EEB 464 C1: E-Transmission System

Design Principles & Procedures

2020/21 DR SETLHAOLO
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Chapter ONE: E-Transmission system design
Principles & Procedures
 Introduction
 Design needs & general requirements.
 Voltage selection
 Requirements
 Line loading
 Line length
 Best approach
 conductors & sizes
 Conductor choice
 Standard Conductors
 BS125
 BS215
 Safe current carrying capacity

 , Corona & Losses

 Insulators

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C1: Introduction

 Design of Tx networks needs

 Voltage for transmitting the necessary power over given distance, ECONOMICALLY AND SAFELY
 Maintaining the voltage regulation
 And losses (Efficiency) within limits
 Conductors: choice, spacing, interphase distance, types of insulators, , insulating coordination
 Should stand weather conditions; wind pressures, tensions & temperatures (mechanical loading)
 Possibility of corona formation and corresponding losses
 Charging of the line: Capacitance of the line & should not exceed the limit.

General Requirement
 Line should have enough capacity to transmit the required power
 Should maintain continuous supply without failure
 Should be mechanically strong

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C1: Introduction…

 Transmission Lines are required for;

 Transmitting power from the generating stations to the distribution substations/load
centres
 Interconnecting power systems having a number of stations for transfer of energy/power
from one system to another during peak load or outages/emergencies
Transmission system consist of;
 All equipment from the generating end, switchyard lines, switching stations, equipment at
the receiving end till the distribution circuits.

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C1: Introduction…

 General Stages, Projects

 Planning: Quality systematic thinking. Selecting the vision, values, mission & objectives.
Decide what should be done to achieve them. Encompasses feasibility studies.
 Development: Implementation
 Monitoring, evaluation & control
 Closure

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1.1 VOLTAGE SELECTION

 Choice made between

 Table 1.1:Standard voltage ranges that exist in a country: For BPC
 thet
VLL (kV) Network
6.6
11 Distribution
33
132
220 Transmission
400

 Suitable for transmitting the necessary power over a given distance

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1.1 Voltage Selection: Requirements

 Voltage selected must be;

 Economical; cost of lines, equipment such as transformers, switchgear, insulators, etc.
 The cost increases rapidly at voltages of more than 230kV => for higher power , check whether
the required power can be transmitted using lower voltages, e.g. using capacitors to boost the
voltage instead of using higher voltages.
 Consideration of the existing & the future voltage of other lines in the vicinity (Planning
strategy long term; >=15-25years)
 Required for possible future interconnections
 Possible developments in the location should also be considered in justifying the choice of
voltage.
 Choice of V is also linked to the conductor size, performance of the line within the
permissible losses and the regulation when transmitting the required power
 The power to be transmitted and the distance over which it is to be transmitted together affect
the voltage requirement.

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1.1. Voltage selection: Line loading

 Table 1.2: As a preliminary guide; the following is sometimes used [1]

VLL (kV) Line Loading KW/km
11 24*103
33 200*103
66 600*103
110 11*106
132 20*106
166 35*106
230 90*106

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1.1. Voltage: Max/Min line Length

 Table 1.3 As a preliminary guide; the following is sometimes used [1]

VLL Length of line (km)
(kV) Minimum Maximum
66 40 120
110 50 140
132 50 160
166 80 180
230 100 300

[1] D. Bhattacharjee, P. Chakraborty, Design of Transmission Lines and Tower Structure at Different High Voltages
to Transmit Power with Minimum Losses, IJSR 6(8) 2017
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1.1 Voltage selection: Best approach

 The best method to decide the voltage for transmission system.

 Study the initial and operating costs corresponding to the various voltages under
consideration
 Consider 2 or 3 possible voltages & conductor sizes to obtain the required characteristics of
the line within the given limitations.

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1.2 Choice of conductors: Types of conductors

AAC: All Aluminium conductors

AAAC: All-Aluminium Alloy

Conductors

ACSR: Aluminium Conductor, Steel-

Reinforced

ACAR: Aluminium Conductor, Alloy-

Reinforced.

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1.2 Choice of Conductors…

 Most commonly used conductors.

 Hard drawn copper; (short lines with low voltages of up to 33kV)
 ACSR: For high voltages and the increase in span & weight of conductors
 Size of conductor depends on
 Length of the line, load on the line, and the line voltage
 For a given loss of energy expressed as a percentage of the energy to be transmitted, the csa of
the conductor & its weight varies inversely as the square of the voltage of the line.
(A, Wg)𝛼 −1 𝑉 2
 The power loss is 3I2R p.u length. I depends on V & p.f of the load supplied. As V↑, conductor csa↓
up to a certain extent ⟹ use of higher voltages reduces the loss. For 𝑉 ≫ 166𝑘𝑉, other losses
should be considered, e.g. leakage over insulators & corona.
 The value of 𝐼𝑐𝑔 ↑ for the HVs & this affect the line current.
 The cost of the conductors depends on their weight.
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1.2 Choice of Conductors…

 The size of the conductors is selected by the permissible current-carrying capacity of the
conductors and the losses during the year, i.e., 3I2R*8760kWh and the cost of losses under
expected operating conditions
 In case of transmission of power through cables, Kelvin’s law holds for economic selection of
the conductor size. This law states that the most economical size of the conductor will be when
the sum of the annual charge due to energy loss is minimum.
 Kelvin’s law does not hold for HV lines: I2R are not the only losses , (leakage over insulators &
corona)
 In addition to economic consideration, 𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 & permissible temperature limitations decide the
choice of conductors.

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Standard conductors used for transmission

 Table 1:4 Standard Conductors used for transmission lines, BS 125:1970: gives the
approximate dimensions, weights, resistances and the breaking strength of standard
stranded hard drawn copper conductors.
Standard No. of strands Approx. Weight per Approx. R/km Approx.
Nominal Area and wire Overall km at 200C Breaking
(cm2) diameter Diameter (kg) (Ω) Load
(cm) (cm)

0.161 3/0.264 0.569 147.5 1.0870 689.5

0.322 3/0.374 0.805 294.5 0.5440 1324.5
0.374 7/0.264 0.795 344.0 0.4660 1605.7
0.484 7/0.295 0.889 428.0 0.3745 1973.1
0.645 7/0.345 1.036 590.0 0.2725 2662.6
0.968 7/0.422 1.265 877.0 0.1825 3869.1
1.290 19/0.295 1.473 11.68 0.1385 5261.7
EEB464 2020/21(2) 1.613
D. Setlhaolo 19/0.327 1.664 1490.0 0.1085 6622.4 3/2/2021
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Standard conductors used for transmission

 Table 1.5: Standard Conductors used for transmission lines, BS 215, 1970:
Specifications of steel cored aluminium conductors.
Nominal Copper No. of strands and No. of strands and Approx. Calculated Approx. Total Approx.
Area (cm2) wire diameter (cm) wire diameter (cm) Overall Dia. R/km at weight per km Breaking Load
Aluminum Steel (cm) 200C (Ω) (kg)

0.161 6/0.236 1/0.236 0.708 1.0891 106.2 689.5

0.322 6/0.335 1/0.335 1.005 0.5400 214.0 1324.5
0.387 6/0.365 1/0.365 1.097 0.4550 255.0 1605.7
0.484 6/0.409 1/0.409 1.227 0.3640 318.0 1973.1
0.645 6/0.472 1/0.157 1.417 0.2720 395.0 2662.6
0.645 7/0.439 7/0.193 1.458 0.2700 451.0 3869.1
0.805 30/0.236 7/0.236 1.654 0.2200 605.0 5261.7
0.968 30/0.259 7/0.259 1.814 0.1832 728.8 6622.4
1.125 39/0.279 7/0.279 1.956 0.1572 847.0 7953.0
1.290 30/0.299 7/0.299 2.023 0.1370 975.0 9098.0
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1.613 30/0.335 7/0.335 2.347 0.1091 1218.0 11306.00
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Standard conductors used for transmission…

 Table 1.6: Safe current carrying capacity of copper conductors

Copper equivalent csa Safe current carrying Safe current carrying

cm2 capacity (A) capacity (A)
Copper ACSR

0.1935 82 100

0.2580 102 127

0.3225 118 148

0.3870 135 170

0.4515 153 190

0.5160 170 210

0.5805 185 230

0.6450 200 255

0.9675 275 350

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1.2900 340 425
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1.2. Conductors: Spacing

 The spacing of conductors depends V & spans used.

 Conductors should not touch each other at sag conditions, under different loadings, due to wind
pressure, ice/dust/salt
 Should also give reliability of performance against lightning surges
 L & XL depend on the spacing and should suit the requirement needed.
 Economic factors should also be considered
 The spacing arrangement may be horizontal or vertical or equivalent triangular as may suit the
circumstances (Ref Lines).

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1.2. Conductors: Spacing…

Table: Conductor equivalent spacing against VLL. For high voltage lines, above 230kV, bundled conductors may be considered
as an alternative to a single solid conductor for each phase.
2, 3 or 4 sub-conductors belonging to the same phase may be used & separation between sub-conductors may be adjusted as
required by reactance and corona consideration. (Table 1.7)

VLL (kV) Equivalent Spacing (m)

11 1

33 1.3

66 2.6

110 5

132 6

166 8

230 10.2

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1.3 Corona consideration

 The HV @ which Tx. lines operate, produce

electric field strength of sufficient intensity to
ionise the air near the conductors. This is
detectable;
 audibly as a buzzing hissing sound and

 mhn
 visually as a faint bluish aura
surrounding the conductors.

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1.3 Corona…

 3 undesirable features of Corona;

 Audible noise

 .
Loss of energy. This affects the transmission η (PL= 2kW/km for 500V)
 The I drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal , hence non-sinusoidal Vdrop occurs in the line.
 EM interference with neighbouring Communication lines.

 The min potential gradient, g, required between the conductors to begin ionisation: disruptive critical voltage for
corona formation (Vdcv).
 When 𝑉𝐿𝐿 ≫ 𝑉𝑑𝑐𝑣 , the corona occurs but there is no visual glow.
 Visual glow occurs at a higher voltage: Visual Critical Voltage (Vvcv)
 The potential gradient g at which a dielectric disrupts completely: disruptive strength or dielectric strength of the
material. For air ≈30kV max/cm and 76cm pressure at 250C temp.

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1.3 Corona..

 The density of air at b cm (Hg) and t0C is given by

3.92𝑏
𝜀=
273 + 𝑡
 At any condition of air having density 𝜀, total potential gradient g at which the disruption of material occurs
would be 𝒈𝜺
 In case of parallel conductors, the potential gradient is given by;
𝐸
𝑔=
𝑑
𝑟 ln
𝑟
d: distance between conductors in cm; r: conductor radius in cm
 The disruptive critical voltage,
𝑑
𝑉𝑑𝑐𝑣 = 21.1𝑚𝑟𝜀 ln , 𝑘𝑉 𝑟𝑚𝑠, phase
𝑟
m:surface factor, for polished m=1, rough surface 0.92 ≤ 𝑚 ≤ 0.94; Stranded 𝑚 ≅ 0.82
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1.3 Corona…

 Visual critical voltage is given by;

0.3 𝑑
𝑉𝑣𝑐𝑣 = 21.1𝑚0𝜀𝑟 1 + 𝜀𝑟
𝑙𝑛 𝑟 , kV rms phase (1.4)

where 𝑚0 = 𝑚, surface factors for a particular conductor.

Critical Voltage and Type of Conductors

 Multiple conductors or bundled conductors having n conductors arranged uniformly, around the circumference of a circle
have higher Vcvc than a single conductor of the same cross section. This is because the max surface field for a multiple
conductor is less, and also the critical voltage is lower for a conductor of larger diameter. It is therefore possible to use
higher voltages without the effect of corona when a multiple conductor system is used than when solid single conductors
are used. For a 2-conductor bundle, the max gradient at the surface of a sub-conductor is given by;
2𝑟
𝐸 1+ 𝑆
𝑔=
𝐷
2𝑟 ln
𝑟𝑆
S, separation between the conductors in cm
 The performance of a 2-conductor bundle is indicated more accurately by the mean between the average and the max
gradient at the surface of the sub-conductor and this is given by;
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1.3 Corona…
𝑟
𝐸(1 + )
𝑔= 𝑆
𝐷
2 𝑟 ln
𝑟𝑆
 For obtaining the disruptive voltage, g is given by;
0.301
𝑔 = 21.1(1 + ) kV per cm (rms)
𝑟

 The disruptive voltage can be found out by substituting this value in the expression for the voltage.
 From (1.4) Vcvc rises to max then falls with↑ in the diameter of the conductors. The diameter for max
Vcvc is prohibitive for a solid conductor due to weight.
 Hence various types of hollow conductors are used that increases Vcvc without increasing the weight
of the conductors.
 E.g. If a solid conductor has a diameter of 1.25cm and the spacing between the conductors is 5.5cm,
Vvcv=124kV l-N for a solid conductor while for the same equivalent size is 22kV for hollow
conductors. When multiple conductors are used Vvcv for a conductor of equal size would be 140, 158,
173 1and 240kvL_N for 2, 3, 4 and 9 sub-conductors respectively.

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1.3.1 Corona Losses

 Corona power losses. Under fair weather experimental derived corona loss is given by;
244 𝑟
𝑃𝑐 = (𝑓 + 25) 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑑𝑐𝑣 2 ∗ 10−5 𝑘𝑊 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚
𝜀 𝐷
E: kV to neutral (rms); f: frequency, Hz; r: radius of the conductor in cm; D: spacing between
the conductors in cm; 𝜀:air density factor; Edcv: disruptive voltage in kV (rms).
 Under stormy conditions corona loss is obtained by taking Edcv as 0.8 times its value
under fair conditions. The limitations of the formula are;
 The frequency range should be 25-120Hz
 The conductor radius must be greater than 0.25m
 The ratio E/Edcv must be greater than 1.8
 The formula is only applicable to fair weather conditions.
 When the ratio E/Edcv is less than 1.8, other formulas may be used e.g Peterson’s formula
solution
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1.3.1 Corona Losses

21∗10−6 ∗𝑓∗𝐸 2
 𝑃𝐶 = 𝐷 ∗ 𝐹 𝑘𝑊 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
(log )2
𝑟

where F is the factor that varies with the ratio E/Edcv. It is approximated as follows
Table 1:8

E/Evd 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
F 0.012 0.018 0.05 0.08 0.3 1.0 3.5 6.0 8.0

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Design of transmission lines (Corona)
 The current in corona discharge has several high frequency harmonics that interfere with a wide range of
radio frequencies. The radio interference is higher for smooth and large diameter conductors.
 In designing an HV line, the magnitude of the radio interference as well as its effect on various
communication services, e.g amplitude-modulated broadcasting, power line carrier, aviation & marine signals
etc should be considered.
 If the disruptive voltage is kept at about 10% higher than the VLL, corona loss will not be considerable even
under stormy conditions. This requires larger conductor spacing and heavier pylons than when the disruptive
voltage is less than the operating voltage of the line
 The stranded conductors, multiple conductors and/or hollow conductors make it possible to use high
transmission voltages without any significant corona loss.
 If the corona loss is allowed on the line by designing it to have a disruptive critical voltage less than VLL, the
cost of construction of the line is less.
 In designing the lines, conductors should be selected from the standpoint of permissible corona loss in
addition to other considerations like required operating characteristics and economy.
 In general, the corona per km should be limited 0.6kW under fair weather conditions . Bundled conductors
are used for HV lines above 220kV.
 Bundled conductors are the best solution for reducing corona loss in transmission of power over the HV line.

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1.4 Insulators

 Insulators are designed and manufactured for a certain voltage range. The max
voltage per insulator is 35kV. Types of insulators;
 Pin type
 Suspension type
 Strain type

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1.4.1 Types of Insulators: Pin type

 Pin type

 Are made in one piece up to 25kV

 Conductor passes at the top of insulator and is attached to the insulator by the annealed wire of
the same material as the conductor.
 Pin types are usually used for voltages up to 50kV
 Not to be used beyond 50kV, the cost increases faster than the voltage.

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1.4.1 Types of insulators: Suspension
type

 In addition to being economical for voltages over 33kV,

higher voltages a string of insulators can be used.
 Each insulator is designed for 11kV and hence for any
operating voltage, e.g 132kV, the required insulators is
12 (max)
 In case of failure of one of the units in the string, only
that one is replaced rather than the whole string
 Since the conductor and the string swing together, the
mechanical stresses at the point of attachment are
reduced as compared with pin type.

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1.4.1 Types of insulators: Strain/tension

 Identical in shape with suspension

 The strings are placed in horizontal plane rather than
vertical plane as in suspension type
 Takes care of tension of the conductor at the
terminals, at angle towers, at road crossings and at
junction of OHL. For ≤11kV, shackle insulators are
used
 But for higher voltages a string of insulators is used.
 Whenever the tension in the conductor is very high
like at long river crossing, sometimes 2 or 3 strings of
insulators in parallel are used

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1.4.2 Voltage Distribution in insulators:
Suspension

 When ac voltage is applied across insulator rin

 Capacitances: between the units and (ii) each unit and earth
 Capacitance between units C, ≈ 6 − 10 𝐶𝑒 Capacitance to earth.
 Max V occurs on the insulator next to the conductor. This decides the limit of working
voltage of the line for the no. of insulators in the string.
 Max V on any unit in the string should not exceed the value used while designing and
the no. of units used is increased depending on the line voltage.
 If the flashover voltage of the line is E Vpk, the max or peak voltage across a string is
e, and the no. of insulators in the string is n. The string efficiency is;

𝐸
%𝜂𝑠 = ∗ 100
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1.4.3 Number of Insulators: Suspension

 No. of insulators is decided by; VLL No. of insulator used

 Voltage range & voltage distribution on the (kV)
string
66 5
 Insulator unit is designed and built to stand 110 8
a given voltage.
132 10
 Above 33kV, Tx lines uses suspension type.
166 12
 The guide for a number of insulators is
shown in table (this may vary depending on 230 16
location & the design voltage of the insulator
unit.

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Specification of Transmission Lines-Summary

 Basic design data: transmitted power, distance

 3-phase, Hz, kW, p.f. at the receiving end, distance in km, voltage in kV, permissible voltage drop across full
load as a percentage of VR, permissible losses, corona loss limitation per km, efficiency of transmission, the
temperature variation to which the line would be subjected , permissible clearance over the ground, wind
pressure and ice loading, if any, whether a line is to be designed for heavy, medium or light loading from
mechanical design point of view.
 Then after the above design the following data would be available for construction;
 Types & size of conductors, spacing, types of poles or towers, span, number of insulators per string, size of
the earth/ground wire,, location of the earth wire on towers, permissible tension in stringing the
conductors, sags for different spans with poles at equal or unequal height, earthing resistance, etc.
 Then the performance of the line
 Reactance, capacitance, etc, ABCD parameters, power circle diagrams comparing conditions at receiving and
sending end. Quick predictor is through the use of power circle diagrams: Ps, PR, VR, PL, p.f.
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1.5 Surge Impedance Loading of Lines

 SI: a function of lines C& L

𝐿
𝑆𝐼 =
𝐶
 Is independent of the line length ≈ 400
 Depends on conductor type, stranded or solid and copper or ACSR

 SIL gives idea on the permissible loading of the line.

 SIL loading: is the load that can be delivered by the line having no resistance, i.e. at unit p.f.
 Under this case 𝐼 2𝑋 =charging line KVA
(𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑘𝑉)2 (𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑘𝑉)2
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) of the Line= = 𝑀𝑊
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 400
The avg value of series reactance at 50Hz is 0.4Ω/km, shunt –capacitive reactance 0.1MΩ/km,

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1.5 Surge Impedance Loading of Lines

 Approx charging kVA for a 100km line is 2.5% of the surge impedance loading of the
line (66-230kV)
 Surge impedance loading is not necessarily the maximum loading on the line.
 To find the permissible loading on the line: Stability studies in details.
 SIL can be used for comparison of load that can be carried on lines at different
voltages.
 R=0, Vs=Vr, but not so in practice, hence SIL cant represent max loading on line.

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Electrical Design of Transmission Line:
Example
 Design a transmission line to transmit a 3phase, 85MW at a lagging p.f of 0.9 over 160km. The regulation of the line
should be within 12.5% of VR, efficiency 95% and corona loss not to exceed 0.6kW/km.
a) Choose voltage, size of conductor and spacing between conductors.
b) Calculate line constants and find the regulation
c) Find efficiency on full load
d) Predict corona loss per km and the total corona loss
e) Find the charging current of the load on no load
f) Choose the number of insulator units . Find the voltage distribution on insulator units . Determine the string
efficiency.
g) Draw the receiving end and sending end power circle diagrams. Determine the performance of the line on full load
and at a load of 40MW
h) Draw the loss line and predict the losses at full load and 40MW load
i) Find the maximum load that can be transmitted on the line (i) from the circle diagrams (ii) Surge impedance loading
j) Find the synchronous compensator capacitor required on the line at the receiving end to improve the power factor of
the line to 0.93 lag.

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Electrical Design of Transmission Line:
Solution
VLL Equivalent
(kV) Spacing (m)
 Loading on the line=85000kW*160km=13.6x106 kW km. 11 1
 From Table 1.2 the voltage required for this loading is 132kV and above. 33 1.3

 From table 1.3 as the length of the line is 160km, the voltage would be 132kV and above 66 2.6

 ⟹Choose voltage from 132kV, 166kV or even 230kV to obtain the required 110 5
performance. 132 6
85000
 For 132kV, 𝐼𝑅 = = 414∠ −25.830 𝐴 166 8
3∗132∗0.90
230 10.2
 From the relationship “relation between the equivalent spacing of the conductors
against VLL” or Table 1.7.
Refer Fig 1.3
The equivalent spacing of the conductors for 132kV is 𝐷𝑚 = 6𝑚

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Electrical Design of Transmission Line:
Solution
 HV ⟶ACSR will be used.
 From Fig below the conductor of nominal copper equivalent of 1.6125cm2 area gives
a current carrying capacity of 505A which is enough for the line under consideration.
Refer Fig 1.2
The nearest ACSR conductor chosen from Table 1.5 is 30/0.335 Aluminium and 7/0.335
steel.
 The overall diameter is 2.347cm.
 Total number of strands is 37 and nominal copper equivalent area of 1.613cm2
 Resistance of the line per km at 200C=0.1091Ω
 Resistance for 160km line per phase=17.456Ω

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Solution…
132𝑘𝑉
 𝑉𝑅/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 76.4∠00 𝑘𝑉, reference voltage. Strands GMR
3
Solid round conductor 0.779R
 The equivalent spacing is 𝐷𝑚 = 6𝑚
Full stranding
 Self GMD for 37 stranded wire =0.768 R (Refer Table)
7- strands 0.726R
 Outer radius R=2.347/2 cm= 1.1735cm
19- strands 0.759R
 Self GMD 𝐷𝑠 = 0.768 ∗ 1.1735 = 0.9cm 37- stands 0.768R
𝐷𝑚
 Inductance per phase per metre=2 ∗ 10−7 ∗ ln =2 ∗ 10−7 ∗ 61- strands 0.772R
𝐷𝑠
600
160 ∗ ln = 0.208𝐻 91- strands 0.774R
0.9
127- strands 0.776R
 Reactance per phase, 𝑋 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 314 ∗ 0.208 = 65.4Ω
Hollow stranded conductors and ACSR (
 Impedance per phase, 𝑍 = 17.456 + 𝑗65.4 = 67.8∠750 neglecting steel strands)
 The outer radius of the conductor, R=1.1735cm 30- strands (two-layers) 0.826R
160∗1000 26- strands (two-layers) 0.809R
 The per phase capacitance for 160km; 𝐶𝑁 = =
−6 18∗109∗2.3∗2.70084
1.425 ∗ 10 𝐹 54- strands (three-layers) 0.810R
 Y per phase = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑁 = 314 ∗ 1.425 ∗ 10−6 = 0.000448∠900 𝑆 Table: Self GMD or GMR of stranded conductors (R
is the outside radius of the stranded conductors)
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Solution…

 To choose the final voltage and conductor size, calculate the %VR and check whether
it would be within allowable limits. To find VR, find ABCD
𝑍𝑌
 𝐴= 𝐷 =1+ = 1 − 0.0147 + 𝑗0.003935 = 0.9853 + 𝑗0.003935 = 0.9853∠0.220
2
𝑍𝑌 𝑍2𝑌 2 𝑍𝑌 𝑍2𝑌 2
 𝐵 =𝑍 1+ + +⋯ = 1+ + = 1 − 0.0049 + j0.001312 +
6 120 6 120
0.00000665 − j0.00000383 = 0.9951 + j0.001308 = 0.9951∠0.080
 Therefore; 𝐵 = 67.8∠750 ∗ 0.9951∠0.080 = 67.5∠75.080
𝑍𝑌
 𝐶 = 𝑌 1+ + ⋯ = 0.000448∠900 1 − 0.0049 + 𝑗0.001312 =
6
0.000445∠90.080
 𝑉𝑟 per phase = 76.4∠00 𝑘𝑉; 𝐼𝑟 = 414∠ −25.830 𝐴

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Solution…

 To find out Vs and VR from ABCD constants

 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 = 0.9853∠0.220 ∗ 76400∠00 + VLL(kV) Current Spacing Equivale Current Percenta
(A) (m) nt Cu Carrying ge
67.5∠75.080 ∗ 414∠−25.830 = 93850 + 𝑗21936 = section Capacity regulati
96200∠13.20 𝑉 cm2 (A) on

 The per phase voltages are 𝑉𝑅 = 76400𝑉; 𝑉𝑆 = 132 414 6 1.6125 505 25.9
96200𝑉
𝑉𝑆 −𝑉𝑅 96200−76400
 The 𝑉𝑅 = ∗ 100 = ∗ 100 = 25.9%
𝑉𝑅 76400

 This is higher than the permissible VR, hence we

have to go for a higher voltage.
 Summarising the results of 132kV

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Solution…

 For the VLL=166kV, and the conductor of the same size

166𝑘𝑉
 𝑉𝑅/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 95.5∠00 𝑘𝑉,
3
 The equivalent spacing is 𝐷𝑚 = 8𝑚
85000
 𝐼𝑅 = = 329∠ −25.830 𝐴
3∗166∗0.90
 Self GMD 𝐷𝑠 = 0.9cm because the conductor size is the same
800
 L per phase for 160km L=2 ∗ 10−7 ∗ 160 ∗ ln = 0.217𝐻
0.9
 Reactance per phase, 𝑋 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 314 ∗ 0.217 = 68.3Ω
 Impedance per phase, 𝑍 = 17.456 + 𝑗68.3 = 70.5∠75.70
 The outer radius of the conductor, R=1.1735cm
1 160∗1000
 The per phase capacitance for 160km; 𝐶𝑁 = 𝐹/𝑚 = = 1.365 ∗ 10−6 𝐹
18∗2.3∗109 ∗log 682 18∗109 ∗2.3∗2.8338
 Y per phase = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑁 = 314 ∗ 1.365 ∗ 10−6 = 0.000429∠900 𝑆

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Solution…

 To choose the final voltage and conductor size, calculate the voltage regulation and
check whether it would be within allowable limits. To find VR, find ABCD
𝑍𝑌
 𝐴= 𝐷 =1+ = 1 − 0.01465 + 𝑗0.003725 = 0.98535 + 𝑗0.003725 = 0.9854∠0.20
2
𝑍𝑌 𝑍2𝑌 2 𝑍𝑌 𝑍2𝑌 2
 𝐵 =𝑍 1+ + +⋯ = 1+ + = 1 − 0.00488 + j0.00124 +
6 120 6 120
0.0000067 − j0.0000036 = 0.9951 + j0.00124 = 0.9951∠0.060
 Therefore; 𝐵 = 70.5∠75.70 ∗ 0.9951∠0.060 = 70∠75.760
 𝐶 = 0.000445∠90.080
 𝑉𝑟 per phase = 95500∠00 𝑘𝑉; 𝐼𝑟 = 329∠ −25.830 𝐴

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Solution…

 To find out Vs and VR from ABCD constants

VLL(kV) Current Spacing Equivale Current Percenta
 0
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 = 0.9854∠0.2 ∗ 95500∠0 + 0 (A) (m) nt Cu Carrying ge
section Capacity regulati
70∠75.760 ∗ 329∠−25.830 = 108850 + 𝑗17979 = cm2 (A) on
109 300∠ −9.40 𝑉 166 329 8 1.6125 505 14.5
 The per phase voltages are 𝑉𝑅 = 95500𝑉; 𝑉𝑆 =
109300𝑉
𝑉𝑆 −𝑉𝑅 109300−95500
 The 𝑉𝑅 = ∗ 100 = ∗ 100 = 14.5%
𝑉𝑅 95500

 This is higher than the permissible VR, hence we have

to go for a higher voltage.
 Summarising the results of 166kV

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Solution…

 For the VLL=230kV, and a smaller conductor

166𝑘𝑉
 𝑉𝑅/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 95.5∠00 𝑘𝑉, and taken as the reference voltage
3

 Choosing a conductor of equivalent Cu section is 0.805cm2; diameter 1.654cm, outer

radius R=0.827cm, ACSR conductor 30/0.236, 7/0.236.
 Current carrying capacity=300A
 ….

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Solution…

 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 = 147000∠50 𝑉

𝑉𝑆 −𝑉𝑅
 The 𝑉𝑅 = ∗ 100 = 10.5%
𝑉𝑅

 VR and VLL of 230kV are within the 12.5%

 Next step; Find corona loss and find if its within limits

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Solution…

 With conductor radius 0.827cm and spacing 10.2m, The disruptive critical voltage,
𝑑
𝑉𝑑𝑐𝑣 = 21.1𝑚𝑟𝜀 ln , 𝑘𝑉 𝑟𝑚𝑠, phase
𝑟
m:surface factor, for polished m=1, rough surface 0.92 ≤ 𝑚 ≤ 0.94; Stranded 𝑚 ≅ 0.82
1020
𝑉𝑑𝑐𝑣 = 21.1 ∗ 0.82 ∗ 0.827 ∗ 2.3 ∗ ln = 101.5𝑘𝑉,
0.827
𝐸 133
The ratio = = 1.31;this ratio is less than 1.8, from Table 1.8, for this value the constant F=0.2, by
𝐸𝑑 101.5
Peterson’s formula, the corona loss is given by;

21 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝐸 2
𝑃𝐶 = ∗ 𝐹 𝑘𝑊 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐷 2
(log )
𝑟

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Solution…

𝐸 133
The ratio = = 1.31;this ratio is less than 1.8, from Table 1.8, for this value the constant F=0.2, by
𝐸𝑑 101.5
Peterson’s formula, the corona loss is given by;
21 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝐸 2
𝑃𝐶 = 𝐹 𝑘𝑊 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐷 2
(log )
𝑟

21 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 50 ∗ 1332
𝑃𝐶 = ∗ 0.2 ∗ 3 = 1.65𝑘𝑊 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚
(3.0906)2
This line therefore gives a corona loss more than the permissible loss of 0.6kW per km. The conductor is
therefore not suitable and a bigger conductor should be tried to ensure that the corona loss is within the
prescribed limit.
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Solution…

 Summarising the obtained results for 230kV

VLL Current (A) Spacing Equivalent Cu Current Carrying Percentage Corona loss (kW/km)
(kV) (m) section cm2 Capacity (A) regulation
230 237 10.2 0.805 300 10.2 1.165

 NB: Voltage is suitable but the size of the conductor should be larger to reduce corona…
 We choose a 37 stranded conductor of strand diameter 0.259cm. The overall diameter is
1.814cm (r=0.907)cm)
 Line voltage is 230kV
 First check corona loss and then work out the regulation again, though it would be true that the
regulation would be within the limit for for a larger conductor but same line voltage.
1020
The disruptive voltage: 𝑉𝑑𝑐𝑣 = 21.1 ∗ 0.82 ∗ 0.907 ∗ 2.3 ∗ ln = 110𝑘𝑉,
0.907
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Solution…

 Rms phase voltage 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 133𝑘𝑉

𝐸 133
 The ratio = = 1.21; this ratio is less than 1.8, from table in section 3.5.1, for this value the
𝐸𝑑 1011.
21∗10−6 ∗𝑓∗𝐸 2
constant F=0.08, by Peterson’s formula, the corona loss is given by; 𝑃𝐶 = 𝐷 ∗
(log )2
𝑟
𝐹 𝑘𝑊 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
21 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 50 ∗ 1332
𝑃𝐶 = ∗ 0.08 ∗ 3 = 0.48𝑘𝑊 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚
(3.0512)2
 This is within permissible limit of 0.6kW/km of the three phase line. This conductor size is suitable
and hence we choose it.
 230kV line voltage, ACSR conductor of diameter 1.814cm, 30/0.259 aluminium conductor strands,
7/0.259 steel strands and equivalent copper section of 0.968cm2.
 Resistance of the conductor per km=0.1832Ω, Total R @160km=29.4 Ω
 Current carrying capacity 350A
 VR per phase=133kV
 𝐼𝑅 = 237∠ −25.830 A

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Solution…

 𝐷𝑚 = 10.2𝑚, 𝐷𝑠 = 0.768 ∗ 𝑅 = 0.768 ∗ 0.907 = 0.695𝑐𝑚

1020
 Reactance per phase: 𝑋 = 314 ∗ 2 ∗ 10−7 ∗ 160 ∗ 103 2.3 𝑙𝑛 0.695 = 73.2Ω
 Z per phase= 29.4 + 𝑗73.2 = 79∠68.10 Ω
𝐷𝑚

𝑟
= 1125; log 1125 = 3.0512

160∗10−6 160∗10−6 0
 𝑌 = 314 ∗ 𝐷𝑚 = 314 ∗ 18∗2.3∗3.0512 = 0.000398∠90 𝑆
18∗2.3∗𝑙𝑛
𝑟

 𝑍𝑌 = 79∠68.10 ∗ 0.000398∠900 = 0.0315∠158.10

 ……
 𝐴 = 𝐷 = 78.5∠68.220 ; 𝐶 = 0.000396∠90.120
 𝑉𝑠 = 145300∠5.230 𝑉
 % Regulation=9.26%
 %VR is within permissible limit. Therefore the size of the conductor and the voltage are suitable for the line.

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Solution…

 Summarising the results of the considered alternatives

VLL Current Spacing Equivalent Current Percentage Corona loss

(kV) (A) (m) Cu section Carrying regulation (kW/km)
cm2 Capacity (A)
132 414 6 1.6125 505 25.9 -
166 329 8 1.6125 505 14.5 -
230 237 10.2 0.805 300 10.5 1.165
230 237 10.2 0.968 350 9.26 0.48

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Solution…

 The final choice of conductor & voltage are made.

 Then find the efficiency
 Recall:
 𝑉𝑟 = 133∠00 𝑘𝑉; 𝑉𝑠 = 145300∠5.230 𝑉; 𝐼𝑅 = 237∠ −25.830A;
 Corona loss=76.8kW
 Z per phase= 29.4 + 𝑗73.2 = 79∠68.10 Ω; 𝑌 = 0.000398∠900 𝑆; 𝐴 = 𝐷 = 78.5∠68.220 ; 𝐶 =
0.000398∠90.120
 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐶𝑉𝑟 + 𝐷𝐼𝑟 = 215∠ −12.730 𝐴; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑠 = cos(5.230 + 12.73) = 0.952 𝑙𝑎𝑔.
 Sending end power: 𝑃𝑠 = 3𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑠 = 3 ∗ 145.3 ∗ 215.5 ∗ 0.952 = 89500𝑊
85000
 Transmission line efficiency= ∗ 100 = 95% (𝑤ℎ𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 3𝐼2𝑅? )
85000+76.8
 The charging current per phase= 𝑉𝑌 = 133000 ∗ 0.000398 = 53𝐴
 Charging KVA per phase= 133 ∗ 53 = 7050𝐾𝑉𝐴;per 100km=4400kVA
 The SIL of the line per phase 2.5 ∗ 1332 = 44200𝑘𝑊
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Solution…

 12.5% of the SIL of the line is 5525kVA/phase

 Thus the charging kVA of the line per phase for 100km is less than 12.5% of SIL of the line per phase.
(This is as per the general requirement of lines in practise)
 We use 16 insulators in suspension string, each insulator being of 25cm disc diameter. If the
capacitance between the insulator and earth is 0.125 times the capacitance between the units., 𝐶𝑒 =
0.125𝐶 and then the voltage 𝑒1 ,across insulator nearest the conductor is given by
1 1
sinh( )cosh( 0.125(16 − )
2 0.125 2
𝑒1 = 𝐸
sinh(16 0.125)
𝑒
Where E is the max conductor to earth voltage. From this, the ratio 1 and the string efficiency can be
𝐸
found;
𝑒1 2 sinh 0.5 ∗ 0.354 cosh(0.354 ∗ 15.5) 2 sinh 0.177 cosh(5.49) 2 ∗ 0.178 ∗ 121
= = = = 0.3 = 30%
𝐸 sinh(16 ∗ 0.354) sinh(5.66) 143.5
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Solution…

𝐸 1
 And string efficiency = = = 20.8%
𝑛𝑒1 16∗0.30

 This must be increased

 Can be done by shielding and grading the suspension type insulators. The V-distribution in the
strings can be improved by increasing the value K where 𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶𝑒 .
 If K=16, 𝐶𝑒 = 0.0625𝐶.
 Capacitive grading: is used to make the voltage across the unit nearest to the conductor as low as
possible, because the unit has the max voltage distribution across it.
 Earth capacitance can be practically eliminated by means of an antenna shield from the line
conductor. Therefore
1
𝑒1 2 sinh 0.5∗ 0.0625 cosh( 0.0625(16− )) 2 sinh 0.5∗0.25 cosh(0.25∗15.5)
2
 = = = 20%
𝐸 sinh(16∗ 0.0625) sinh(16∗0.25)
𝐸 1
 And string η = = = 31.5%
𝑛𝑒1 16∗0.20
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Solution…

 If each insulator can stand 40kV, the string of 16 insulators can stand 40kv*100/0.2=200kV. Line
𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 3 ∗ 200𝑘𝑉 = 346𝑘𝑉max, while the VLL in this case = 2 ∗ 230𝑘𝑉 = 324𝑘𝑉max. The
number of insulators chosen would therefore be suitable.
 For the receiving end power circle diagram, the coordinates of the centre of the diagram are;
𝑎
−0.003𝑉𝑅2 cos 𝜃𝑏 − 𝜃𝑎 𝑘𝑊
𝑏
2
0.9855 ∗ 106 0 − 0.340 = −250.5𝑀𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑
= −0.003 ∗ 133 ∗ cos 68.22
78.5 ∗ 103

𝑎 0.9855 ∗ 10 6
−0.003𝑉𝑅2 sine 𝜃𝑏 − 𝜃𝑎 𝑘𝑣𝑎𝑟 = −0.003 ∗ 1332 ∗ 3 sin 68.220 − 0.340 = −617𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑏 78.5 ∗ 10
And the radius of the receiving end power circle diagram is

𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑅 0.003 ∗ 133 ∗ 145.3 ∗ 106

= 0.003 ∗ 𝑘𝑉𝐴 = = 740𝑀𝑉𝐴
EEB464 2020/21(2) D. Setlhaolo 𝑏 78.5 ∗ 103 3/2/2021
 57
Solution…

(250.5𝑀𝑊;
−617𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟;
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 740𝑀𝑉𝐴)
Fig 1: Receiving end
power circle
diagram

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Solution…
The coordinates of the centre of the sending end power circle diagram
𝑑
0.003𝑉𝑠2 cos 𝜃𝑏 − 𝜃𝑑 𝑘𝑊
𝑏
2
0.9855 ∗ 106
= −0.003 ∗ 145.3 ∗ 3
cos 68.220 − 0.340 = 300𝑀𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑
78.5 ∗ 10

𝑑
0.003𝑉𝑠2 sine 𝜃𝑏 − 𝜃𝑑 𝑘𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑏
2
0.9855 ∗ 106
= −0.003 ∗ 145.3 ∗ 3
sin 68.220 − 0.340 = −735𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
78.5 ∗ 10
And the radius of the receiving end power circle diagram is
Fig 2: Sending
6
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑅 0.003 ∗ 133 ∗ 145.3 ∗ 10 end power circle
= 0.003 ∗ 𝑘𝑉𝐴 = = 740𝑀𝑉𝐴
𝑏 78.5 ∗ 103 diagram

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Solution…

 Lagging reactive kVA is taken as positive; At 𝑃1 , 𝑆1 = 89500 + 𝑗29100; At 𝑃2 , 𝑆2 = 41500 + 𝑗41500

The construction of the loss line is shown in Fig 1. Draw the line of 𝑂1 𝐷 of length

𝑑 𝑎
0.003𝑉𝑠2 𝑏 cos 𝜃𝑏 −𝜃𝑑 +0.003 𝑉𝑅2 𝑏cos(𝜃𝑏−𝜃𝑎 ) 300+250.5
𝑂1 𝐷 = = = 743𝑀𝑉𝐴
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑏 2 cos 68.220
The distance between the line (line perpendicular to 𝑂1 𝐷 ) and the points on the power circle diagram
represent the loss at those points of operation. The scale of the loss measurement is
2 cos 𝜃𝑏 𝑜𝑟 0.7422 times the scale of the power circle diagram.
The scale of the main diagram in 1 unit = 100MVA; Loss line scale in 1 unit =100*0.7422 = 74.22MVA

Point P1 on the diagram represents full-load condition at the receiving end, viz. load of 85000kW at a
power factor of 0.9 lagging. The perpendicular distance from P1 to the loss line represents the loss during
transmission. Measured on the loss scale, this is 4500kW
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Solution…

 The load condition when 40 000kW is supplied at the receiving end is represented by the point P2.
 At 𝑃2 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 = 54.50 = 0.58 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔
 Loss in transmission =1500kW
40000
 Transmission efficiency at 40MW load = ∗ 100=96%
40000+1500

 This is from the receiving end power circle diagram drawn for the receiving-end and the sending-
end voltage conditions as calculated in the design part.
 The points P1 and P2 are shown on the sending-end power circle diagram also in Fig 2.
 The conditions for the sending-end and receiving end operations are as follows
 At full-load point P1, apparent power at the receiving end; 𝑆𝑅 = 85000 + 𝑗41100

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Solution…

At sending end 𝑆𝑆 = 89500 + 𝑗29100 VA

Receiving p.f. =0.9 lag; Sending end p.f =0.952 lag
At a load of 40MW at the receiving end at point P2, 𝑆𝑅 = 40000 + 𝑗56000 and at
sending-end 𝑆𝑆 = 41500 + 𝑗41500
Receiving p.f. =0.58 lag; Sending end p.f =0.707 lag

 From the power circle diagram, the max theoretical load on the line is 489.5MW.
However, under this condition, the angle between the sending-end and the receiving
end voltages will be so large that stability will be lost. The losses will also be
excessive and the loading completely impractical.

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Solution…

 Another way to find maximum permissible loading is by finding out the surge impedance
of the line and then the loading.
𝐿 73.2
 𝑆𝐼 = ; recall 𝑧 = 29.4 + 𝑗73.2Ω; 𝑌 = 0.000398∠900 𝑆; 𝐿 = = 233 ∗ 10−3 𝐻; 𝐶 =
𝐶 314
0.000398
= 127 ∗ 10−8 F; hence SI = 428Ω
314
(𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑘𝑉)2 (230)2
 SIL = = = 123𝑀𝑊
𝑆𝐼 428
 When the receiving end load is 85MW at 0.9 pf lag, Q=41000var
 When the p.f is improved to 0.93 lag, 𝜙 = 21.50 , the reactive kVA would be 85000 ∗
tan 21.50 = 34000𝑘𝑣𝑎𝑟
 The reactive kVA that must be added at the receiving end by the installation of a
synchronous compensator would be given by the difference of the two reactive kVA at the
receiving., i.e. 41000-34000=7100kVA
 Therefore, the capacity of the compensator required at the receiving-end for improving
the p.f. is given by 7100kVA. This can also be represented on the power circle diagram.
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Exercises

 Design a transmission line to transmit a 3phase, 60MW at a lagging p.f of 0.85 over
140km. The regulation of the line should be within 10% of VR,
 Design a transmission line to transmit a 3phase, 10MW at a lagging p.f of 0.8 over
60km. The regulation of the line should be within 12.0% of VR.

EEB464 2020/21(2) D. Setlhaolo 3/2/2021