9.

Standing Waves
 STANDING WAVES
• A standing wave is produced when a wave that is traveling is reflected
back upon itself.
• There are two main parts to a standing wave:
i. Antinodes – Areas of maximum amplitude
ii. Nodes – Areas of zero amplitude
 SOUND WAVES
• Sound Waves are a common type of standing wave as they are
caused by resonance.
• Resonance – when a forced vibration matches an object’s natural
frequency thus producing vibration, sound, or even damage.
• One example of this involves shattering a wine glass by hitting a
musical note that is on the same frequency as the natural frequency
of the glass. (Natural frequency depends on the size, shape, and
composition of the object in question.) Because the frequencies
resonate, or are in sync with one another, maximum energy transfer
is possible.
 SOUND WAVES
• The production of sound involves setting up a wave in air. To set up
a continuous sound you will need to set a standing wave pattern.

• This can be possible through use of vocal instruments which

are classified into THREE LARGE CLASSES:
➢ Stringed - standing wave is set up in a tightly stretched string
➢ Percussion - standing wave is produced by the vibration of solid
objects
➢ Wind - standing wave is set up in a column of air that is either
open or closed musical instruments

• Factors that influence the speed of sound are density of solids or

liquid, and temperature
 SOUND WAVES
• All pipe-like musical instruments can be divided into two categories:
open ended or closed ended.
➢ An open ended instrument has both ends open to the air e.g.
trumpet.
➢ A closed ended instrument has one end closed off, and the other
end open e.g. flute.
• The frequencies of sounds made by these two types of instruments
are different because of the different ways that air will move at a
closed or open end of the pipe.

Normally, closed or open ended musical instruments are

considered as closed or open ended pipes respectively.
Before we look at the diagrams of the pipes, let’s make sure that you
know what fractions of a wave look like;

𝝀
𝟑
𝝀
𝟒

𝟏
𝝀
𝟒

𝟏
𝝀
𝟐
• When we are talking about the sounds that pipes can make, what
we are really concerned with is how much of the wave we can fit into
the pipe. Different amounts of a wavelength in a pipe will result in a
different frequency being heard.
• Since, these are the frequencies of the waves that will naturally
resonate in the pipes, they are known as Resonant Frequencies or
Harmonics.
• The lowest note of sound you can play (which is also the smallest
part of the wave that can fit inside the pipe) is usually called the
Fundamental or First Harmonic.
• All other harmonics are multiples of fundamental frequency or first
frequency and are called Overtones.
 CLOSED PIPES
• Normally, have an antinode at one end and a node at the other.
Each sound you hear will occur when an antinode appears at the top
of the pipe
• A Node at the closed end since
the air is not free to move there
and must be able to be
reflected back. Similarly,
• an Antinode at the open end
since that is where there is
maximum movement of the air.

• What is the smallest length of pipe you can have to hear a sound?
➢ You get your first sound or encounter your first antinode when the
length of the actual pipe is equal ¼ of a wavelength.
• This is the smallest stable piece of a wave that can fit in this pipe and
sound can be produced, this first sound is called the Fundamental
Frequency or First Harmonic.
• Since the length of the tube is the same as the length of the ¼
wavelength then the length of this tube is ¼ of a wavelength… this
leads to our first formula:
1
𝐿= 𝜆
4
𝑣
Using, 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 ⟹ 𝜆 =
𝑓
1 1 𝑣 𝑣
Therefore 𝐿 = 𝜆 = =
4 4 𝑓 4𝑓

𝑣
Making frequency subject yields, 𝑓 = (Fundamental)
4𝐿
Next is 3rd Harmonic…
• In a closed pipe, you have a NODE at the 2nd harmonic position,
therefore NO SOUND is produced.

• However, In a closed pipe you have an ANTINODE at the 3rd

harmonic position, therefore SOUND is produced.

• CONCLUSION: Sounds in CLOSED pipes are produced ONLY at

ODD HARMONICS!
• Remember that we have to have an antinode at the opening (where
the air is moving) and a node at the closed end (where the air can’t
move). That means for the 3rd harmonic we get something as shown
below.

• This is ¾ of a wavelength fit into the tube, so the length of the tube
is…
3
𝐿= 𝜆
4
4 𝑣
• Therefore, 𝜆 = 𝐿 . But recall, 𝑓 =
3 𝜆

3𝑣
• And the frequency is… 𝑓 = (3rd Harmonic)
4𝐿
• Do you notice a pattern forming in the formulas? Hopefully, because
for both open and closed end pipes, we will only give you the
formulas for the fundamentals lengths. You need to remember how to
get the rest…….5th , 7th , 9th Harmonics etc.
Example 1:
The windpipe of a typical whooping crane is about 1.525-m long. What
is the lowest resonant frequency of this pipe assuming it is a pipe
closed at one end? Assume a temperature of 37°C.

Solution:
We have
𝑚
𝐿 = 1.525 𝑚 , 𝑣 = 0.6 37 + 331 𝑚Τ𝑠 = 352.2 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑠

Thus,
𝑣 352.2 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑓= = = 57.90 𝐻𝑧
4𝐿 4 1.525 𝑚
 OPEN PIPES
• Open pipes have an antinode on BOTH ends of the tube, since the
air can move at both ends

• What is the smallest length of pipe you can have to hear a sound?
➢ You will get your FIRST sound when the length of the pipe equals
one-half of a wavelength.
1
• Thus, 𝐿= 𝜆
2
𝑣
• Using, 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 ⟹ 𝜆 =
𝑓
1 𝑣 𝑣
𝐿= ⟹ 𝑓= (Fundamental)
2 𝑓 2𝐿
Next is 2nd Harmonic…
• Open end pipes have a 2nd harmonic… they can have any number
harmonic they want, odd or even.
• Since harmonics are MULTIPLES of the fundamental, the second
harmonic of an “open pipe” will be ONE WAVELENGTH

• The length and frequency formulas are…

2
𝐿 = 𝜆=𝜆
2
𝑣
• Recall, 𝑓 =
𝜆
• And the frequency becomes,
2𝑣 𝑣
𝑓= = (2nd Harmonic)
2𝐿 𝐿
Next is 3rd Harmonic…
• The 3rd harmonic looks like the figure below.

• The length and frequency formulas are…

3
𝐿 = 𝜆
2
• And the frequency
3𝑣
𝑓=
2𝐿
• Another half of a wavelength would ALSO produce an antinode on
BOTH ends. In fact, no matter how many halves you add you will
always have an antinode on the ends.
• CONCLUSION: Sounds in OPEN pipes are produced at ALL
HARMONICS!
• Do you notice a pattern forming in the formulas, You need to
remember how to get the rest…….5th , 7th , 9th Harmonics etc.
Example 2:
An open ended organ pipe is 3.6m long,
a) What is the wavelength of the fundamental played by this pipe?
b) What is the frequency of this note if the speed of sound is 346m/s?
c) What note could be played as the third harmonic on that pipe?
d) If we made the pipe longer, what would happen to the fundamental
note… would it be higher or lower frequency?
Solution:
1
a) In open ended pipes, the fundamental frequency will fit in length equal to 2 𝜆.
thus,
1
𝐿 = 𝜆 ⟹ 𝜆 = 2𝐿 = 2 3.6 𝑚 = 7.2 𝑚
2
𝜆 = 7.2 𝑚
b) Frequency of the note if speed is 346 m/s
In open pipes the first note is at
𝑣 346 𝑚/𝑠
𝑓= = = 48 𝐻𝑧
2𝐿 2 3.6 𝑚
Solution Contd/..
c) Note that the third harmonic is three times bigger than the first harmonic.
𝑣 3𝑣
𝑓=3 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 =
2𝐿 2𝐿
Thus,
3 346 𝑚/𝑠
𝑓= = 144 𝐻𝑧
2 3.6 𝑚

d) If we made the pipe longer, the wavelength would be bigger (just look
at the formula in part "a" of this example), and since wavelength and
frequency are inversely related, that means the frequency would be
smaller.
Example 3:
The clarinet’s lowest note is D3, 147 Hz. What is its effective length,
i.e. the length of an idealized, closed pipe that has this frequency for
its first mode? Hint: speed of sound is 344 m/s.

Solution:
1
Closed at one end, the fundamental frequency will fit in length of equal to 4 𝜆.
Thus,
1 𝑣
𝐿= 𝜆⟹ 𝑓=
4 4𝐿
So,
𝑣 344 𝑚/𝑠
𝐿= = = 0.585 𝑚
4𝑓 4 147 𝐻𝑧
Example 4:
To obtain a fundamental vibration frequency of 860 Hz, what length of an
open tube would be required? What length of tubing closed at one end
would be required? Hint: speed of sound is 344 m/s.
Solution:
(a) Closed at one end, the fundamental frequency will fit in length equal
to 1/4 𝜆.
Thus,
𝐿 = 1/4 𝜆 ⟹ 𝑓 = 𝑣/4𝐿
So,
𝑣 (344 𝑚/𝑠)
𝐿= = = 0. 1 𝑚
4𝑓 4(860 𝐻𝑧)
(b) Open at both ends, the fundamental frequency will fit in length equal
to 1/2 𝜆.
Thus,
𝐿 = 1/2 𝜆 ⟹ 𝑓 = 𝑣/2𝐿
So,
𝑣 (344 𝑚/𝑠)
𝐿= = = 0.2 𝑚
2𝑓 2(860 𝐻𝑧)
 Compare:

Open-Open or Closed-Closed Open-Closed

2L  
m = = 1 / m  m =
4L
= 1 / m 
m  
 m = 1, 2,3, 4, m
 m = 1,3,5, 7,
v
fm = m = mf1  fm = m
v
= mf1 
2L  4L 
 STANDING WAVES ON A STRING
• If a wave travels on a string (i.e., one whose length
does not change) such that the path length is a
“half-integer” of the wave’s wavelength,
1
𝐿= 𝜆
2
• the wave is said to be a standing wave on a string
⇒ the wave appears not to propagate.
a) Positions on the wave where ∆y = 0 (zero
amplitude points) at all times are called nodes.
b) Positions on the wave where ∆y = A (maximum
amplitude) at all times are called antinodes.
c) All points on the wave oscillates with the same
frequency except for the node points (which do
not oscillate).
• If a string is attached between 2 immovable
walls of separation 𝐿 as in the diagram aside,
we can use 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 to find the frequency of
the string:
1
𝐿= 𝜆
2
Thus,
1 𝑣 𝑣
𝐿= ⟹ 𝑓=
2 𝑓 2𝐿
• This is lowest frequency of vibration is called
the fundamental frequency. This fundamental
frequency also is called the first harmonic.
• In general,
𝑚 𝑣
𝐿 = 𝜆 𝑂𝑟 𝑓 = 𝑚 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3 … …
2 2𝐿

NOTE: For fundamental frequency or first harmonic, 𝒎 = 𝟏.

• If 𝑚 = 2 is the second harmonic. Then,

𝑓2 = 2𝑓1

• Note that all higher harmonics are integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency. Thus,
𝑓𝑚 = 𝑚𝑓1 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3 … … …

• The frequencies or harmonics of a string form an arithmetic series:

𝑓, 2𝑓, 3𝑓, 4𝑓, …

• Therefore, the fundamental frequency 𝑓1 can be found as the

difference between the frequencies of any two adjacent modes,

Δ𝑓 = 𝑓𝑚+1 − 𝑓𝑚
Example 5:
A string of length 0.28 m on a guitar is fixed at both ends. The string is
plucked and a standing wave is set up that is vibrating at its second
harmonic. The traveling waves that make up the standing waves have
a speed of 140 m/s. What is the frequency of vibration?
Solution:
We have the following data
𝑓 =? , 𝑣 = 140 𝑚/𝑠, 𝐿 = 0.28 𝑚, 𝑚 = 2 or second harmonic.

𝑣
But, 𝑓=𝑚 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3 … …
2𝐿

140 𝑚/𝑠
So, 𝑓=2 = 500/𝑠 = 500 𝐻𝑧
2∗0.28𝑚