1 Internal Combustion Engines

Engine operating characteristics

Important Engine Characteristics
Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines
Brake Torque and Power
Indicated Work per Cycle
Mechanical Efficiency
Road-Load Power
Mean Effective Pressure
Specific Fuel Consumption and Efficiency
Air/Fuel and Fuel/Air Ratios
Volumetric Efficiency
Engines Specific Weight and Specific Volume
Correction Factors for Power and Volumetric Efficiency
Specific Emissions and emissions Index
Relationships between Performance Parameters
Engine Design and Performance Data

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

2 Internal Combustion Engines
Geometric Properties

Piston displacement: y = l + a - s
y
(
s = a cos + l 2 − a 2 sin 2  )
1/ 2

When the piston is at TC (s= l+a) the cylinder

volume equals the clearance volume Vc

The cylinder volume at any crank angle is:

B 2
Connecting rod V = Vc + Ac y = Vc + (l + a − s )
4
Maximum displacement, or swept, volume:
B 2
Vd = L
4
Compression ratio:

For most engines B ~ L VBC Vc + Vd

rc = =
(“square engine”) VTC Vc

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

3 Internal Combustion Engines
Geometric Properties

(
s = a cos + l 2 − a 2 sin 2  )
1/ 2

Average and instantaneous piston velocity are:

U p = 2 LN
ds
Up =
dt
Where N is the rotational speed of the crank shaft
in units revolutions per second

Up   cos  
= sin  1 + 
Up 2  (
(l / a )2 − sin 2  )
1/ 2


Average piston speed for standard auto engine is

about 15 m/s. Ultimately limited by material
strength. Therefore engines with large strokes run
at lower speeds than those with small strokes run
at higher speeds.

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

4 Internal Combustion Engines
Piston Velocity vs Crank Angle

R = l/a

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

5 Internal Combustion Engines
Piston Acceleration
1/ 2
  a 2 2 
Piston displacement is: s = a cos  + l 1 −   sin  
 l 
For most modern engines (a/l)2 ~ 1/9

Using series expansion approximate (1-e)2 ~ 1-(e/2) and subst  = wt

 a2 
So s = a cos wt + 1 − sin wt 
2

 2l 

Substituting sin 2 wt = (1 − cos 2wt ) / 2

 a2 
yields s = a cos wt + 1 − (1 − cos 2wt ) 
 4l 
differentiating
d 2s 2 a 
= aw  cos wt + cos 2wt 
dt 2  l 

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

6 Internal Combustion Engines
Piston Inertia Force
The inertia force is simply the piston mass multiplied by the acceleration

d 2s  a 
Inertia Force = −m 2 = −amw 2  cos wt + cos 2wt 
dt  l 
Primary term Secondary term

• The maximum force occurs at TC,  = wt = 0 → F = -amw2

• The primary term varies at the same speed as the crankshaft

and the secondary term varies at twice the crank shaft speed

• For a very long connecting rod (a/l) << 1 secondary term vanishes
and the force is harmonic

• Complete cancellation of the forces is possible for, in-line 6 and 8

as well as for V-12 and V-16

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

7 Internal Combustion Engines
Torque and Power
Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.

Stator Force F
Rotor

N
Load cell

The torque exerted by the engine is T:

T = F b units : Nm = J

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

8 Internal Combustion Engines
Torque and Power
Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.

Stator Force F

Rotor

N
Load cell

The torque exerted by the engine is T:

T = F b units : J

The power W delivered by the engine turning at a speed N and

absorbed by the dynamometer is:

 rad  rev 
W = w  T = (2  N )  T units :   ( J ) = Watt
 rev  s 
Note: w is the shaft angular velocity in units rad/s
Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021
9 Internal Combustion Engines
Brake Power

Torque is a measure of an engine’s ability to do work and power is

the rate at which work is done

Note torque is independent of crank speed.

The term brake power, Wb , is used to specify that the power is
measured at the output shaft, this is the usable power delivered by
the engine to the load.

The brake power is less than the power generated by the gas in
the cylinders due to mechanical friction and parasitic loads (oil
pump, air conditioner compressor, etc…)

The power produced in the cylinder is termed the indicated

power, Wi .

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

10 Internal Combustion Engines
Indicated Work per Cycle
Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating cycle of the engine one
can calculate the work done by the gas on the piston. This data is
typically given as P – V diagram

The indicated work per cycle is given by Wi =  PdV

WA > 0

WB < 0

Compression Power Exhaust Intake

W<0 W>0 W<0 W>0

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

11 Internal Combustion Engines
Work per Cycle
Gross indicated work per cycle – net work delivered to the piston over
the compression and expansion strokes only:

Wi,g = area A + area C (>0)

Pump work – net work delivered to the gas over the intake and exhaust
strokes:

Wp = area B + area C (<0)

Net indicated work per cycle – work delivered over all strokes:

Wi,n = Wi,g – Wp = (area A + area C) – (area B + area C)

= area A – area B

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

12 Internal Combustion Engines
Indicated Power

Indicated power:
WN (kJ cycle)( rev s )
Wi = i
nR rev cycle

where N – crankshaft speed in rev/s

nR – number of crank revolutions per cycle
= 2 for 4-stroke W
= 1 for 2-stroke

Power can be increased by increasing:

• the engine size, Vd
• compression ratio, rc
• engine speed, N

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

13 Internal Combustion Engines
Indicated Work at WOT
The pressure at the intake port is just below atmospheric pressure

Po Pintake

Pintake

The pump work (area B+C) is small compared to the gross indicated
work (area A+C)

Wi,n = Wi,g - Wp = area A - area B

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

14 Internal Combustion Engines
Indicated Work at Part Throttle
The pressure at the intake port is significantly lower than atmospheric
pressure

Pintake

The pump work (area B+C) can be significant compared to gross indicated
work (area A+C)

Wi,n = Wi,g - Wp = area A - area B

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

15 Internal Combustion Engines
Indicated Work with Supercharging
Engines with superchargers or turbochargers have intake pressures
greater than the exhaust pressure, yielding a positive pump work

Compressor

Pintake

Wi,n = area A + area B

Supercharge increases the net indicated work but is a parasitic load

since it is driven by the crankshaft

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

16 Internal Combustion Engines
Mechanical Efficiency
Some of the power generated in the cylinder is used to overcome engine
friction and to pump gas into and out of the engine.

The term friction power,W f , is used to describe collectively these power

losses, such that:

W f = Wi , g − Wb

Friction power can be measured by motoring the engine.

The mechanical efficiency is defined as:

Wb Wi , g − W f W f
m = = = 1−

Wi , g 
Wi , g Wi , g

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

17 Internal Combustion Engines
Mechanical Efficiency

• Mechanical efficiency depends on pumping losses (throttle position) and

frictional losses (engine design and engine speed).

• Typical values for automobile engines at WOT are:

90% @2000 RPM and 75% @ max speed.

• Throttling increases pumping power and thus the mechanical efficiency

decreases, at idle the mechanical efficiency approaches zero.

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

18 Internal Combustion Engines
Power and Torque versus Engine Speed at WOT

W  N  Wcycle T  Wcycle

Rated brake power

There is a maximum in the brake power
versus engine speed called the rated
1 kW = 1.341 hp brake power (RBP).
At higher speeds brake power decreases as
friction power becomes significant compared
to the indicated power Wb = Wi , g − W f

Max brake torque There is a maximum in the torque versus

speed called maximum brake torque (MBT).
Brake torque drops off:
• at lower speeds do to heat losses
• at higher speeds it becomes more difficult to
ingest a full charge of air.

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

19 Internal Combustion Engines
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP)

imep is a fictitious constant pressure that would produce the same

work per cycle if it acted on the piston during the power stroke.
Wi Wi  nR imep  Vd  N imep  Ap  U p
imep = = → Wi = =
Vd Vd  N nR 2  nR

imep does not depend on engine speed, just like torque

recall T  Wcycle so imep  T

imep is a better parameter than torque to compare engines for design and
output because it is independent of engine size, Vd.

Brake mean effective pressure (bmep) is defined as:

Wb 2  T  nR bmep  Vd
bmep = = → T=
Vd Vd 2  nR

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

20 Internal Combustion Engines
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP)
The maximum bmep of good engine designs is well established:

Four stroke engines:

SI engines: bmep= 850-1050 kPa*

CI engines: bmep= 700 -900 kPa

Turbocharged SI engines: bmep= 1250 -1700 kPa

Turbocharged CI engines: bmep= 1000 - 1200 kPa

Two stroke engines:

Standard CI engines comparable bmep to four stroke

Large slow CI engines: 1600 kPa

*Values are at maximum brake torque and WOT

Note, at the rated (maximum) brake power the bmep is 10 - 15% less

Can use above maximum bmep in design calculations to estimate engine

displacement required to provide a given torque or power at a specified
speed.
Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021
21 Internal Combustion Engines
Maximum BMEP

Wb 2  T  nR
bmep = =
Vd Vd

• The maximum bmep is obtained at WOT at a particular engine speed

• Closing the throttle decreases the bmep

• For a given displacement, a higher maximum bmep means more torque

• For a given torque, a higher maximum bmep means smaller engine

• Higher maximum bmep means higher stresses and temperatures in the

engine hence shorter engine life, or bulkier engine.

• For the same bmep 2-strokes have almost twice the power of 4-stroke

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

22 Internal Combustion Engines

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

23 Internal Combustion Engines
Typical 1998 Passenger Car Engine Characteristics
Vehicle Engine Displ. Max Power Max Torque BMEP at BMEP at
type (L) (HP@rpm) (lb-ft@rpm) Max BT Rated BP
(bar) (bar)
Mazda L4 1.839 122@6000 117@4000 10.8 9.9
Protégé LX
Honda L4 2.254 150@5700 152@4900 11.4 10.4
Accord EX
Mazda L4 2.255 210@5300 210@3500 15.9 15.7
Millenia S Turbo
BMW L6 2.793 190@5300 206@3950 12.6 11.5
328i
Ferrari V8 3.496 375@8250 268@6000 13.1 11.6
F355 GTS
Ferrari V12 5.474 436@6250 398@4500 12.4 11.4
456 GT
Lamborghini V12 5.707 492@7000 427@5200 12.7 11.0
Diablo VT

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

24 Internal Combustion Engines
Road-Load Power
• A part-load power level useful for testing car engines is the power required
to drive a vehicle on a level road at a steady speed.

• The road-load power, Pr, is the engine power needed to overcome rolling
resistance and the aerodynamic drag of the vehicle.

Pr = (CR M v g + 1  aCD Av Sv2 )  Sv

2
Where CR = coefficient of rolling resistance (0.012 - 0.015)
Mv = mass of vehicle
g = gravitational acceleration
a = ambient air density
CD = drag coefficient (for cars: 0.3 - 0.5)
Av = frontal area of the vehicle
Sv = vehicle speed

*Modern midsize aerodynamic cars only need 5-6 kW (7-8 HP)

power to cruise at 90 km/hr, hence the attraction of hybrid cars!
Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021
25 Internal Combustion Engines
Drag Force Parameters

Auto manufacturers can control drag by reducing:

Vehicle frontal area:

2005 Corvette is 0.57 m2
Most cars around 0.8 m2
2006 Hummer H3 is 1.56 m2

Drag coefficient CD:

2004 Toyota Prius – 0.26
2005 Porsche Boxster – 0.29
1983 Audi 100 – 0.3
2006 Dodge Challanger – 0.33
2003 Hummer – 0.57
Formula 1 car – 0.7 to 1.1

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

26 Internal Combustion Engines
Hill Climbing Power and Acceleration

a
F=Mvg

For a 1500 kg car moving at 50 km/hr up a 10o incline:

PC = ( M v g sin a )  S v = 35 kW = 47 hp

F=Mva

For a 1500 kg car accelerating (constant) from 0-100 km/hr:

Pa = M v ( S v / t )  S v = 145 kW = 207 hp

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

27 Internal Combustion Engines
Specific Fuel Consumption

• For transportation vehicles fuel economy is generally given as mpg, or

L/100 km.

• In engine testing the fuel consumption is measured in terms of the fuel

mass flow rate m f .

• The specific fuel consumption, sfc, is a measure of how efficiently the

fuel supplied to the engine is used to produce power,
m f m f g
bsfc = isfc = units :
Wb Wi kW  hr

• Clearly a low value for sfc is desirable since for a given power level
less fuel is consumed

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

28 Internal Combustion Engines
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Size

• Bsfc decreases with engine size due to reduced heat losses from gas to
cylinder wall.

• Note cylinder surface to volume ratio increases with bore diameter.

cylinder surface area 2rL 1
= 2 
cylinder volume r L r
Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021
29 Internal Combustion Engines
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Speed

• There is a minimum in the bsfc versus engine speed curve

• At high speeds the bsfc increases due to increased friction i.e. smaller

• At lower speeds the bsfc increases due to increased time for heat
losses from the gas to the cylinder and piston wall, and thus a smaller

• Bsfc increases with compression ratio due to higher thermal efficiency

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021
30 Internal Combustion Engines
Performance Maps
Performance map is used to display the bsfc over the engines full load
and speed range. Using a dynamometer to measure the torque and fuel
mass flow rate for different throttle positions you can calculate:
2  T  nR m f
bmep = bsfc = Wb = (2  N )  T
Vd Wb

bmep@WOT

Constant bsfc contours from a

two-liter four cylinder SI engine

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

31 Internal Combustion Engines
Engine Efficiencies
• The time for combustion in the cylinder is very short so not all the fuel
may be consumed

• A small fraction of the fuel may not react and exits with the exhaust gas

• The combustion efficiency is defined as:

actual heat input Qin Q in

c = = =
theoretical heat input m f  QHV m f  QHV

Where Qin = heat added by combustion per cycle

mf = mass of fuel added to cylinder per cycle
QHV = heating value of the fuel (chemical energy per unit mass)

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

32 Internal Combustion Engines
Engine Efficiencies

• The thermal efficiency is defined as:

work per cycle W W
th = = =
heat input per cycle Qin c  m f  QHV

or in terms of rates
power out W W
th = = =
rate of heat input Qin  c  m f  QHV


• Thermal efficiencies can be given in terms of brake or indicated values

• Indicated thermal efficiencies are typically 50% to 60% and brake thermal
efficiencies are usually about 30%

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

33 Internal Combustion Engines
Engine Efficiencies

• Fuel conversion efficiency is defined as:

W W
f = =
m f  QHV m f  QHV

Note: f is very similar to th, difference is th takes into account actual
fuel combusted.
m f
Recall: sfc =
W

Therefore, the fuel conversion efficiency can also be obtained from:

1
f =
( sfc)  QHV

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

34 Internal Combustion Engines
Volumetric Efficiency
• Due to the short cycle time at high engine speeds and flow restrictions
through the intake valve less than ideal amount of air enters the cylinder.

• The effectiveness of an engine to induct air into the cylinders is measured

by the volumetric efficiency:

actual air inducted ma n  m

v = = = R a
theoretical air  a  Vd  a  Vd  N

where a is the density of air at atmospheric conditions Po, To and for an

ideal gas a =Po / RaTo and Ra = 0.287 kJ/kg-K (at standard conditions
a= 1.181 kg/m3)

• Typical values for WOT are in the range 75%-90%, and lower when the
throttle is closed

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

35 Internal Combustion Engines
Air-Fuel Ratio
• For combustion to take place the proper relative amounts of air and fuel
must be present in the cylinder.

The air-fuel ratio is defined as

ma m a
AF = =
m f m f

• The ideal AF is about 15:1, with combustion possible in the range

of 6 to 19.

• For a SI engine the AF is in the range of 12 to 18 depending on the

operating conditions.

• For a CI engine, where the mixture is highly non-homogeneous, the

AF is in the range of 18 to 70.

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021

36 Internal Combustion Engines
Relationships Between Performance Parameters

By combining equations presented in this section the following additional

working equations are obtained:

 f v  N  Vd  QHV   a  (1 / AF )
W =
nR

 f v  Vd  QHV   a  (1 / AF )
T=
2  nR

mep =  f v  QHV   a  (1 / AF )

Palestine Polytechnic University - Department of Mechanical Engineering 9/15/2021