Topic 1- cells and tissues

1.2-
Endoplasmic reticulum: A network of membranes in the cytoplasm

1.4-
When a cell divides, it makes a copy of each and every DNA molecule in the nucleus.

A dna is formed from two polynucleotide strands, during dna replication the strands separate
and each strand makes a template for the dna polymerase to assemble nucleotides into two
new strands following the base pairing rule

1.6-

RNA
Three main differences
RNA contains ribose while DNA contains sugar deoxyribose
RNA is a single strand instead of double helix
Used the base U (uracil) instead of T (thymine)

Messenger RNA (mRNA): forms a copy of the DNA code

Transfer RNA (tRNA): Carries amino acids to the ribosomes to make proteins

Protein synthesis takes place in two stages

Transcription:
● The DNA helix unzips and exposes the template strand
● The RNA nucleotides line up against the template strand and form an mRNA following
the base pairing rule.

Translation:
● Converts the code in the mRNA into a protein at the ribosomes
● At one end of the other side of the tRNA, a specific amino acid attaches that gets carried
by the tRNA to the ribosome where the other side of the tRNA where the anticodon is
● Then the anticodon can link up with the three bases of the corresponding mRNA codon.

1.11
During mitosis, there are 4 stages of cell division (PMAT)

Prophase:
before a cell can divide, both the parent and daughter cell must have the same dna, thats why
the chromosomes form two exact copies called chromatids that join together at the centromere
(forming an x shape)
Metaphase:
During metaphase a structure called spindle forms (looks like the lines around a magnet) the
chromatids line up in a line at the ‘equator’ of the spindle.

Anaphase:
During this phase the spindle fibres shorten causing the chromatids to get pulled apart

Telophase:
Two new nuclei form at each end of the cell so the cytoplasm can then divide to form two
different cells with the same dna and with a nucleus each.

1.12
Stem cells:
Cells that are able to divide many times by mitosis without going through differentiation. It then
differentiates later on to form specialised cells

Embryonic stem cells: found in the early stages of development of an embryo. These stem cells
can differentiate into any type of body cell.

Adult stem cells: Found in certain adult tissues such as bone marrow, skin and the lining of the
intestine. They can only form a limited number of specialised tissues. (bone marrow cells can
divide many times but only produce different types of red and white blood cells.

1.13
Stem cell therapy

Advantages
● Stem cell therapy can be used to treat diseases or to repair damaged tissue.

Disadvantages
● Adult stem cells have a limited ability to differentiate into other types of cells
● Embryonic stem cells have not progressed beyond the experimental stage

1.15
Structures of bones and muscle tissue

Voluntary muscle: Striped (striated) because of the way the protein filaments align in the cell.
There are many nuclei per cell close together and not branched

Involuntary: non-striated because the protein filaments are not aligned in the cell (its also called
a smooth muscle) there is only one nucleus per cell. The cell tapers at each end (becomes
narrower at each end)
Cardiac: striated. There are many nuclei per cell, they are branched. Forming a strong mesh-like
network

Bones: tissues made of cells that secrete a hard material made of calcium salts.

Epithelia: Tissues that line organs.ciliated epithelium cells have tiny hair-like projections called
cilia. (ciliated epithelium cell- elongated, can contract to move food through the mucus along the
lining of the trachea). There are many other types of epithelium cells such as the flattened cells
lining the human cheek- this is called squamous epithelium.

Chapter 2

2.1
Chemicals in carbohydrates, lipids and proteins

Carbohydrates and lipids are entirely made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Proteins also
contain these elements along with nitrogen and very small amounts of sulphur

2.2
Structures

Carbohydrates
Made from simple sugars such as glucose
● Glucose is a monosaccharide (single sugar unit)
● Fructose is also a monosaccharide

Monosaccharides can join together to form disaccharides and polysaccharides

Disaccharide
● Sucrose (table sugar)
● Lactose (milk)

Polysaccharide
● Starch (found in plant tissue)
● Glycogen (found in animal cells, contain a similar carbohydrate)
Proteins

Proteins are made from 20 different subunits called amino acids

● All amino acids contain four chemical elements
-Carbon
-Hydrogen
-Oxygen
-Nitrogen

Lipids
Lipids are fats and oils

The difference between the two is that fat is solid at room temp and oil is liquid.
- Fats are more common in animal tissue
- Oils are mainly found in plants
The chemical building blocks of lipids are two molecules called glycerol and fatty acids.

2.3
Tests

Test for glucose

Glucose is also called a reducing sugar
- The test for glucose involves reducing an alkaline solution of copper(II) sulphate to
copper(I) oxide.
Steps
● A small spatula measure of glucose is placed in a test tube with a little bit of distilled
water (abt 2cm deep)
● The tube is shaken to dissolve the glucose.
● Several drops of benedict’s solution are added to the tube enough to turn the mixture
blue
● A water bath is prepared and heated
● The test tube is placed in the beaker till the water boils
● After a few seconds the water will gradually change colour to an orange or brick red.

Test for starch

● A little starch is placed on a spotting tile
● A drop of yellow-brown iodine solution is added to the starch
● The iodine reacts with the starch forming a blue-black colour
(starch is insoluble but this test would work on a solid sample of food such as a potato)
Test for protein

The test for protein is sometimes called the ‘biuret’ test after the coloured compound that is
formed.

Steps
● A little protein (such as powdered egg white), is placed in a test tube and abt 2cm depth
of water is added
● The tube is shaken to mix the powder with the water
● An equal volume of dilute (5%) potassium hydroxide solution is added to the tube and
shaken again.
● Two drops of (1%) copper sulphate solution are added for a pale purple colour to
develop

Test for Lipids

Fats and oils are insoluble in water but will dissolve in ethanol

Steps
● A pipette is used to place one drop of olive oil in the bottom of a test tube.
● About 2 cm of depth of ethanol is added and the tube is shaken to dissolve the oil
● The solution is then poured into a test tube that is about ¾ full with cold water.
● A white cloudy layer will form on the top of the water (emulsion)

2.7
Factors affecting enzymes

(ik this topic so ima only do notes on what idk which is competitive and non-competitive
inhibitors)

Inhibitors are substances that reduce the rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction

Competitive inhibitors
They fit into the active site, stopping the substrate from entering (this is temporary, the inhibitor
could leave and the substrate could take it place)

Non-competitive inhibitors
They do not have the same shape as the substrate and do ot attach to the active site. They
attach to other parts of the enzyme. When they do attach, they change the shape of the whole
enzyme molecule including the active site.

2.8
The effect of temp and pH on enzymes

Amylase (breaks down starch into the sugar maltose. The activity of amylase can be measured
by recording the speed at which the starch disappears.

Steps
● Spots of iodine solution are placed in the dips on the spotting tile.
● A syringe is used to place 5cm^3 of starch suspensions in one boiling tube.
● A different syringe is used to place 5cm^3 of amylase solution in another tube.
● The beaker is filled with water at 20C. Both boiling tubes are placed in the beaker of
water for 5 mins and the temp is recorded

● The amylase solution is then poured into the starch suspension and the tube containing
the mixture is left in the water bath.
● Immediately, a pipette is used to remove a small sample of the mixture from the tube and
add it to the first drop of iodine solution on the spotting tile.
● The colour of the iodine solution is recorded.

A sample of the mixture is taken every 30 seconds for 10 mins and tested for starch, until the
iodine solution remains yellow showing that all the starch has been used up. And then the
experiment is repeated with the water bath at different temps between 20-60 degrees C

2.9
Immobilised enzymes

Enzymes get extracted from cells or tissue to be used, some of the enzymes dissolve in water to
be used. However some enzymes are more useful if they are immobilised by being attached to
an insoluble material.
This is because they are more stable at high temps and pH and are less likely to denature
easily. The enzyme can also be kept and reused this allows for a large scale production in an
industrial process.

Lactose free milk

Immobilised enzymes can be used to produce lactose free milk for lactose intolerant people
The lactase is immobilised in porous beads and held in a column. Milk is passed through the
column, where the lactase breaks down the lactose. Lactase is an expensive enzyme, and this
method means it can be kept and reused, lowering the cost.

2.10

Using immobilised lactase to produce lactose free milk

● A small syringe is used to add 2 cm3 of lactase solution to a beaker containing 8 cm3 of
2% sodium alginate solution. The two are mixed together with stirring rod
● Using the same syringe, some of the mixture is removed from the beaker and added
drop by drop to another beaker, containing 100 cm3 of a solution of 1.5% calcium
chloride.
● As the mixture drops into the solution, the sodium alginate is converted into insoluble
calcium alginate, forming gelatinous (jelly-like) beads that are left to set for 5 mins
● The mixture is then poured into a sieve and washed with distilled water.
● The beads are packed into the barrel of a 10 cm3 syringe, which has the top covered by
a small piece of nylon gauze.
● Fresh milk is poured into the open end of th syringe barrel and that is testest using
glucose test strips.
● After a while, glucose will be present in the milk that has passed through the column of
beads.
● As a Control, the milk is tested before treatment – it will not contain any glucose.

Chapter 3

3.3
Factors affecting exchange rate

The temp:
The rate of diffusion is greater at higher temps. Thats because high temps provides particles
with more kinetic energy.
Distance:
The greater the distance over which diffusion has to take place, the slower the diffusion rate.

Surface area to volume ratio:

A larger surface area in proportion to the volume will increase the rate of diffusion

Concentration gradient:
Diffusion happens more quickly when there is a steep concentration gradient (i.e. a big
difference in concentration between two areas)

Chapter 4

4.1
Structure of the main parts of the skeleton

Axial skeleton

The axial skeleton consists of the vertebral column, Cranium (skull), ribcage, and the sternum
(breast bone)

Appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton consists of the scapulas (shoulder blade), clavicle (collar bone),
pelvis, and limbs