PLANT CELL – CENTRAL VACUOLE

In a plant cell, the central vacuole stores water and regulates turgor pressure. Additionally, it forces the cell's
contents toward the membrane, enabling plant cells to absorb more light energy for photosynthesis, the process
of turning sunlight into food.
The function of the Central Vacuole:
1. The main function of the central vacuole is to maintain a steady turgor pressure within the cell.
2. Turgor pressure, which only exists in cells with cell walls like those found in bacteria, fungi, and plants,
is the pressure that the contents of the cell put on the cell wall.
3. A cell's turgor pressure changes as a result of osmosis, or the passage of water into or out of a cell.
4. Water flows into a plant cell when it is submerged in a hypotonic solution because the concentration of
water molecules outside the cell is higher than that within.
5. In plants, this results in the cell becoming turgid and the vacuole filling with water.

VACUOLES FOR STORAGE

They help in the storage and disposal of various substances. They can store food or other nutrients required by a
cell to survive. They also store waste products and prevent the entire cell from contamination. The vacuoles in
plant cells are larger than those in the animal cells.
The vacuole stores nutrients in cells, and its contents determine the color of cells and tissues and the turgor
pressure of the cell. Tonoplast proteins are involved in intracellular ion transport, pH regulation, and vacuole
transport pathways.

CONTRACTILE VACUOLE IN SOME PROTISTS

The contractile vacuole (CV) complex is an osmoregulatory organelle of free-living amoebae and protozoa,
which controls the intracellular water balance by accumulating and expelling excess water out of the cell,
allowing cells to survive under hypotonic stress as in pond water.
Contractile vacuoles:
1. Contractile vacuoles are specialized in order to regulate the water content of cells.
2. It is spherical in shape and collects excess fluid from the cell and empties it outside.
3. It is pivotal in maintaining the cell's osmotic pressure.
4. Protists are unicellular eukaryotes that exist in aquatic and damp environments.
5. Protists lack a cell wall and thus soak up excess water from their surroundings and thus contractile
vacuoles are crucial in order to drain them out.
A symbiotic relationship where one organism lives inside the other is known as endosymbiosis. Primary
endosymbiosis refers to the original internalization of prokaryotes by an ancestral eukaryotic cell, resulting in
the formation of the mitochondria and chloroplasts.

Endosymbiosis is a biological phenomenon that refers to the mutually beneficial relationship between two
different species of organisms, where one organism lives inside the cells of another. This term is commonly
used to describe the origin of certain organelles within eukaryotic cells, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts,
which are believed to have originated from free-living bacteria that were engulfed by a host cell. Endosymbiosis
has played a crucial role in the evolution of complex life forms on Earth.

There are two primary examples of endosymbiosis in the context of organelle evolution:

1. Mitochondria: Mitochondria are the "powerhouses" of eukaryotic cells, responsible for generating energy
through a process called cellular respiration. The endosymbiotic theory suggests that mitochondria were once
free-living aerobic bacteria that were engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic cell. Over time, these bacteria and the
host cell established a mutually beneficial relationship. The host cell provided protection and nutrients to the
engulfed bacteria, while the bacteria produced energy for the host cell. This relationship eventually became so
mutually dependent that the engulfed bacteria evolved into mitochondria, which retained their own DNA and
the ability to replicate within the host cell.

2. Chloroplasts: Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and some algae that are responsible for
photosynthesis, the process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of glucose.
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are thought to have originated from endosymbiotic events. It is believed that a
eukaryotic cell engulfed a photosynthetic cyanobacterium (a type of photosynthetic bacteria). Over time, this
cyanobacterium became a chloroplast, and the host cell and chloroplast formed a mutually beneficial
relationship. The host cell provided protection and nutrients, while the chloroplast provided the ability to
capture and convert light energy into food through photosynthesis.

Evidence supporting the endosymbiotic theory includes the fact that both mitochondria and chloroplasts have
their own DNA, which is similar in structure to bacterial DNA. Additionally, these organelles can reproduce
independently within the cell, much like bacteria.
Endosymbiosis is a significant concept in biology because it helps explain the evolution of complex,
multicellular life forms by highlighting the importance of cooperative relationships between different species of
organisms. It also provides insights into the diversity and complexity of cellular life on Earth.

Endosymbiosis is a biological concept where one organism lives inside another organism, and this relationship
benefits both parties involved. There are two significant examples:

1. **Mitochondria**: Mitochondria are organelles found in eukaryotic cells responsible for energy production.
The endosymbiotic theory suggests that mitochondria were once independent aerobic bacteria that were
engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic cell. Over time, the host cell and the engulfed bacteria formed a mutually
beneficial relationship. The host cell provided protection and nutrients, while the bacteria generated energy
through respiration. Eventually, these bacteria evolved into mitochondria, but they retained their own DNA and
the ability to replicate within the host cell.

2. **Chloroplasts**: Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and some algae that conduct
photosynthesis, converting light energy into glucose. Chloroplasts are believed to have originated from
endosymbiosis as well. An ancestral eukaryotic cell is thought to have engulfed photosynthetic cyanobacteria.
This symbiotic relationship allowed the host cell to harness the cyanobacteria's photosynthetic abilities for food
production, while the cyanobacteria received protection and nutrients. Over time, these cyanobacteria evolved
into chloroplasts, retaining their own DNA.

These examples of endosymbiosis are essential because they explain the origin of crucial cellular structures and
metabolic processes in eukaryotic cells. This concept illustrates how cooperative relationships between different
species can lead to the evolution of more complex life forms.