are content and
quality of aggregates, including maximum particle size, gradation,
shape, surface texture, strength, and stiffness, they are however seldom
considered in practical applications for steering the strength; and ii) the
workability of concrete, which is normally evaluated by the slump test
and governed by water content, the gradation and maximum size of
aggregates, and use of chemical admixtures. Whether these mature
practices are suitable for the mix design of 3DPC needs to be examined
and specific parameters characterizing the requirements of 3DPC should
be considered and discussed in the context of 3D printing.
As far as the parameters in the mix design of 3DPC are concerned, it
should be kept in mind that the choice of mixture constituents and their
proportions will be restricted by particular features of 3D printing
technology applied, as indicated in Fig. 4. As discussed in section 3.1,
3DPC have high binder content in order to meet the extrudability. The
absence of coarse aggregate and excessively high binder content will
result in higher plastic, autogenous and drying shrinkage, and as a
consequence lead to a higher propensity to cracking. To mitigate the
shrinkage induced cracking of 3DPC, the addition of fiber has become a
regular choice, especially in engineering applications [68,120,124].
While the fiber affects the rheological behavior of 3DPC and its process
characteristics, it is worth noting that the choice of type and quantity of
fiber is restricted by the printing system. Long and rigid fibers are rarely
utilized in the preparation of 3DPC due to the limitation of nozzle size
and their negative effect on the pumpability and extrudability of con­
crete. Besides, in the printing of air-entrained concrete, the pumping and
extruding processes are likely to disturb the system of air bubbles
especially in the presence of some admixtures and fibers, thereby
reducing the efficiency of air-entraining agents [125,126]. This should
be taken into account when designing mixtures for 3D printing with
air-entrained concrete.
4.1. Parameters for the strength design of 3DPC
In addition to some limitations in the use of 3D printing technology,
Fig. 4. The limitation to the parameters in mix design for 3D printing technology.
7
Cement and Concrete Composites 122 (2021) 104155
the design targets need to be carefully considered when determining mix
parameters of 3DPC. From a structural design point of view, the
compressive strength is a crucial design target to meet the required load
carrying capacity and safety requirements. A significant difference to
conventional concrete is that due to layer-by-layer deposition of con­
crete, interfaces or rather interphases are formed between adjacent
printed layers, which results in the heterogeneity and anisotropy of
hardened 3DPC [84,127]. In this context, besides the compressive
strength of 3DPC matrix, the bond strength between layers is a crucial
factor affecting the mechanical properties of hardened 3DPC, see Sec­
tion 2.2. Hence, the effect of mixture composition on the bond strength
must be considered as well.
For conventional concrete, modified Bolomy formulas can be used to
estimate the effect of water-to-binder ratio, strength grade of cement,
mineral fines, and the characteristics of aggregate on the compressive
strength [128]. Among these parameters, the water-to-binder ratio is the
key one. This holds true also for printable concrete, see e.g. Ref. [129].
However, there are additional parameters as well. For example, the
surface moisture condition of the deposited layers plays a vital role in
the bond strength of 3DPC [86,87], which eventually affects the
compressive strength of printed concrete and the degree of its anisotropy
with respect to the mechanical properties. The evaporation of surface
free-water during the printing process weakens the bond strength of
3DPC, thus, a high water content, meaning higher water-to-binder ratio,
would be beneficial to the bond strength development in 3DPC [87].
However, a high water-to-binder ratio would aggravate the plastic
shrinkage of 3DPC in the early age due to the evaporation of water,
therefore increasing the risk of cracking. In case of reinforced elements,
plastic shrinkage may even cause interlayer slip, which would cause
damage to both the interlayer bond and the bond between concrete and
reinforcement [130]. Therefore, the impact of water-to-binder ratio on
the properties of 3DPC should be carefully thought upon while choosing
this parameter.
Fig. 5 presents the effect of water-to-binder ratio on 28-days
compressive strength of 3DPC as compiled from the literature. Due to
the anisotropy of hardened 3DPC, the strength obtained at different
loading directions is different. Among these values, the authors selected
the maximum and the minimum strengths and calculated the difference
between the maximum and minimum strength as an indicator of
anisotropy for 3DPC. While the compressive strength of 3DPC exhibits a
clear descending trend with increasing water-to-binder ratio, the dif­
ference between the maximum and minimum strength values fades with
the rise of water-to-binder ratio, indicating that a high water-to-binder
ratio is helpful to reduce the 3DPC’s anisotropy. The influence of
mixture on the mechanical properties of 3DPC is extremely intricate in
comparison to conventional concrete. The compressive strength of 3DPC
C. Zhang et al.
Fig. 5. (a) The relationship between water-to-binder ratio and the compressive strength and (b) the difference between the maximum and minimum strength of
3DPC (data collected from Refs. [4,31,124,127,131–135]).
is affected by the bond strength of interface and is often lower than that
of cast concrete. Hence, a strength-loss coefficient can be defined to
quantify the strength reduction of 3DPC compared to the cast concrete of
the same composition. It reflects the effects of various parameters,
including water-to-binder ratio, supplementary cementitious materials,
admixture, etc., and the bonding of interlayers on the holistic strength of
3DPC. For example, it was demonstrated that a combination of Class F
fly ash and silica fume contributed to improving interface properties for
longer time intervals between consecutive layers and herewith reducing
the strength-loss coefficient of 3DPC [84]. Similar effects were also
achieved by using epoxy resin, chloroprene latex and cellulosic fiber in
3DPC mixtures [136,137]. Furthermore, printing parameters would
prominently affect both the bond strength and the strength-loss coeffi­
cient of 3DPC [31,67,87,134]. Therefore, it is essential to keep the
printing parameters constant when investigating the effect of mix design
parameters on the strength-loss coefficient. The concept of strength-loss
coefficient enables us to design the strength characteristics of 3DPC
based on the well-accepted Bolomy formula developed for conventional
concrete. It is noteworthy that the strength-loss coefficients for 3DPC are
not the same in different loading directions, which is due to the
anisotropy of hardened 3DPC. This should be taken into consideration
when designing the strength characteristics of 3DPC.
4.2. Parameters for the workability design of 3DPC
Workability is another vital target of mix design. There exist quite
comprehensive, in-depth studies on the relationship between the
mixture compositions and the workability of fresh 3DPC. In contrast to
conventional concrete, for which workability is mainly evaluated as
flowability by the slump test, the workability or rather printability of
3DPC refers to its pumpability, extrudability, and buildability. Thus, the
slump measurement is no longer sufficient to assess the performance of
fresh 3DCP mixes. According to current research illustrating the rela­
tionship between printability and the component of 3DPC mixture, the
parameters relevant for conventional concrete such as water content,
the gradation and maximum diameter of aggregate, and admixture
dosage, binder content, binder-to-aggregate ratio, the volume fraction of
aggregate, and the volume percentage of fiber also have a significant
impact on the rheological properties and thus printability of 3DPC [44,
45,53,70,131,138,139]. Although numerous parameters will affect the
printability of concrete simultaneously, it still can be briefly inferred
that increasing the volume fraction of solid phase (including aggregate
and fiber) and reducing the paste volume are beneficial for the build­
ability but may compromise the pumpability and extrudability of 3DPC.
If the volume fractions of paste and aggregate are kept constant,
enhancing the consistency and hydration of paste are common practices
8
Cement and Concrete Composites 122 (2021) 104155
to improve the buildability of 3DPC, see Section 3. When it comes to the
specific parameters, the fundamental parameters generally employed in
current researches, including binder, water, and aggregate content, are
outlined and presented to provide a reference to the reader for designing
the mix of printable concrete, see Section 5.1.
5. Mix design methods
With the rapid growth of 3DPC construction, there is an urgent de­
mand for a clear approach to mix design. Mix design is the determination
of optimum mixture composition and proportion to make the concrete
have a specific performance in the fresh and hardened state so as to
satisfy the requirement of application [140]. For 3DPC, mix design
methods shall tell how to properly select design parameters based on
ingredients to make the concrete achieve the required rheological as
well as mechanical properties. Until now, relatively limited researches
have been conducted to investigate mix design methods for 3DPC,
among which most are still empirical methods. Several researchers have,
however, developed some mix design methods in accordance with
rheological models and theories. Another fact is, in most research arti­
cles, the mixture proportion of 3DPC was given directly without any
design method or even explanation of how the parameters were ob­
tained. Therefore, to comprehensively understand the mix design of
3DPC, this paper emphatically reviews the publications involving mix
design methods as well as analyzes the statistical data concerning the
parameters of mixture proportion collected from the relevant
researches.
5.1. Empirical mix design methods for 3D printable concrete
Because the fresh mixture of 3DPC should possess pumpability,
extrudability, and buildability simultaneously, the compositions, espe­
cially the admixtures utilized in 3DPC, are more complex than con­
ventional concrete, thus enhancing the difficulty in design of 3DPC. To
obtain printable concrete, some empirical mix design methods have
been developed, as cataloged in Table 1. Actually, the mix design
methods are different from each other as various ingredients and pa­
rameters of a mixture can impact the printability of concrete, therefore
providing various options for different authors to choose ingredients and
parameters in the process of exploring the optimum mix of printable
concrete. Though there does not exist the same mix design method, there
happens to be a coherence in the design approach in most of the
empirical methods - trial and error method. If the investigated in­
gredients and parameters are regarded as independent variables, and the
crucial properties of 3DPC are dependent variables, the mix design is the
procedure of investigating the effect of the independent variables on the
C. Zhang et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 122 (2021) 104155

Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Empirical mix design approaches and the target performance of fresh 3DPC. Classification Authors Year Mix design approach Crucial
Classification Authors Year Mix design approach Crucial properties of
properties of 3DPC
3DPC
silica fume was deter­
Trial and error Le T [32] 2012 • Five mixes had Extrudability mined based on
method different sand-to- Open time robustness (stability of
binder ratio; Buildability yield stress).
• A water-binder ratio of Shear strength Regression Weng Y 2018 • Evaluate the influences Flow
0.28 was selected to analysis [45] of five variables resistance
achieve over 100 MPa method (water-to-binder ratio, Torque
compressive strength sand-to-binder ratio, viscosity
concrete; fly ash-to-cement Thixotropy
• The dosages of ratio, silica fume-to-
superplasticizer, cement ratio, and
retarder, accelerator dosage of fiber) on
and polypropylene material rheological
fibers were varied to properties
identify optimum mix Liu Z 2019 • Evaluate the influences Static yield
proportions for [46] of five variables stress
printing. (cement content, sand Dynamic yield
Rushing 2017 • Reference mixture had Extrudability content, fly ash stress
T [43] a constant cement: Drop table content, silica fume
fine-aggregate:coarse- flow content, and water
aggregate mass ratio of Setting time content) on the
1:3:1; rheological properties
• The dosages of fiber, of concrete
superplasticizer, fly
ash, bentonite clay and
silica fume were varied dependent variables and optimizing the dosage of each ingredient and
to identify optimum each parameter step by step based on the response of crucial properties
mix proportions for
as shown in Fig. 6. Currently, the crucial properties of 3DPC as the
printing.
Weng Y 2018 • Six mixes with the Yield stress design indicators are generally fresh properties with rare consideration
[41] same mixture Plastic of mechanical properties and durability.
proportion; viscosity The trial and error approach of mix design is direct and useful to find
• The gradation of sand Mini-slump out an optimum mix proportion of 3DPC. But the effort to figure out the
was varied to identify Printing
the optimum height
optimum mixture will sharply increase with the rise of the number of
gradation. independent variables. Therefore, in many researches, the content of
Ma G 2018 • Reference mixture had Extrudability main compositions in 3DPC mix, like cement, sand, water, fiber, and etc.
[23] a constant dosage of Buildability are kept constant separately. Only a few ingredients or parameters, such
cement, fly ash, silica Open time
as the dosage of admixture, are treated as independent variables to
fume, water, Flowability
superplasticizer, PP Structural explore the optimum mix of 3DPC, which indeed dramatically simplifies
fiber, and natural sand; build-up the mix design procedure.
• Optimum mass ratio behavior
substitution of copper
tailing to natural sand
was determined based
on extrudability,
buildability, open
time, and structural
build-up behavior of
concrete.
Zhang Y 2018 • Five mixes had the Mini-slump
[27] same content of Drop table
binder, aggregate, flow
water-binder ratio and Rheological
superplasticizer; behavior
• Dosage of nano clay Green
and silica fume was strength
varied to identify the
optimum content.
Rahul A 2019 • Reference mixture had Extrudability
[44] a constant dosage of Buildability
cement, fly ash, sand, Robustness
water and fiber;
• Optimum
superplasticizer
dosage was
determined based on
extrudability and
buildability of
concrete;
• Optimum dosage of
nano-clay, VMA and

Fig. 6. The flow chart of the trial and error method.

9
C. Zhang et al.
In some studies, up to five independent variables have been
considered in the mix design of 3DPC, which leads to a massive work­
load. In this case, multivariable regression analysis is often adopted to
investigate the correlation between the independent and dependent
variables, and based on the analysis of variance results, an empirical
numerical model (regression equation) is established to guide the mix
design of printable concrete. For instance, Weng et al. [45] developed
empirical models based on multivariable regression analysis, as
described by the following:
Flow resistance = 327.99 + 2.71 × A − 194.03 × B − 145.99 × C
+ 419.18 × D + 287.42 × E
Torque viscosity = 7.89 + 1.74 × A − 3.70 × B + 3.96 × C − 0.49
× D + 2.73 × E
Thixotropy = 3072 − 2125 × A − 822.2 × B − 185.1 × C + 1345 × D
+ 397.5 × E
where A, B, C, D, and E, corresponding to sand-to-binder ratio, water-to-
binder ratio, fly ash-to-cement ratio, silica fume-to-cement ratio, and the
dosages of fiber respectively, are regarded as independent variables, and
flow resistance (unit: N mm), torque viscosity (unit: N⋅mm⋅min), and
thixotropy (unit: N mm min− 1) are dependent variables. Although
regression analysis is an effective method to establish an empirical
model as a guideline for mix design, it cannot deal with every parameter
and factor in consideration of massive experimental workload, thus
limiting the applicability of the empirical model merely within partic­
ular ingredients and printing system.
While adopting trial and error mix design method to obtain an op­
timum mixture proportion, if the parameters of the mix proportion can
be determined as much as possible in advance, the process gets hugely
simplified. The statistical data of main parameters, including cement,
mineral admixture, water, and aggregate content by mass percentage
calculated from the optimum mixture proportions of printable concrete
reported in relevant studies, are depicted in Fig. 7. It is expected that the
key parameters in Fig. 7 can be used as the reference for the determi­
nation of corresponding parameters in the mix design of 3DPC. Since the
Fig. 7. Relative content of binder, fly ash, silica fume, water, and aggregate in
the optimum mixture proportion of 3DPCs [4,6,22,27,29,31,32,44,53,70–72,
82,84,86,89,120,136,141–144].
Cement and Concrete Composites 122 (2021) 104155
weight percentage of superplasticizer, rheological modifiers, and fiber is
extraordinarily low, they can be ignored in the total mass of 3DPC
mixture. Consequently, the weight percentage of binder, water, and
aggregate is noted as 100% in Fig. 7.
It can be observed from Fig. 7 that, in the mixture of 3DPC, the mass
proportion of aggregate is generally in the range of 45%–55% in most
studies, which actually is at a very low level as compared to conven­
tional concrete which generally comprises more than 75% of aggregate
[145]. Benefitting from the utilization of coarse aggregate, the dosage of
aggregate reaches a maximum value of 66% in reference paper [4].
Based on the calculation and analysis according to the statistical infor­
(4) mation in Fig. 7, the average mass proportions of aggregate, water, and
binder are 53% ± 13%, 11% ± 5%, and 36% ± 10% respectively. If the
density of 3DPC is assumed to be 2300 kg/m3, the average dosage of
aggregate, water, and binder will be approximately 1220 ± 300 kg/m3,
250 ± 115 kg/m3, and 830 ± 230 kg/m3, respectively. It also can be
(5)
calculated that the average water-to-binder ratio is about 0.3. In addi­
tion, Class F fly ash and silica fume are often employed as cementitious
materials to partially replace cement. Silica fume is used to enhance the
thixotropy and buildability of 3DPC, while fly ash is in favor of
(6) improving the pumpability and extrudability. Therefore, silica fume and
fly ash are often used in combination. The ratios by mass of fly
ash-to-binder and silica fume-to-biner are around 20% and 10%
respectively in most cases. The statistical and calculated data of prime
parameters mentioned above can serve as the reference for the selection
of relevant parameters in the process of designing a printable concrete
mixture. Note that these prime parameters can be adjusted based on the
properties of ingredients and target design indices. For instance, by
optimizing the gradation of aggregate and increasing the maximum di­
ameters of aggregate, the binder content can be reduced. After the
determination of prime parameters, the different kinds and dosage of
chemical admixture (including superplasticizer, accelerator, and
retarder, etc.), rheological modifiers (including VMA, attapulgite clay,
and nano-silica, etc.), and fibers can be chosen preliminarily based on
the initial performance of reference mixture and required performance
of 3DPC, and be determined ultimately by trial.
5.2. Mix design method based on rheological model
Although the empirical mix design approach is useful, the short­
coming of this approach is also evident. The process of empirical mix
design profoundly relies on unceasing trials until an optimum mixture
proportion is worked out. The method is devoid of clear and scientific
guidelines to guide the 3DPC research fraternity to design a mixture
proportion of printable concrete. Admittedly, the printability is gov­
erned by the rheological performance of the concrete mixture. Among
rheological parameters, the static yield stress of fresh 3DPC is the most
vital one. It has been demonstrated that the extrudability, shape sta­
bility, green strength, and buildability of 3DPC are all related to its static
yield stress [77,81,138,139,146–148]. Therefore, the rheological
models describing the relationship between the static yield stress and
the components of concrete are of great relevance to guide the mix
design of printable concrete with suitable static yield stress.
Concerning the mortar as yield stress fluid, researchers have devel­
oped some models to predict its static yield stress in accordance with the
components of mortar. Coussot [149] proposed a prediction model as
follows:
( )− m
∅
τ m = τf 1 − (7)
∅max
where τm and τf are the yield stress of mortar and paste, respectively, ∅
and ∅max stand for the fraction of aggregates and the maximum packing
fraction of aggregates, respectively, and m is a coefficient. It is observed
that m = 1 in the case of spread particle size distribution and the particle
volume fraction lower than 0.6. Toutou and Roussel [96] verified by
10
C. Zhang et al.
rheometric tests that Coussot’s model is valid for mortar. Chateau et al.
[150] found that the yield stress ratio of the suspensions of mono­
disperse rigid noncolloidal particles to suspending fluids depends on the
spherical bead volume fraction only. The relationship between the yield
stress ratio τc(∅)/τc(0) and the coarse particles volume fraction ∅ can be
well fitted to a simple law that is known as Chateau–Ovarlez–Trung
model:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
τc (∅) √ 1− ∅
=√ ( )2.5∅max (8)
τc (0) √ √
1 − ∅∅max
Mahaut et al. [95] investigated the effect of coarse particle volume
fraction on the static yield stress of cement paste by using spherical
monodisperse glass beads of 2 mm diameter with ∅max = 0.56. It was
demonstrated that the yield stress of mortars follows the
Chateau-Ovarlez-Trung model as well.
The importance of the above models is that they provide a quanti­
tative link between the yield stress and the components of concrete.
What’s more, such a relationship is independent of the chemical
composition of raw materials in the concrete mixture. As long as the
basic parameters of paste phase and aggregate are obtained in advance,
it is possible to predict the yield stress of 3DPC, which means the
aforementioned models can simplify the mix design process to a great
deal, especially as compared to the trial and error approach. However, it
is worth mentioning that these models cannot be directly applied to
3DPC design as they were established under particular experimental
conditions. For instance, the Chateau-Ovarlez-Trung model is built and
developed in the condition of employing spherical glass beads as
aggregate. Therefore, since aggregate utilized in concrete is pretty
different from glass beads, the model often needs to be modified based
on the experimental results to predict the yield stress of concrete.
Kabagire et al. [151] proved that a modified Chateau-Ovarlez-Trung
model adequately estimated the yield stress of self-consolidating
concrete.
Regarding 3DPC, Ivanova and Mechtcherine [139] investigated the
influence of volume fraction and surface area of aggregate on the static
yield stress of fresh concrete. It was observed that the modified
Chateau-Ovarlez-Trung model can accurately describe the relationship
between the static yield stress and the volume fraction of aggregate with
constant surface area, described as the following:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
τc (∅) √ 1− ∅
= √( (9)
τc (0) √ √
)5.1∅RLP
1 − ∅∅RLP
where ∅RLP is the random loose packing fraction of aggregate instead of
the maximum volume fraction ∅max, and the intrinsic viscosity of par­
ticles is modified as 5.1 to substitute the original value of 2.5 in Cha­
teau–Ovarlez–Trung model as per the experimental results. Based on the
yield stress of paste and the volume fraction of aggregate, when used in
conjunction with the modified Chateau–Ovarlez–Trung model, the static
yield stress of 3DPC can be accurately estimated.
According to the theoretical analysis of the rheological models,
Zhang et al. [70] also developed an empirical model to guide the mix
design of printable concrete based on the Coussot model. The yield stress
of paste in the Coussot model requires specific rheometers for mea­
surement which may not be easily accessible to engineers in the field.
The spread flowability of paste which is a parameter obtainable rela­
tively easily, was proposed to indicate the magnitude of the yield stress
of paste [152]. Zhang et al. employed flowability instead of yield stress
and investigated the relationship between the flowability of paste and
aggregate content in the printable concrete with the same buildability. It
was found that there is a linear relationship between the flowability of
cement paste and the optimum aggregate content, and such a linear
relationship could be satisfactorily used to assist in the selection of
11
Cement and Concrete Composites 122 (2021) 104155
optimum aggregate content based on the flowability of paste to realize
the mix design of printable concrete.
Compared to the trial and error approaches, the yield-stress-based
mix design methods possess prominent advantages, in which, concrete
is regarded as diphase composite material consisting of cement paste
and aggregate. Thus, only two parameters related to cement paste and
aggregate respectively are involved in the mix design of printable con­
crete, instead of directly considering the effect of various relevant pa­
rameters (including water-to-binder ratio, water and binder content,
and the dosage of admixture, etc.) on the yield stress of concrete. This
has a magnificent contribution to the simplification of the mix design
procedure. Only a few studies on mix design based on rheological
models have been conducted to date and thus, there still exists a wide
gap which needs to be filled after thorough studies in order to develop a
commonly acceptable mix design method for 3DPC.
5.3. Optimizing the mix of 3D printable concrete
As mentioned above, mix design aims to make concrete meet the
required performance not only in the fresh state but also after hardening.
However, regardless of the empirical methods or the theory-based
methods, rheological properties are always highlighted. Yet, other fea­
tures are paid less attention to, which leaves some gaps for these
methods to be practical [3].
The fresh properties of 3DPC are more sensitive than normal con­
crete since the buildability requirements leave a “window” that seems
broad but challenging to be achieved due to some variable factors such
as environmental conditions, quality of raw materials, or even weighing.
Therefore, robust mix proportions are required, with a certain tolerance
to the mix proportion’s small change. Adding rheology modifiers is a
practical approach. The use of silica fume, nano clay, or methyl
cellulose-based viscosity modifying agent can improve the robustness of
rheology, which means the yield stress variation remains low with the
small change of superplasticizer dosage [44]. Using a lower paste con­
tent or using powder constituents with a lower water demand helps to
gain a lower sensitivity to water variation [153]. Aggregate with better
morphology also contributes to the improved rheological properties of
fresh mixture [154]. On the other hand, rapid correction for rheology
provides another feasible solution to maintain the fresh mixture’s
properties, which could be achieved by using two kinds of rheology
modifiers with predictable performance and effective counteractions, i.
e., polycarboxylate ether and polysaccharide stabilizer, and combining
with computerized methods [155].
While 3DPC highly emphasizes the fresh properties, it finally needs
to meet the service demands in the hardened stage. The weak bond
between layers, which is considered an inherent attribute of the additive
manufacturing process [156] and causes the variation of mechanical
properties and anisotropy, becomes one of the critical issues that
concern the researchers. This interfacial bonding is likely to be enhanced
by a well-designed mixture based on the mechanics of the interlayer
interface’s self-healing tendency. Pozzolanic cementitious materials, i.
e., fly ash + micro-silica, can mitigate cold joints and the variation of
overall strength to a great extent, which is attributed to less pore and the
forming of denser microstructure at the layer-interface. Still, this effect
also depends on the moisture available for the further pozzolanic reac­
tion of these materials [84]. Internal curing materials are beneficial for
layer-to-layer bonding [90], which is attributed to the better develop­
ment of hydration products, the refining of pore structure, and the
mitigation of moisture loss and shrinkage [84,137,157].
From the sustainability point of view, the mix design of 3DPC is still
expected to make significant progress in the future. Most of the 3DPC
projects reported in recent years use high-volume cementitious mate­
rials meaning high energy consumption and CO2 emission which does
not accord with the principle of sustainable development [158].
Therefore, the greening of 3DPC is necessary for future research and
application. Introducing coarse aggregates to reduce the total amount of
C. Zhang et al.
binder is a viable path for the greening of 3DPC. Some teams have
carried out preliminary explorations on this topic [4]. Looking for al­
ternatives to Portland cement and cement-based cementitious systems is
always the way to reduce the carbon footprint of 3DPC. Supplementary
cementitious materials such as fly ash, granulated blast-furnace slag,
silica fume, and limestone powder have been used to replace OPC [159].
In the meantime, some other potential binders have been developed as
well, such as fly ash-based geopolymers, limestone and calcined
clay-based cement, magnesium potassium phosphate cement, and
reactive magnesium oxide cement [160–162]. Besides, as a trial, recy­
cled aggregate and industrial waste are used to replace natural sand for
3D printing partially, showing no noticeable detrimental effect on the
mechanical properties, which paves way for potential greening of 3DPC
[23,163].
Overall, the technology of 3DPC is a comprehensive technique that
exerts high demands on materials science. A well-designed mix pro­
portion is essential for 3DPC to gain desirable properties in every stage.
To achieve a reliable, consistent, and sustainable 3DPC, we still need to
address but not be limited to the issues mentioned above. Due to the
intertwined influences and increasing complexity for concrete compo­
nents, their effects on concrete properties are not yet understood, which
means the optimization of mix design still has a long way to go.
6. Conclusions and perspectives
3DPC, as an emerging material with numerous advantages, has been
utilized in various construction projects. With the growing number of
applications of 3DPC, and the fact that the printing process is far dif­
ference from traditional casting, the mix designs for printable concrete
must be critically assessed and developed. In this paper, the mix design
concepts of 3DPC gleaned from the available literature are reviewed and
some notable patters and insights are presented.
The printable concrete should first and foremost satisfy workability
requirements, including pumpability, extrudability, and buildability,
together known as printability. The printability of concrete is governed
by the slump, slump flow, penetration resistance, etc., and these pa­
rameters are, in turn, linked to the rheological performance of fresh
concrete, especially its yield stress. To achieve printable concrete with
proper rheological behavior, the parameters in the mix design are
adjusted to obtain an optimal pumpability, extrudability, and build­
ability. It can be briefly summarized that increasing the volume fraction
of the solid phase and the consistency of paste are beneficial to the
buildability but are unfavorable to the pumpability and extrudability
attributes of 3DPC. Yet, it should be noted that 3D printing technology
will always bring a limitation to the selection of some parameters in mix
design, such as the size of aggregate and the type of fiber, which will
further impact the properties of 3DPC. Regarding the mix design of
printable concrete, the trial-and-error approach is still the most widely
adopted method to arrive at the optimal mix proportion of 3DPC
currently. The process, however, lacks robust scientific guidelines as it
relies on unlimited trials until an optimum mixture proportion is
reached. The rheological models, on the other hand, provide a quanti­
tative relationship between the yield stress and the components of
concrete thereby greatly simplifying the mix design procedures. These
models can potentially serve as the guidelines for designing printable
concrete with suitable yield stress.
Establishing a widely accepted mix design method for 3DPC is the
end goal. Before realizing this goal, there are many efforts to be made. At
present, the target of mix design for 3DPC mainly focuses on the print­
ability of concrete. But considering the application of 3DPC in the field
of engineering and construction, it is essential to develop the mix design
concepts based on compressive strength and durability for printable
concrete, which pose a major challenge to the further advancement of
3DPC. Due to the existence of the interface between layers, the
compressive strength of 3DPC is affected by not only the strength of the
matrix but also by the bond strength of the interface and is normally
12
Cement and Concrete Composites 122 (2021) 104155
lower than that of cast concrete in most cases. Therefore, strength-loss
coefficient is a feasible way to develop the target strength mix method
for 3DPC. Additionally, most of the 3DPC mixes used in recent years use
high amounts of cementitious binder and low amounts of aggregates.
This makes them vulnerable to shrinkage cracking and poor durability in
the hardened 3DPC. This is not in harmony with the principle of sus­
tainability either. Hence, investigating the use of 3DPC with coarse
aggregate and low binder contents is critical in keeping with sustainable
construction practices.
It is clear that 3DPC is still in its infancy and consequently the mix
designs used are far from optimal. But research is rapidly evolving and
major developments are awaited.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
The authors at Southeast University would like to thank the funding
by National Key R&D Program of China under the designations
2018YFC0705800 and 2017YFC0703700. The authors at the TU Dres­
den greatly acknowledge the support the Deutsche For­
schungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation), Project
Number 387152958, within the priority program SPP 2005 “OPUS
FLUIDUM FUTURUM – Rheology of reactive, multiscale, multi-phase
construction materials”, and Project Number 424057211, within the
priority program SPP 2187 “Adaptive modularized constructions made
in a flux: precise and rapid building”. Thanks are also due to IC-
IMPACTS, the Canada-India Research Center of Excellence hosted at
the University of British Columbia in Canada.
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