Engine Performance

Section 2

1
 Geometric Properties

VC
TC Piston displacement: y = l + a - s
y B

L

s  a cos q  l 2  a 2 sin 2 q 
1/ 2

When the piston is at TC (s= l+a) the cylinder

BC volume equals the clearance volume Vc

Wrist pin The cylinder volume at any crank angle is:

l
s
B 2
Connecting rod V  Vc  Ac y  Vc  (l  a  s )
4
Maximum displacement, or swept, volume:
q
a B 2
Vd  L
4
Compression ratio:

For most engines B ~ L VBC Vc  Vd

rc  
(“square engine”) VTC Vc
2
 Piston Velocity

VC Average piston velocity:

TC
B  stroke  m  rev 
U p  2 LN    
L
 rev  stroke  s 
Average piston speed for standard auto engine is
BC about 15 m/s. Ultimately limited by material
strength. Therefore engines with large strokes run
at lower speeds
l “Over square engines” (B > L) with light pistons
s
have higher rev limits (motorcycle engines)


s  a cos q  l 2  a 2 sin 2 q 
1/ 2

q
a ds
Instantaneous piston velocity: Up 
dt

Up   cos q 
 sin q 1  
 
N= crank shaft angular
l / a 2  sin 2 q
1/ 2
velocity (rev/s)
Up 2  
3
 Piston Velocity vs Crank Angle

R = l/a
R=3

TC BC

4
 Piston Acceleration
1/ 2
  a 2 2 
Piston displacement is: s  a cos q  l 1    sin q 
 l 
 
2
For most modern engines (a/l) ~ 1/9

Using series expansion approximate (1-e)1/2 ~ 1-(e/2) and subst q = wt

 a 
2

s  a cos wt   l  sin 2 wt 
 2l 

Substituting sin 2 wt  (1  cos 2wt ) / 2

 a 
2

yields s  a cos wt   l  (1  cos 2wt ) 

 4l 

d 2s 2 a 
differentiating  aw  cos wt  cos 2wt 
dt 2  l 
5
 Piston Inertia Force

The inertia force is the piston mass multiplied by the acceleration

d 2s  a 
Inertia Force  m 2  amw 2  cos wt  cos 2wt 
dt  l 
Primary term Secondary term

The maximum force amw2 occurs at TC (q = wt = 0o,180o,270o…)

The primary term varies at the same speed as the crankshaft

and the secondary term varies at twice the crank shaft speed

For a very long connecting rod (a/l) << 1 secondary term vanishes
and the force is harmonic

Complete cancellation of the forces is possible for in-line 6 and 8

as well as for V-12 and V-16
6
 Torque and Power

Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.

Stator Force F

Rotor

N
Load cell

The torque exerted by the engine is T:

T  F b units : Nm  J

The power W delivered by the engine turning at a speed N and

absorbed by the dynamometer is:
 rad  rev 
W  w  T  (2  N )  T units :   ( J )  W (1 kW  1.341 hp)
 rev  s 

Note: w is the shaft angular velocity in units rad/s 7

 Brake Power

Torque is a measure of an engine’s ability to do work and power is

the rate at which work is done

Note torque is independent of crank speed.

The term brake power, Wb , is used to specify that the power is
measured at the output shaft, this is the usable power delivered by
the engine to the load.

The brake power is less than the power generated by the gas in
the cylinders due to mechanical friction and parasitic loads (oil
pump, air conditioner compressor, supercharger, etc…).

The power produced in the cylinder is termed the indicated

power,Wi .

8
 Indicated Work per Cycle

Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating cycle of the engine one
can calculate the work done by the gas on the piston. This data is
typically given as P vs V

The indicated work per cycle is given by Wi   PdV +dV +work

-dV -work

Compression Power Exhaust Intake

W>0
9
W<0 W<0 W>0
 Indicated Work per Cycle

Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating cycle of the engine one
can calculate the work done by the gas on the piston. This data is
typically given as P vs V

The indicated work per cycle is given by Wi   PdV

A WA > 0

WB < 0

Compression Power Exhaust Intake

W>0
10
W<0 W<0 W>0
 Work per Cycle
Gross indicated work per cycle – net work delivered to the piston over
the compression and expansion strokes only:

Wi,g = area A + area C (>0)

Pump work – net work delivered to the gas over the intake and exhaust
strokes:

Wp = area B + area C (<0)

Net indicated work per cycle – work delivered over all strokes:

Wi,n = Wi,g – Wp = (area A + area C) – (area B + area C)

= area A – area B

11
 Indicated Power

Indicated power:
WN (kJ cycle)(rev s)
Wi  i
nR rev cycle

where N – crankshaft speed in rev/s

nR – number of crank revolutions per cycle
= 2 for 4-stroke
= 1 for 2-stroke

Power can be increased by increasing:

• the engine size, Vd
• engine speed, N

12
 Indicated Work at WOT

The pressure at the intake port is just below atmospheric pressure

Po Pintake

Pintake

The pump work (area B+C) is small compared to the gross indicated
work (area A+C)

Wi,n = Wi,g - Wp = area A - area B

13
 Indicated Work at Part Throttle

The pressure at the intake port is significantly lower than atmospheric pressure

Pintake

The pump work (area B+C) can be significant compared to gross indicated
work (area A+C)

Wi,n = Wi,g - Wp = area A - area B

14
 Indicated Work with Supercharging

Engines with superchargers or turbochargers have intake pressures

greater than the exhaust pressure, yielding a positive pump work

Compressor

Pintake

Wi,n = area A + area B

Supercharge increases the net indicated work but is a parasitic load

since it is driven by the crankshaft (not a turbocharger)
15
 Mechanical Efficiency

Some of the power generated in the cylinder is used to overcome engine

friction and to pump gas into and out of the engine.

The term friction power,W f , is used to describe collectively these power

losses, such that:

W f  Wi , g  Wb

Friction power can be measured by motoring the engine.

The mechanical efficiency is defined as:

Wb Wi , g  W f W f
m    1

Wi , g 
Wi , g Wi , g

16
 Mechanical Efficiency, cont’d

Mechanical efficiency depends on pumping losses (throttle position) and

frictional losses (engine design and engine speed).

Typical values for automobile engines at WOT are:

90% @2000 RPM and 75% @ max speed.

Throttling increases pumping power and thus the mechanical efficiency

decreases, at idle the mechanical efficiency approaches zero.

17
 Power and Torque versus Engine Speed at WOT

1 kW = 1.341 hp

Max brake torque There is a maximum in the torque versus

speed called maximum brake torque (MBT).
Brake torque drops off:
- at lower speeds due to heat losses
- at higher speeds it becomes more difficult
to ingest a full charge of air.
18
 Power and Torque versus Engine Speed at WOT

W  N  T and W  N Wcycle so T  Wcycle

Rated brake power

There is a maximum in the brake power
versus engine speed called the rated
1 kW = 1.341 hp
brake power (RBP).
At higher speeds brake power decreases as
friction power becomes significant compared
to the indicated power Wb  Wi , g  W f

Max brake torque There is a maximum in the torque versus

speed called maximum brake torque (MBT).
Brake torque drops off:
- at lower speeds due to heat losses
- at higher speeds it becomes more difficult
to ingest a full charge of air.
19
 Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)

MEP is a fictitious constant cylinder pressure that would produce the same
work per cycle if it acted on the piston during the power stroke.

Indicated mean effective pressure (imep) is defined as:

Wi Wi  nR imep  Vd  N imep  Ap  U p

imep    Wi  
Vd Vd  N nR 2  nR

Brake mean effective pressure (bmep) is defined as:

Wb 2  T  nR bmep  Vd
bmep    T
Vd Vd 2  nR

imep is a better parameter than torque to compare engines for design and
output because it is independent of engine size, Vd.
20
The maximum bmep of a good engine design is well established:

Four stroke engines:

SI engines: bmep= 850-1050 kPa*

CI engines: bmep= 700 -900 kPa

Turbocharged SI engines: bmep= 1250 -1700 kPa

Turbocharged CI engines: bmep= 1000 - 1200 kPa

Two stroke engines:

Standard CI engines comparable bmep to four stroke

Large slow CI engines: 1600 kPa

*Values are at maximum brake torque and WOT

Note, at the rated (maximum) brake power the bmep is 10 - 15% less

Can use the maximum bmep in design calculations to estimate engine

displacement required to provide a given torque or power at a specified
engine speed.
21
 Engine design based on maximum BMEP

Wb 2  T  nR
bmep  
Vd Vd

For a given displacement, a higher maximum bmep means more torque

For a given torque, a higher maximum bmep means smaller engine

The maximum bmep is obtained at WOT (closing the throttle decreases

the bmep)

Higher maximum bmep means higher stresses and temperatures in the

engine hence shorter engine life, or bulkier engine.

For the same bmep 2-strokes have almost twice the power of 4-stroke

22
 Typical 1998 Passenger Car Engine Characteristics

Vehicle Engine Displ. Max Power Max Torque BMEP at BMEP at

type (L) (hp@rpm) (lb-ft@rpm) Max BT Rated BP
(bar) (bar)
Mazda I4 1.84 122@6000 117@4000 10.8 9.9
Protégé LX
Honda I4 2.25 150@5700 152@4900 11.4 10.4
Accord EX
Mazda I4 2.26 210@5300 210@3500 15.9 15.7
Millenia S Turbo
BMW I6 2.80 190@5300 206@3950 12.6 11.5
328i
Ferrari V8 3.50 375@8250 268@6000 13.1 11.6
F355 GTS
Ferrari V12 5.47 436@6250 398@4500 12.4 11.4
456 GT
Lamborghini V12 5.71 492@7000 427@5200 12.7 11.0
Diablo VT

23
 Road-Load Power

A part-load power level used for testing engines (fuel economy, emissions)
is the power required to drive a vehicle on a level road at a steady speed.

The road-load power, Pr , is the engine power needed to overcome

rolling resistance and the aerodynamic drag of the vehicle.

Pr  (C R M v g  1  a C D Av Sv2 )  Sv
2

where CR = coefficient of rolling resistance (0.012 - 0.015)

Mv = mass of vehicle
g = gravitational acceleration
a = ambient air density
CD = drag coefficient (for cars: 0.3 - 0.5)
Av = frontal area of the vehicle
Sv = vehicle speed
*Modern midsize aerodynamic cars only need 5-6 kW (7-8 HP)
to cruise at 90 km/hr, hence the attraction of hybrid cars! 24
 Drag Force Parameters

Auto manufacturers can improve the drag force by reducing:

Vehicle frontal area:

2005 Corvette is 0.57 m2
2006 Hummer H3 is 1.56 m2
Most cars around 0.8 m2

Drag coefficient CD:

1983 Audi 100 – 0.3
2004 Toyota Prius – 0.26
2005 Porsche Boxster – 0.29
2006 Dodge Challanger – 0.33
2003 Hummer – 0.57
Formula 1 car – 0.7 to 1.1 (DRS)

25
 Engine power requirements

a
F=Mvg

For a 1500 kg car moving at 50 km/hr up a 10o incline:

PC  ( M v g sin a )  S v  35 kW  47 hp

F = Mva

For a 1500 kg car accelerating (constant) from 0-100 km/hr in 8 s:

Pa  M v ( S v / t )  S v  145 kW  207 hp

Ferrari 430 Scuderia has 508 hp at 8500 rpm 4.3L V8 engine 26

1270 kg and 0-100 km/hr in 3.6 s requires 272 kW (389 hp)
 Automobile transmission

Engine operates between 600 – 7000 rpm, whereas car wheels rotate at
0 -1800 rpm

Highest torque is obtained in the mid-engine speed range while the

greatest torque is generally required at the lowest wheel speed

Transmission produces high torque at low car speeds and also operates
at highway speeds with the engine operating in the same RPM range
 transmission changes the gear ratio as the car accelerates

Automatic transmission – gears shift automatically based on input

data from the sensors on the engine and the transmission (e.g., engine
speed, vehicle speed, throttle position, brake pedal position)

Manual transmission – driver shifts gears

27
 Automobile transmission

Clutch for manual transmission

Differential provides
Further gear ratio (3:1)

Torque converter provides fluid dynamic coupling with torque multiplication during idle and 28
acceleration
 Gears

Gears change the speed of rotation and torque transmitted between shafts

Consider a simple gear set consisting of two gears:

wo
wi
Ro
Ri
Ro GR 
Ri
Vc, Fc

Gear ratio (GR) is the number of turns of the input shaft required to give one
revolution of the output shaft

Vc  wi Ri  wo Ro Fc  Ti / Ri  To / Ro
 Ri  wi  Ro 
wo   wi  To   Ti  GR  Ti
 Ro  GR  Ri 
29
 Automobile Transmission
An automobile is more complicated because you need several gear ratios so
the car can accelerate smoothly

Shift for power or fuel economy?

Automatic transmission uses two sets of planetary gears to give three or four
forward gear ratios and one reverse

Manual transmission typically has five forward gears and a reverse

Gear GR wo/wi To/Ti

1 3:1 1/3 3
2 2.5:1 2/5 5/2
3 1.5:1 2/3 3/2
4 1:1 1 1
5 (OD) 0.75:1 4/3 3/4
30
 Manual transmission (two gears)

Flywheel Splined
shaft/collar
Bearings

CRANKSHAFT TO WHEELS

Clutch Synchronizer

Starter

31
 Torque converter

Engine

32
 Automatic transmission planetary gear system

A  reduction, B  overdrive, C  reverse

Locking any two locks up the whole device at a 1:1 gear

Input Out Stationary

wi:wo

Planet
A Sun (S) Carrier Ring (R) 1 + R/S 3.4:1
(C)

Planet 1 / (1 +
B Ring (R) Sun (S) 0.71:1
Carrier (C) S/R)

Planet
C Sun (S) Ring (R) -R/S -2.4:1
Carrier (C)
Planet gears
linked by carrier

ring gear = 72 teeth and sun gear has 30 teeth. 33

 500
1999 Neon DOHC
GR2
450 Engine
1st gear (GR=3.54)
w2 nd  w1st
2nd gear (GR=2.13)
GR1
400 3rd gear (GR=1.36)
4th gear (GR=1.03)
350 5th gear (GR=0.72)

300
Torque (Ft-lb)

250 4210 rpm

3610 rpm
200

150

100

50

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Engine speed (RPM)

34
 Specific Fuel Consumption

For transportation vehicles fuel economy is generally given as mpg, or

L/100 km (in the future gm of CO2/km).

In engine testing the fuel consumption is measured in terms of the fuel

mass flow rate m  f.

The specific fuel consumption, sfc, is a measure of how efficiently the

fuel supplied to the engine is used to produce power,

m f m f g
bsfc  isfc  units :
Wb Wi kW  hr

Clearly a low value for sfc is desirable since for a given power level
the lesser the fuel consumed the better it is.

35
 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Size

Bsfc decreases with engine size due to reduced heat losses from gas to cylinder
wall.

Note cylinder surface to volume ratio increases with bore diameter.

heat loss cylinder surface area BL 1
  2 
energy released cylinder v olume B L B
36
 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Speed

There is a minimum in the bsfc versus engine speed curve

m f
bsfc 
Wb

At high speeds the bsfc increases due to increased friction i.e. smaller Wb

At lower speeds the bsfc increases due to increased time for heat
losses from the gas to the cylinder and piston wall, and thus a smaller Wi

Bsfc decreases with compression ratio due to higher thermal efficiency

37
 Performance Maps

Performance map is used to display the bsfc over the engines full load and
speed range. Using a dynamometer to measure the torque and fuel mass
flow rate for different throttle positions you can calculate:

2  T  nR m f
bmep  bsfc  Wb  (2  N )  T
Vd Wb

bmep@WOT

Constant bsfc contours from a

2 litre four cylinder SI engine

38
 Effect of load on BSFC

For given RPM, bsfc decreases with load (bmep)

- decreased pumping power and heat loss to cylinder
39
 Engine Efficiencies

The time for combustion in the cylinder is very short, especially at high
speeds, so not all the fuel may be consumed

A small fraction of the fuel may not react and exits with the exhaust gas

The combustion efficiency is defined as:

actual heat input Qin Q in

c   
theoretical heat input m f  QHV m f  QHV

where Qin = heat added by combustion per cycle

mf = mass of fuel added to cylinder per cycle
QHV = heating value of the fuel (chemical energy per unit mass)

40
 Engine Efficiencies (2)

The thermal efficiency is defined as:

work per cycle W W
th   
heat input per cycle Qin c  m f  QHV

or in terms of rates
power out W W
th   
rate of heat input Q in c  m f  QHV

Thermal efficiencies can be given in terms of brake or indicated values

Indicated thermal efficiencies are typically 50% to 60% and brake thermal
efficiencies are usually about 30%

41
 Fuel energy partition

30 %

30 %

40 %

42
 Engine Efficiencies (3)

Fuel conversion efficiency is defined as:

W W
f  
m f  QHV m f  QHV

Note: f is very similar to th, difference is th takes into account actual
fuel combusted.
m f
Recall: sfc 
W

Therefore, the fuel conversion efficiency can also be obtained from:

1
f 
( sfc)  QHV

43
 Volumetric Efficiency

Due to the short cycle time at high engine speeds and flow restrictions through
the intake valve less than ideal amount of air enters the cylinder.

The effectiveness of an engine to induct air into the cylinders is measured by the
volumetric efficiency:

actual air inducted ma n  m

v    R a
theoretica l air  a  Vd  a  Vd  N

where a is the density of air at atmospheric conditions Po, To and for an ideal gas
a =Po / RaTo and Ra = 0.287 kJ/kg-K (at standard conditions a= 1.181 kg/m3)

Typical values for WOT are in the range 75%-90%, and much lower when the
throttle is closed

44
 Air-Fuel Ratio
For combustion to take place the proper relative amounts of air and fuel
must be present in the cylinder.

The air-fuel ratio is defined as

ma m a
AF  
m f m f

For gasoline fuel the ideal AF is about 15:1, with combustion possible in the
range of 6 to 19.

For a SI engine the AF is in the range of 12 to 18 depending on the operating

conditions.

For a CI engine, where the mixture is highly non-homogeneous, the AF is in

the range of 18 to 70.

45
 Relationships Between Performance Parameters

By combining equations presented in this section the following additional

working equations are obtained:

 f v  N  Vd  QHV   a  (1 / AF )
W 
nR

 f v  Vd  QHV   a  (1 / AF )
T
2  nR

mep   f v  QHV   a  (1 / AF )

46