INSTA PT 2024 Exclusive Geography

INSTA PT 2024
EXCLUSIVE
GEOGRAPHY
MAY 2023 – JANUARY 2024
INSTA PT 2024 EXCLUSIVE (GEOGRAPHY)
NOTES
Table of Contents
Important Geophysical phenomena and geographical features ..................................... 4
1. LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY MAPPING ..................................................................................... 4
2. STRAIT.................................................................................................................................... 6
3. CYCLONE ................................................................................................................................ 6
4. THE FUJIWHARA EFFECT ......................................................................................................... 9
5. PACIFIC DECADAL OSCILLATION .............................................................................................. 9
6. MEDITERRANEAN STORM ..................................................................................................... 10
7. KATABATIC WINDS ............................................................................................................... 10
8. EL NIÑO, LA NINA AND ENSO ................................................................................................ 11
9. INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE ......................................................................................................... 12
10. IONOSPHERE .................................................................................................................... 13
11. PENINSULAR RIVER VS HIMALAYAN RIVERS ....................................................................... 13
12. IRIDESCENT CLOUDS ......................................................................................................... 14
13. EARTHQUAKE ................................................................................................................... 15
14. MOROCCO’S EARTHQUAKE ............................................................................................... 16
15. ZEALANDIA (WORLD’S EIGHTH CONTINENT) ..................................................................... 18
16. ALMORA FAULT ................................................................................................................ 20
17. PONTUS PLATE ................................................................................................................. 20
18. E PRIME LAYER ................................................................................................................. 20
19. UNDERWATER VOLCANO ERUPTION ................................................................................. 21
20. SEISMIC ACTIVITY IN ICELAND ........................................................................................... 22
21. POOR AIR QUALITY IN MUMBAI ........................................................................................ 22
22. GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD (GLOF) .......................................................................... 24
23. BARRAGE.......................................................................................................................... 25
24. FORMATION OF PINK DIAMOND ....................................................................................... 26
25. BLUE HOLE ....................................................................................................................... 26
26. SEAMOUNTS .................................................................................................................... 27
27. UREILITE ........................................................................................................................... 27
28. PALGHAT GAP .................................................................................................................. 28
29. MAHARASHTRA'S SAHYADRI PLATEAU .............................................................................. 28
30. NORTHERN LIGHTS IN INDIA ............................................................................................. 29
31. GULF STREAM .................................................................................................................. 29
Places in News ............................................................................................................ 31

PLACES IN INDIA........................................................................................................................... 31
1. LAKSHADWEEP ..................................................................................................................... 31
2. SELA ROAD TUNNEL ............................................................................................................. 31
3. KRISHNA-GODAVARI BASIN................................................................................................... 31
4. ARAVALI RANGE ................................................................................................................... 32
5. IMPHAL RIVER ...................................................................................................................... 32
6. CHAMBAL RIVER ................................................................................................................... 32
7. CAUVERY BASIN.................................................................................................................... 33
8. NARMADA RIVER .................................................................................................................. 33
9. SUBANSIRI LOWER HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT ....................................................................... 34
10. BANNI GRASSLAND ........................................................................................................... 34
11. VALPARAI PLATEAU .......................................................................................................... 34
12. ENNORE CREEK................................................................................................................. 35
13. CHAR DHAM HIGHWAY PROJECT ...................................................................................... 35
14. BEKAL FORT ...................................................................................................................... 35
15. HARAMI NALA (SIR CREEK, GUJARAT) ................................................................................ 36
16. KONKAN BELT ................................................................................................................... 36
www.insightsonindia.com 1 InsightsIAS
NOTES
17. KAOBAL GALI-MUSHKOH VALLEY ...................................................................................... 36
18. PARACHIK GLACIER ........................................................................................................... 37
PLACES AROUND THE WORLD ...................................................................................................... 37

19. INDO-CHINA BORDER ....................................................................................................... 37
20. THE INDIA-MYANMAR BORDER ......................................................................................... 37
21. AGARTALA-AKHAURA RAILWAY ........................................................................................ 38
22. DURAND LINE ................................................................................................................... 38
23. KATCHATHEEVU ISLAND ................................................................................................... 38
24. MAURITIUS....................................................................................................................... 39
25. PERU ................................................................................................................................ 39
26. LAKE TITICACA .................................................................................................................. 39
27. LAKE VICTORIA ................................................................................................................. 39
28. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC...................................................................................................... 39
29. UGANDA .......................................................................................................................... 40
30. KRA ISTHMUS ................................................................................................................... 40
31. MOUNT MERAPI (INDONESIA) .......................................................................................... 40
32. MOUNT CELIA GOLD OPERATION (WESTERN AUSTRALIA) ................................................. 41
33. MOUNT ETNA ................................................................................................................... 41
34. TONGA ............................................................................................................................. 41
35. ITALY ................................................................................................................................ 42
36. GUYANA AND VENEZUELA ................................................................................................ 42
37. NAGORNO-KARABAKH REGION ......................................................................................... 42
38. GOLAN HEIGHTS ............................................................................................................... 43
39. YEMEN ............................................................................................................................. 43
40. SOMALIA .......................................................................................................................... 43
41. TANZANIA ........................................................................................................................ 44
42. BHUTAN .......................................................................................................................... 44
43. MALDIVES ........................................................................................................................ 44
44. PAPUA NEW GUINEA ........................................................................................................ 44
45. ARMENIA ......................................................................................................................... 45
46. JAPAN'S KURIL ISLANDS .................................................................................................... 45
47. WORLD’S OLDEST FORT (AMNYA FORT) IN SIBERIA ........................................................... 45
48. RAFAH CROSSING ............................................................................................................. 45
49. SUEZ CANAL ..................................................................................................................... 46
50. KAWAH IJEN CRATER LAKE (EAST JAVA, INDONESIA) ......................................................... 46
51. TUVALU ............................................................................................................................ 47
52. NORDIC-BALTIC (NB8) COUNTRIES .................................................................................... 47
53. BALTIC SEA ....................................................................................................................... 47
54. TAIWAN ........................................................................................................................... 47
55. SOUTH CHINA SEA ............................................................................................................ 47
56. NAIROBI (KENYA) .............................................................................................................. 48
57. ARGENTINA ...................................................................................................................... 48
58. MAUI................................................................................................................................ 48
59. KIGALI (RWANDA) ............................................................................................................. 49
60. UK'S ROSEBANK OIL FIELD................................................................................................. 49
61. TIMOR-LESTE .................................................................................................................... 49
62. SULINA CHANNEL (DANUBE RIVER) ................................................................................... 50
63. PANAMA CANAL ............................................................................................................... 50
64. NORTHERN SEA ROUTE (NSR) ........................................................................................... 51
65. ANTARCTICA'S BLOOD FALLS............................................................................................. 51
66. GHANA ............................................................................................................................. 51
NOTES
Miscellaneous............................................................................................................. 52
1. IRON ORE SECTOR IN INDIA .................................................................................................. 52
2. INDIA METEOROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT ............................................................................... 52
3. TANTALUM .......................................................................................................................... 53
4. GRAPHITE............................................................................................................................. 53
5. VANADIUM .......................................................................................................................... 54
6. LITHIUM EXTRACTION .......................................................................................................... 55
7. GLOBAL NORTH/SOUTH DIVIDE (BRANDT LINE) .................................................................... 56
8. PALAEO PROXIES .................................................................................................................. 56
NOTES
Important Geophysical phenomena and geographical features
1. Landslide Susceptibility Mapping
Landslide Susceptibility
Mapping involves creating
maps that depict areas prone
to landslides based on certain
factors.
For example, using data on
past landslide events and
factors like slope steepness,
soil type, and vegetation
cover, a computer model can
analyse these variables to
predict areas at high risk.
Features of National Landslide Susceptibility Map:

Features Details
Data Sources The map incorporates 1.5 lakh known landslide events from sources
like the Geological Survey of India (GSI). It also considers 16 landslide
conditioning factors, including soil cover, tree density, proximity to
roads or mountains, etc.
Machine Learning Ensemble machine learning methods were employed to analyse the
Analysis data. This involves using multiple machine learning models together to
mitigate the impact of any single model's limitations.
High-Resolution The map provides a high-resolution overview with a detailed
Mapping resolution of 100 sqm., offering insights into landslide susceptibility
across India.
Identification of Familiar areas with high susceptibility, such as the Himalayan foothills,
New Risk Zones Assam-Meghalaya region, and Western Ghats, were identified.
New risk zones, previously unrecognized, were also revealed, including
parts of the Eastern Ghats north of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
Online The map is available online and accessible to the public. It allows
Accessibility anyone to interact with the data without requiring technical expertise.
About Landslide:
A landslide is “a movement of a mass of rock, earth or debris down a slope”.
Types of flows
NOTES
1. Debris flows: It is a form of rapid mass movement in which a combination of loose soil, rock,
organic matter, and slurry that flows downslope. They are commonly caused by intense
precipitation or rapid snowmelt.
2. Earth flow: It is a down-slope viscous flow of fine-grained material saturated with water.
3. Mudflow: A mudflow is a wet or viscous fluid mass of fine and coarse-grained material that
flows rapidly along drainage channels.
4. Creep: Creep is the slow, steady, downward movement of material under gravity that occurs
in a large area
India's Vulnerability to Landslides (as per ISRO’s Landslide Atlas of India)

1. Global Ranking: India ranks among the top five countries globally prone to landslides,
witnessing at least one death per 100 sq km annually due to such events.
2. Primary Cause: Rainfall variability, particularly in the Himalayas and Western Ghats, stands
as the predominant cause of landslides in India.
3. Geographical Vulnerability: Excluding snow-covered areas, over 12% of the country's
geographical land area is susceptible to landslides.
4. Regional Breakdown:
a. Over 66% of landslides occur in the North-western Himalayas.
i. Rudraprayag and Tehri Garhwal districts of Uttarakhand have the highest
landslide density and landslide risk exposure in the country.
b. About 19% are reported in the North-eastern Himalayas.
c. The Western Ghats contribute to over 14% of landslide events.
5. Impact in the Western Ghats: Despite fewer occurrences, landslides in the Western Ghats
pose significant risks, especially in Kerala, making inhabitants vulnerable to fatalities.
Causes of Landslides:
Causes of Details
Landslides
Heavy Rainfall Excessive rainfall saturates the soil, increasing its weight and reducing
cohesion. This weakens slopes, particularly during heavy rain, making them
more susceptible to landslides.
Steep Slopes Areas with steep terrain face greater landslide risk as gravitational forces
act more intensely on sloping surfaces, especially during heavy rainfall or
seismic activity.
Earthquakes Seismic activity can disrupt slope balance, triggering landslides. Volcanic
eruptions, such as pyroclastic flows, displacing soil and rock, also contribute
to landslide occurrences.
Human Deforestation, mining, construction, and excavation alter landscapes,
Activities remove vegetation, and disturb slope balance. These activities weaken
terrain stability, escalating the risk of landslides.
Underlying The type of rock and soil beneath an area influences landslide susceptibility.
Geology Loose, unconsolidated soil is more prone to landslides, while stable
bedrock, typical in the Himalayan landscape, is less likely to experience such
events.
Government Measures for Landslide Impact Mitigation:

• The National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping (NLSM) Programme (initiated by the
Geological Survey of India in 2014) aims to
• National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) under the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
has released the Landslide Atlas of India, a detailed guide identifying Landslide Hotspots in
the country.
NOTES
2. Strait
A strait is a narrow, naturally formed waterway that connects two larger bodies of water,
typically seas or oceans. They can be formed by a variety of geological processes, such as tectonic
activity, erosion, or the submersion of land.
The Strait of Bab el-Mandeb is a crucial maritime chokepoint, connecting the Red Sea with the
Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean.
Important Straits of the World are:

Strait Connecting Water Bodies
Strait of Gibraltar Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean
Bosporus Strait Black Sea and Sea of Marmara
Strait of Hormuz Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman
Malacca Strait The Andaman Sea and South China Sea
Bab el-Mandeb Strait Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
English Channel North Sea and English Channel
Taiwan Strait East China Sea and South China Sea
Cook Strait Tasman Sea and Pacific Ocean
Torres Strait Coral Sea and Arafura Sea
Davis Strait Baffin Bay and Labrador Sea
Palk Strait Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Mannar
3. Cyclone
Cyclone Michaung was considered unusual due to its high intensity and timing in December, a
month when storms in the North Indian Ocean typically don't reach destructive levels.
• The cyclone, initially predicted to be a 'tropical cyclone,' was upgraded to a 'severe' storm,
with wind speeds ranging from 88 kph to 166 kph.
• This intensification in December is unique, attributed to above-normal heat index values off
the southern Andhra Pradesh coast.
Cyclone intensification is influenced by factors such as warm ocean temperatures, Tropical

Cyclone Heat Potential (TCHP), atmospheric conditions, wind shear, convection, Rossby waves,
and air-sea interaction.
Cyclones are formed over the oceanic water in the tropical region.
In this region, the sunlight is highest
which results in warming of land and
water surface. Due to warming of
the surface, the warm moist air over
the ocean rises upwards f ollowing
which cool air rushes in to fill the
void, they too get warm and rise —
the cycle continues.
But what creates the spin?

Wind always blows from high
pressure to low pressure areas.
High pressure areas are created in
the cold region while low is created in the warm regions. Polar regions are high pressure areas as
the amount of sunlight here is less than the tropical region. So, wind blows from polar regions to
tropical regions.
NOTES
● Then comes the Earth's movement, which is west to east. The Earth's rotation on its axis
causes deflection of the wind (in the tropical region as the speed of spinning of Earth is
higher compared to polar sides due to its spherical shape) Wind coming from the Arctic is
deflected to the right while Antarctic wind deflects to the left side.
● So, wind is already blowing in a direction. But when it reaches the warmer place, cool air
starts getting attracted to the centre to fill the gap. So while moving to the centre, cool air
keeps getting deflected resulting in circulation of wind movement — this process continues
until the cyclone hits the land.
What happens when a cyclone hits the land?

Cyclone dissipates when it hits the land as the warm water that rises and creates space for cool
water is no longer available on land. Also, the moist air that rises up forms clouds leading to rains
that accompany gusting winds during cyclones.
What are the different parts of a cyclone’s structure?

The eye: The eye of the storm is the centre. It’s a relatively calm space. When the eye passes
over an area, winds slow down and everything feels like it has cleared up. The part that comes
after the eye usually inflicts the most damage.
The eyewall: This is where the most effective part of a cyclone rests. The eyewall houses
extremely high wind speeds, causing damage to both lives and property. It is a ring of
thunderstorms, and changes in the eye or the eyewall affects the storm’s intensity.
Rainbands: These are the outer parts of a cyclone where sudden bursts of rain happen. There can
also be gaps betwen rainbands where no rain or wind occurs.
General factors responsible for the origin of Cyclones in Bay of Bengal region are:
1. Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C.
2. Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create a cyclonic vortex.
3. Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
4. A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation.
5. Upper divergence above the sea level system.
How are cyclones named?

Cyclones that form in every ocean
basin across the world are named by
the regional specialised
meteorological centres (RSMCs) and
Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres
(TCWCs). There are six RSMCs in the
world, including the India
Meteorological Department (IMD),
and five TCWCs.
As an RSMC, the IMD names the

cyclones developing over the north Indian Ocean, including the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea,
after following a standard procedure. The IMD is also mandated to issue advisories to 12 other
countries in the region on the development of cyclones and storms.
Changing characters of cyclones in India:

• Proportionate increase in Arabian Sea Cyclones: In comparison to the Bay of Bengal, the
proportion of Arabian sea cyclones was initially 1:4, but the study found that it has become
2:4 from 2001-2020.
NOTES
• Effect of climate change: Due to the increase in sea surface temperature and ocean heat
content, the intensity of cyclones is increasing along Indian coasts.
o Frequency is rising in the Arabian Sea and reducing in the Bay of Bengal, overall.
What factors are responsible for Increase of cyclones in the Arabian Sea area?
• Surface temperatures in the Arabian Sea have increased rapidly during the past century due
to global warming.
• These warmer temperatures support active convection, heavy rainfall, and intense cyclones.
• The rising temperature is also enabling the Arabian Sea to supply ample energy for the
intensification of cyclones.
• The Arabian Sea is also providing conducive wind shear for cyclones.
How climate change can rapidly intensify tropical storms:

• Warming oceans fuel higher winds: More than 90% of the excess heat from human-caused
global warming over the past 50 years has been absorbed by the oceans.
• Winds intensify more rapidly: Rapid intensification technically refers to an increase of at least
30 knots, or 35 mph, in the maximum sustained winds over a 24-hour period, according to the
National Hurricane Center.
• Several elements other than ocean temperatures affect hurricanes: One of those elements is
vertical wind shear or a measure of how much the wind changes in speed or direction at
increasing heights in the atmosphere.
o Strong vertical wind shear can inhibit the development of hurricanes by tilting the
structure of a storm and by forcing cool, dry air into its core.
Weather warnings:
The top weather body in India, the Indian Meteorology Department (IMD) is tasked with
identifying and issuing warnings for adverse weather events, relying on a system of colour-coded
weather warnings to do so.
The IMD’s four colour codes are:

• Green (pre-cyclone watch): This code
means that “all is well”, there is no
likelihood of any adverse weather-
related and there are no advisories
issued.
• Yellow (cyclone alert): The colour
yellow signals authorities to “be
aware” or on their guard, with the
likelihood of severely bad weather
that could last several days at a
stretch, while also suggesting that the weather could take a turn for the worse and upset daily
activities.
• Orange (Cyclone warning): Meaning “Be prepared”, the IMD issues the orange alert as a
warning for extremely bad weather, electricity blackouts and the possibility of communication
disruptions, including road and rail closures.
• Red (during or post-landfall outlook): The IMD issues the highest level of warning—indicating
authorities should “take action”—only when it is guaranteed that bad weather is going to
upend travel and power and pose a significant risk to life.
These warnings are based on ‘the probability of occurrences and ‘impact assessment’.
The point of the exercise is to give authorities and people likely to be impacted enough
forewarning to be prepared to meet harsh or hazardous weather that has the potential to wreak
severe damage, disrupt daily life or cause loss of life. The warnings are updated daily.
NOTES
4. The Fujiwhara effect
The western coast of the
United States recently
experienced Hurricane Hilary,
which transformed into a sub-
tropical storm upon reaching
the US.
• This event led to the
National Hurricane Centre
(NHC) issuing its inaugural
tropical storm watch for
certain areas of Southern
California.
• California had an
exceptionally wet winter
with multiple 'atmospheric river' storms, and the area also witnessed the intriguing
phenomenon of the 'Fujiwhara effect' during one of these storms, where two low-pressure
areas interacted in an unexpected manner.
About The Fujiwhara effect:

• The "Fujiwhara effect," where two cyclones (or hurricanes) spinning in the same direction
interact in a dance-like manner around a common centre. If one cyclone is stronger, it can
absorb the weaker one.
• When of similar strength, they might merge or rotate around each other. In some rare
instances, the two cyclones could merge into a mega-cyclone with significant destructive
potential.
• The Fujiwhara effect was first described by Japanese meteorologist Sakuhei Fujiwhara in
1921.
5. Pacific Decadal Oscillation

A recent study suggests that a combination of global warming and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation
(PDO), could lead to an increase in the frequency of tropical cyclones originating near the
Equator.
• The PDO is a 20–30-year cycle that occurs in the Pacific Ocean, north of 20°N. The PDO is a
pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability. During a "warm", or "positive", phase, the
west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms. During a "cool", or
"negative", phase, the opposite pattern occurs.
Global warming has led to an increase in sea surface temperatures, particularly in the Indian
Ocean. Warmer sea surface temperatures have contributed to the formation and intensification
of tropical cyclones in the region.
About Pacific Decadal Oscillation:

The Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) is a natural climate pattern that affects the temperature of
the Pacific Ocean and the weather patterns around it. The PDO shifts between warm and cool
phases, with each phase lasting around 20-30 years
The PDO is often quantified by the use of an index, referred to as the PDO Index. The PDO Index
is calculated by spatially averaging the monthly sea surface temperature (SST) of the Pacific
Ocean north of 20°N
NOTES
The PDO has been linked to slower global warming because cold phases of the PDO increase the
mixing of colder, deep ocean waters with warmer surface waters. This temporarily reduces the
rate of global warming caused by increasing greenhouse gas emissions.
The PDO also has impacts on the weather. A warm phase tends to cause heavy rains in the
Eastern Pacific Ocean and droughts in Asia and Australia. A cold phase tends to cause droughts
in the Eastern Pacific Ocean and floods in Asia and Australia.
6. Mediterranean storm
Devastating floods in Derna, eastern Libya, was due to breached dams and flash floods caused by
the Mediterranean storm named Daniel.
What is a Mediterranean storm?

A Mediterranean storm, also known as a Mediterranean
cyclone or a Mediterranean low, is a type of weather system
that forms over the Mediterranean Sea.
Mediterranean storms can vary in intensity and impact, but
they often lead to heavy precipitation, which can result in
flooding, landslides, and other weather-related hazards.
Libya is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It

is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt
to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad to the south,
Niger to the southwest, Algeria to the west, and Tunisia to
the northwest.
7. Katabatic winds
A surprising
phenomenon has been
observed in the
Himalayas, where
'katabatic' winds are
triggered when high
temperatures affect
high-altitude ice
masses.
• This leads to cold
air blowing to lower-altitude areas, potentially slowing down the effects of the global
climate crisis in some regions.
• The study reveals that a temperature gap between air above the mountains and cooler air in
contact with ice masses causes increased turbulent heat exchange, leading to stronger
cooling of the surface air mass.
Anabatic Winds – These Winds are upslope winds driven by warmer surface temperatures on a
mountain slope than the surrounding air column.
Katabatic Winds – Katabatic winds are downslope winds created when the mountain surface is
colder than the surrounding air and create a downslope wind.
NOTES
8. El Niño, La Nina and ENSO Severe flooding in Somalia, triggered by
What are EL Niño and La Niña? heavy seasonal downpours exacerbated
They are two natural climate phenomena occurring by El Niño and the Indian Ocean Dipole,
across the tropical Pacific Ocean and influence the has been labelled a once-in-a-century
weather conditions all over the world. event by the United Nations.
● While the El Niño period is characterised by
warming or increased sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific
Ocean, a La Niña event causes the water in the eastern Pacific Ocean to be colder than usual.
What causes El Nino?

1. El Nino sets in when there is an
anomaly in the pattern.
2. The westward-blowing trade winds
weaken along the Equator and due
to changes in air pressure, the
surface water moves eastwards to
the coast of northern South America.
3. The central and eastern Pacific
regions warm up for over six months
and result in an El Nino condition.
Weather changes because of La Nina:

1. The Horn of Africa and central Asia will
see below average rainfall due to La
Niña.
2. East Africa is forecast to see drier-
than-usual conditions, which together
with the existing impacts of the desert
locust invasion, may add to regional
food insecurity.
3. It could also lead to increased rainfall
in southern Africa.
4. It could also affect the South West Indian Ocean Tropical Cyclone season, reducing the
intensity.
5. Southeast Asia, some Pacific Islands and the northern region of South America are expected
to receive above-average rainfall.
6. In India, La Niña means the country will receive more rainfall than normal, leading to floods.
El Niño years in India have witnessed extreme heat and below normal rainfall levels during
monsoon, even though El Niño might not be the only factor or even have direct links to them. In
2014, a El Niño year, India received 12 per cent deficient rainfall from June to September.
On the other hand, La Nina years are known to favour the Indian summer monsoon.
Intense hurricanes and cyclones have frequently occurred in the Atlantic Ocean and the Bay of
Bengal during La Nina years.
El Niño and La Niña episodes typically last for about nine months to a year. They usually develop
in the March-June period, and are the strongest during winter (November-January in the northern
hemisphere), before weakening or dissipating by March or April of next year.
El Niño and La Niña events are not mirror images of each other. They differ in length and
strength.
NOTES
El Niño episodes occur more frequently and are usually associated with more impactful weather
events. La Niña, on the other hand, has a longer run. That is why multi-year La Niña events,
those that continue for more than 12 months, are quite common. An El Niño is more likely to be a
single-year event.
The periodic warming and cooling of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean — a
phenomenon described as El Niño Southern Oscillations, or ENSO — is known to trigger
widespread changes in atmospheric conditions, and has a major influence on global weather
patterns, including the Indian monsoon. La Niña refers to the ENSO phase in which sea-surface
temperatures are cooler than normal. The warmer phase is known as El Niño. A result of
interactions between ocean and wind systems, El Niño and La Niña have almost opposite
impacts on weather events.
In the Indian context, La Niña is associated with good rainfall during the monsoon season. This is
the opposite of El Niño which is known to suppress monsoon rainfall. Thus, a continued spell of
La Niña could lead to expectation of another year of good, or normal, rainfall during the monsoon.
But, even though powerful, ENSO condition is only one of the several factors affecting monsoon
rainfall in India. There is no one-on-one correlation between the ENSO condition and the
amount of rainfall. Also, the influence of ENSO is at a macro level. There are wide variations in
rainfall at the local level, which are getting exacerbated by climate change.
9. Indian Ocean Dipole

A report by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology said that the IOD index has risen beyond the
positive threshold.
• The IOD refers to temperature shifts in the Indian Ocean basin, impacting monsoons in
India. A positive IOD event, characterized by warmer temperatures in the western basin, can
enhance India's South-West monsoon.
• However, the IOD index must remain above the threshold for a sustained period to officially
declare a positive event.
• The positive IOD event tends to benefit the Southwest monsoon.
For Australia, a positive IOD event often leads to low rainfall between October and December,
delayed monsoon onset, and reduced tropical cyclone activity.
About IOD:
IOD stands for the Indian Ocean Dipole. It refers to a climate phenomenon characterized by the
difference in sea surface temperatures between the western and eastern parts of the Indian
Ocean.
There are two phases of the Indian Ocean Dipole:

Positive IOD: In this phase, the western Indian Ocean becomes warmer than the eastern part.
This leads to increased convection and rainfall in the western Indian Ocean region, including
parts of East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, while causing drier conditions in the eastern
Indian Ocean, including Australia and Indonesia.
Negative IOD: In this phase, the eastern Indian Ocean becomes warmer than the western part.
This leads to higher rainfall and cooler conditions in the eastern Indian Ocean region, including
Australia and Indonesia, while causing drier conditions in the western Indian Ocean region.
NOTES
10. Ionosphere
Scientists from the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG) have conducted decade-long
ionospheric observations at Bharati station in Antarctica, revealing significant seasonal variations
in ionospheric density.
• Despite the region experiencing 24 hours of sunlight in summer and complete darkness in
winter, day-night ionospheric density variations were observed.
• The researchers found the peak ionospheric density
near local noon during the winter months, attributing
it to particle precipitation and the transportation of
convectional plasma from high latitudes.
• These long-term studies aim to enhance understanding
of ionospheric effects on satellite-based navigation and
communication systems.
The ionosphere is a layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is

made up of charged atoms, molecules, and electrons. It
stretches from 50 kilometers (30 miles) to over 1,000
kilometers (600 miles) above the Earth.
11. Peninsular River Vs Himalayan Rivers

A recent study published in the American Meteorological Society’s Journal of Hydrometeorology
reveals that peninsular river basins in India, including Narmada, Mahanadi, and Godavari, face a
higher likelihood of widespread flooding compared to transboundary rivers like Ganga and
Brahmaputra.
• The Narmada basin has the highest probability (59%) of widespread flooding.
• Other basins with notable probabilities of widespread flooding include Mahanadi (50%),
Godavari (42%), Krishna (38%), and Cauvery (19%).
• Ganga and Brahmaputra, as transboundary river basins, have lower probabilities of
widespread flooding, at 21% and 18%, respectively.
Reasons:
Drivers of widespread flooding are associated with atmospheric rivers, large atmospheric
circulations carrying moisture from the tropics to extratropic. Events like the 2018 Kerala floods,
the 2022 Pakistan floods, and the lower Mississippi River floods in 2008, 2011, and 2015–19
were linked to atmospheric rivers.
NOTES
What are Atmospheric rivers?
They are long, narrow regions of the atmosphere that transport water vapour from the tropics to
the poles. They can be 250–375 miles wide and over 1,000 miles long. When atmospheric rivers
make landfall, they can contribute significantly to precipitation.
Difference between the Himalayan and Peninsular River System:
12. Iridescent clouds

Rare iridescent clouds, known as nacreous clouds,
were spotted over parts of Scotland, northern
England, and the West Midlands recently.
• The clouds, resembling mother of pearl, are
known for their pastel light reflections during
sunset and sunrise.
• This phenomenon occurs as sunlight diffracts
around tiny ice crystals within the clouds,
creating an effect similar to a thin layer of oil
on water.
Nacreous clouds are rare in the UK and are usually seen when cold air from the polar vortex
temporarily hovers over the region.
The mechanism behind iridescent clouds is diffraction, which occurs when small water droplets
or small ice crystals scatter the sun's light. Larger ice crystals do not produce iridescence but can
cause halos.
NOTES
13. Earthquake
A powerful 6.3 magnitude earthquake had struck
western Afghanistan.
• Earthquakes occur due to the movement of tectonic

plates, large chunks of solid rock, along fault lines
caused by tectonic forces and stress in the earth's
lithosphere.
• When these plates suddenly slip past each other, they release energy, sending seismic waves
through the ground.
• The point of fault rupture within the earth, where the earthquake begins, is called the focus
or hypocentre, while the point directly above it on the earth's surface is the epicentre.
• Tectonic plates are continually in motion due to heat energy within the earth, and their
edges, known as plate boundaries, are where most earthquakes occur.
Reasons for Frequent Earthquakes in Afghanistan:

Reason Description
1. Tectonic Plate Collision Afghanistan is situated at the convergence of the Indian and
Eurasian tectonic plates, where these plates collide, resulting
in significant tectonic activity.
2. Geological Complexity Regions like the Hindu Kush mountain range experience
geological complexity due to the collision and convergence of
tectonic plates. This complexity contributes to earthquake
occurrence.
3. Northward Plate The ongoing northward movement of the Indian Plate
towards the Eurasian Plate leads to compression, causing
crustal deformation and the creation of faults and fractures,
which can trigger earthquakes.
4. Plate Boundaries The edges of tectonic plates, known as plate boundaries, are
frequent sites of earthquakes. Afghanistan is located near such
plate boundaries, enhancing seismic activity.
5. Active Fault Systems: Afghanistan is intersected by active fault systems like the
Chaman Fault and the Main Pamir Thrust, which serve as
sources of earthquakes in the region.
NOTES
A recent study conducted by researchers
in Haryana, India, has identified an
expanding area of active tectonic
deformation in the northern plains of
Haryana, south of the Himalayas.
What is tectonic deformation?

Tectonic deformation refers to the
changes in the Earth's crust caused by
the movement and interaction of
tectonic plates. It includes processes
such as folding, faulting, and uplift,
which shape the Earth's surface and give
rise to features like mountains, valleys,
and earthquakes.
14. Morocco’s earthquake

A powerful earthquake with a magnitude of 6.8 struck Morocco. The earthquake's epicentre was
in the Atlas Mountains near Marrakech.
Reason for the Earthquake:

The earthquake in Morocco resulted from a geological phenomenon known as a "reverse fault."
• Tectonic Plate Interaction: Morocco is situated in an area where the Eurasian and African
tectonic plates converge.
• Plate Boundary Activity: The Atlas Mountains, where the earthquake occurred, are actively
rising due to the convergence of these two large tectonic plates
• Seismic Stress Accumulation: Although the region had not experienced major recorded
earthquakes before, stress had been accumulating underground for an extended period due
to the slow movement of tectonic plates.
• Oblique-Reverse Fault: This type of faulting is common in areas of compression along the
convergent plate boundaries. The stress along these fault lines can induce earthquakes as
rocks abruptly shift to release accumulated stress.
More about Oblique-Reverse Fault:

An oblique-reverse fault is a geological fault characterized by both horizontal and vertical
movements along the fault plane. In this type of fault, rocks on one side of the fault plane move
vertically upward while also sliding horizontally in a lateral direction. This movement occurs due
to the compression of tectonic plates, where one plate is converging into another.
Various types of faults:
Type of Fault Description

Dip-Slip Faults Movement along the direction of the dip
plane.
NOTES
Vertical movement either up (reverse dip-
slip) or down (normal dip-slip) along the
fault plane.
Common in regions experiencing crustal
compression or extension.
Examples: Reverse faults (upthrown block
above the fault plane) and Normal faults
(downthrown block above the fault plane).
Strike-Slip Faults Horizontal movement along the fault

plane.
Movement is parallel to the strike of the
fault.
Common in transform plate boundaries
where tectonic plates slide past each
other horizontally.
Oblique-Slip Faults Show characteristics of both dip-slip and

strike-slip faults.
Movement occurs in two directions:
horizontal (strike-slip) and vertical (dip-
slip) along the fault plane.
Earthquake Prone areas in

India:
The Western Himalayas in
India are considered one of the
most dangerous seismic zones
globally, and the entire
Himalayan region, spanning
from the Hindu Kush mountains
to Arunachal Pradesh, is at risk
of a major earthquake with a
magnitude exceeding 8 on the
Richter scale.
This heightened risk is
attributed to the substantial
energy accumulation along
faultlines due to the ongoing
interaction of various tectonic
plates.
NOTES
15. Zealandia (World’s Eighth
Continent)
Recent research on Zealandia, an
underwater continent to the southeast of
Australia, is shedding light on its geological
history and why it remained hidden for so
long.
What is Zealandia?
Zealandia is an underwater continent
located to the southeast of Australia. It was
recognized as Earth's eighth continent in
2017.
Zealandia formed around 83 million years
ago during the Late Cretaceous period and
started as part of the supercontinent
Gondwana before breaking away.
• The existence of Zealandia was first
recorded in 1642 by Dutch businessman
and sailor Abel Tasman
How was Zealandia formed?

Gondwana formed when Earth’s ancient
supercontinent, Pangea, split into two
fragments.
• Laurasia in the north became Europe,
Asia, and North America.
• Gondwana in the south dispersed to
form modern-day Africa, India,
Antarctica, South America, and Australia.
Zealandia began as part of the

supercontinent Gondwana, which started
breaking apart. As Zealandia began to break
away from Gondwana, "The Giant Volcanic Region"
formed – where magma flooded out of cracks.
Zealandia separated from the landmasses to its

north and south, eventually becoming its own
continent. Over millions of years, it underwent
stretching and thinning due to tectonic forces,
creating ruptures that later formed oceanic crust.
Around 25 million years ago, Zealandia largely sank beneath the ocean, becoming the submerged
continent we know today.
Evidence in support of Zealandia as a continent:

Evidence Explanation
Bathymetry Zealandia's seabed is considerably shallower compared to the
surrounding oceanic plates, indicating it's underlain by a continental
rather than an oceanic crust.
Geological Analysis of rocks and sediments from Zealandia reveals continental
Composition characteristics, not typical of oceanic crust.
NOTES
Tectonic Zealandia separated from the Gondwana supercontinent and moved
Separation independently, forming its distinct landmass
Geological Fit Geological features of Zealandia align with West Antarctica, suggesting
that these regions were once connected as part of a larger continent
Magnetic Measurements of magnetic anomalies in the ocean floor around Zealandia
Anomalies provide insights into its stretching and thinning processes over millions of
years
Size While mostly submerged, Zealandia covers an extensive area of
approximately five million square kilometres, meeting the size criterion
for continent status
What is plate tectonics and how continents are formed?

Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that explains the movement of the Earth's lithosphere,
which is divided into large, rigid plates. These plates "float" on the semi-fluid asthenosphere
beneath them.
Process of Continental Formation:

Process Description
1. Breakup of Continents are initially part of larger landmasses known as
Supercontinents supercontinents. Over millions of years, tectonic forces caused the
supercontinent to break apart.
Example: Pangaea began breaking apart approximately 175 million
years ago.
2. Fragmentation As the supercontinent breaks apart, it results in the separation of
continental fragments or blocks. These fragments are composed of
continental crust.
3. Drifting and Continental fragments start to drift and move across the Earth's
Movement surface. This movement is driven by the motion of tectonic plates.
4. Collision and Over time, some continental fragments may collide with each other or
Assembly with other landmasses. These collisions often lead to the formation of
mountain ranges. Gradually, the fragments merge together to form
larger continents
5. Continual The process of continental formation and transformation is continuous.
Change Continents keep moving, colliding, and changing shape due to plate
tectonics. This dynamic process involves mountain building, volcanic
activity, and the opening and closing of ocean basins.
NOTES
16. Almora Fault

Union Earth Sciences Minister reported
an increased number of earthquakes in
2023, attributing it to the activation of
the Almora Fault in Western Nepal.
However, experts dispute this claim,

asserting that tectonic collisions, not the
Almora Fault, cause earthquakes in the
Himalayan region.
What is the Almora Fault?

It is a geological fault located in Western Nepal and extends to the Uttarakhand region in India. It
lies on the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the Himalayan fault zone. There are two thrusts in
Kumaon, Uttarakhand: One is the South Almora Thrust and the other is the North Almora Thrust.
MBT (Main Boundary Thrust): It is a significant fault in the Himalayas, marking the boundary
between the Lesser Himalayas and the Sub-Himalayas.
17. Pontus plate

Scientists have recently rediscovered the "Pontus plate," a long-lost tectonic plate that
disappeared about 20 million years ago.
• This plate was approximately a quarter the size of the Pacific Ocean and once existed
beneath an ancient
ocean known as the
Pontus Ocean.
• The rediscovery of the
Pontus plate was
accidental, occurring
during a study of rocks
in Borneo. Researchers
had originally been
studying the Pacific
plate when they came
across rock fragments
that didn't fit with
known plates' magnetic
properties.
• Computer modelling eventually revealed that these rock fragments belonged to a previously
unknown tectonic plate, the Pontus plate.
This plate formed at least 160 million years ago, possibly even earlier, and eventually
disappeared as it was subducted beneath the Australian and Chinese plates. This discovery
sheds light on Earth's geological history and the movement of tectonic plates.
18. E Prime Layer

A study led by an international team has unveiled a link between Earth's surface and its core,
indicating that surface water has penetrated deep into the Earth, forming a distinct layer known
as the E prime layer.
What is an E-Prime Layer?
NOTES
The E-Prime Layer is a distinct layer at the outermost part of Earth's core, formed by surface
water penetrating deep into the planet over billions of years. This layer is characterized by a
hydrogen-rich, silicon-depleted composition, influenced by a chemical reaction with the core's
silicon at the core-mantle boundary.
Previous Belief: Previously it was believed that a minimal material exchange between the core
and mantle,
New findings suggest that tectonic plates have transported surface water around 1,800 miles
below the surface to the core-mantle boundary. The water undergoes a chemical reaction with
the core's silicon, forming silica and creating a hydrogen-rich, silicon-depleted layer at the outer
core.
Significance: This discovery has significant implications for understanding Earth's internal
processes, magnetic field, heat generation, and plate tectonics.
Earth's Discontinuities
Layers
Crust Mohorovičić Discontinuity
(Moho)
Mantle Repetti Discontinuity
(Upper)
Mantle Lehmann Discontinuity
(Transition)
Mantle Gutenberg Discontinuity
(Lower)
Outer Core Lehmann Discontinuity (at
the core-mantle boundary)
Inner Core Bullen Discontinuity (at the
inner core boundary)
19. Underwater Volcano Eruption

A new island has emerged near Japan's Ogasawara island chain following an underwater volcano
eruption in late October 2023.
• The island formed through phreatomagmatic eruptions triggered by the interaction of
magma with seawater.
What are phreatomagmatic eruptions?

• Phreatomagmatic eruptions are volcanic
events triggered by the interaction of magma
with water, typically seawater.
• These interactions lead to explosive releases of
ash and steam.
• The term "phreatomagmatic" combines
"phreatic," relating to water, and "magmatic,"
referring to magma.
• These eruptions often occur underwater and
are characterized by the explosive nature of
the ash and steam release.
About Japan's Ogasawara island chain:

The chain, also known as the Bonin Islands, consists of over 30 islands and islets created by
volcanic processes, including phreatomagmatic eruptions.
NOTES
20. Seismic Activity in Iceland

Iceland is currently experiencing a significant increase in seismic activity, with around 1,400
earthquakes measured in the past 24 hours and over 24,000 recorded in the Reykjanes Peninsula
since late October.
What are the reasons for the seismic activity in Iceland?

The seismic activity in Iceland is primarily due to its location on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the
Eurasian and North American tectonic plates meet. This geological setting makes Iceland prone
to frequent earthquakes.
The recent earthquake swarm is believed to be a result of movement and pressure changes
associated with magma activity beneath the Earth's surface, indicating a potential precursor to a
volcanic eruption.
• Fagradalsfjall lies about 40 km to the
southwest of Reykjavík and is the
“world’s newest baby volcano.” It had
been dormant for eight centuries before
erupting in 2021, 2022 and 2023.
What is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge?

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a mid-ocean
ridge (a divergent or constructive plate
boundary) located along the floor of the Atlantic
Ocean and part of the longest mountain range in
the world.
In the North Atlantic, the ridge separates the North American from the Eurasian Plate and
the African Plate, north and south of the Azores Triple Junction.
21. Poor Air Quality in Mumbai

Mumbai was grappling with air quality issues, marked by prolonged periods of "moderate" or
"poor" ratings on the Air Quality Index (AQI).
NOTES
How Geography of Mumbai keeps it free from pollution?
• Mumbai benefits from a natural cleansing mechanism
due to its coastal setting.
• Strong surface winds prevalent in the area facilitate the
rapid dispersal of pollutants.
• Additionally, the powerful sea breeze that sweeps
across Mumbai's landscape contributes to the removal
of these airborne particles, carrying them away from the
land.
• This coastal geography helps maintain relatively better
air quality in the city, especially during most of the year
when these natural processes are at work.
Reasons Behind Rising Air Pollution in Mumbai Recently:

Factors Impact on Air Pollution
1. "Triple dip" La Last winter, Mumbai experienced an unusual "triple dip" in La Niña,
Niña related to climate change.
During La Niña, colder ocean surfaces absorb more atmospheric heat,
leading to a cooling effect and reduced air temperature. This results in
infrequent wind reversals from the sea, which usually disperse
pollutants every 2-3 days. With wind reversal occurring only every 10-
15 days during La Niña, pollutants remain trapped in the lower
atmosphere for longer periods, worsening air quality.
2. Delay in Monsoon The delayed withdrawal of the monsoon had a significant impact on
Withdrawal Mumbai's air quality, creating unfavourable conditions for pollution
dispersion.
3. Role of Transport Transport-level winds carried pollutants toward Mumbai. When they
Winds met warmer winds laden with local dust, it created a dust-filled cloud
that couldn't disperse due to calm winds, and deteriorating air quality.
4. PM10 Pollution Coarser particles, specifically PM10 (particulate matter with a
from Anthropogenic diameter of 10 micrometres or less), remain a major pollutant in
Emissions Mumbai. Dust emissions from various development and construction
activities contribute to this issue.
What is the Air Quality Index (AQI)?

The Air Quality Index (AQI), managed by the
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), is a
crucial tool for assessing and communicating
air quality in India. It takes into account eight
different pollutants, including particulate
matter (PM10 and PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide
(NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide
(CO), ozone (O3), ammonia (NH3), and lead
(Pb).
These pollutants are measured and
aggregated to provide an overall air quality
rating, which is then categorized into six levels: Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted, Poor,
Very Poor, and Severe
NOTES
22. Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF)
Glaciers are large masses of ice that form from the accumulation and compaction of snow over
long periods. They flow slowly downhill under their weight and gravity, shaping the landscape and
playing a crucial role in Earth's climate and hydrology by storing and releasing freshwater.
Glaciers cover ∼10% of the Earth’s land surface, but they are shrinking rapidly across most parts
of the world, leading to cascading impacts on downstream systems.
What is Glacial Lake outburst flood (GLOF)?

• Retreating glaciers, like several in the
Himalayas, usually result in the
formation of lakes at their tips, called
proglacial lakes, often bound only by
sediments and boulders.
• If the boundaries of these lakes are
breached, it can lead to large amounts
of water rushing down, the way by
picking up sediments, rocks, and other
materials.
• A majority of the glaciers in the
Himalayas are known to be receding, all
leading to the formation of several glacial lakes.
Why are they so dangerous?

The rapid onset and high discharge of GLOFs means there is often insufficient time to effectively
warn downstream populations and for effective action to be taken. Also, they often become
triggers for other disasters (Cascading disasters)
Recent findings about GLOF:

• Rapid deglaciation (primarily due to global warming) over the last 20 years has led to the
growth of many large glacial lakes.
• There has been an increase in the population living in close proximity to glacial lakes between
2002 and 2022.
• According to the ICIMOD, Himalayan glacial lakes increased by about 9% in number, and 14%
in the area.
• GLOFs are recognized in the National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) 2019 of India as a
potential climatological disaster.
A cascade of Events: What happened in Sikkim?

The incessant rain due to the cloudburst led to the outburst of
South Lhonak glacial lake. The lake burst resulted in a sudden rise
in the water level of the Teesta River and a flash flood. This further
led to the breach of the Chungthang Hydro-Dam in Sikkim. Damage
to the dam further exacerbated the situation.
What are Cascading disasters?

It refers to the cascading effects of extreme events in which the
vulnerabilities overlap and interact, reaching escalation points
which then create secondary effects with greater impact than the
primary event.
E.g., the Nanda Devi glacier outburst (2021) triggered landslides, avalanches, deluges, and flash
floods in the intricately linked tributaries of the Ganga River.
NOTES
Reasons behind GLOF and its increased frequency:
Reasons Description
Glacial Retreat Melting glaciers contribute to glacial lake formation. As glaciers shrink,
they release meltwater, which fills these lakes. If the lake's boundary is
breached, it can lead to a GLOF.
Moraine Formation Moraines, piles of debris carried by glaciers, can act as natural barriers.
When these moraines dam glacial lakes, they become susceptible to
breaching, causing GLOFs.
Landslides and Ice Landslides or ice avalanches can fall directly into glacial lakes,
Avalanches displacing water and causing it to breach natural dams, resulting in
GLOFs.
Meteorological Weather patterns, including sudden temperature changes or extreme
Conditions storms, can influence the stability of glacial lakes and trigger GLOFs.
Climate Change The Himalayan-Hindukush region is a climate change hotspot.
Impact Accelerated glacier melt leads to the formation of glacial lakes. Also,
Climate change increases the frequency and intensity of cloudbursts.
Geological Triggers Earthquakes or other geological events can destabilize moraines,
leading to the sudden release of water from glacial lakes.
Developmental Modern infrastructure, including dams and roads, alters the landscape.
Changes Large dam projects intensify geological stresses, weakening rocks.
The usefulness of Glacial Lake:

Glacial lakes are formed due to glacier retreat and hold valuable geological information, including
fossils and landmass formation. These lakes can exist for thousands of years, storing information
about past environmental changes.
About Teesta River:

Teesta River is a tributary of the Brahmaputra which flows through India and Bangladesh.
It originates in the Himalayas near Chunthang, Sikkim and flows to the south through West Bengal
before entering Bangladesh.
23. Barrage
India is planning to build a large barrage on the Siang River to protect it from a Chinese dam being
built in Tibet. The dam is being built on the Yarlung Tsangpo River in Tibet's Medog district.
What is a barrage?
A barrage is a dam or barrier built across a
river or watercourse to control the flow of
water. It typically consists of gates or sluices
that can be opened or closed to manage the
flow of water downstream.
Barrages are primarily used for flow control

and water diversion, while Dams are
designed for water storage and regulation on
a larger scale.
Yarlung Tsangpo River (Brahmaputra) breaks through the Himalayas in great gorges (including
the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon) and enters into Arunachal Pradesh, where it is known
as Dihang or Siang.
NOTES
24. Formation of Pink Diamond
Western Australian scientists have connected pink diamond formation to the Earth’s first
supercontinent (Vaalbara or Nuna) and events 1.3 billion years ago.
What are pink diamonds?

Pink diamonds are a rare and highly coveted type of diamond known for their stunning pink or
reddish-pink colour. Pink diamonds are exceptionally rare, and their rarity, combined with their
captivating beauty, makes them extremely valuable.
How it is unique?
Pink diamonds get their
distinct colour from unique
structural irregularities in
the crystal lattice of the
diamond, rather than
impurities like nitrogen or
boron, which give other
coloured diamonds their
hues (such as in the case of
Yellow and blue diamonds)
Where is it found?
The Argyle diamond mine
in Western Australia was one of the primary sources of pink diamonds (over 90% of production),
although it ceased production in 2020. Pink diamonds from the Argyle mine were particularly
famous for their quality and colour intensity.
What does the study indicate?

Pink diamonds were formed as a result of the breakup of Earth's first supercontinent, Vaalbara,
through intense geological forces from colliding tectonic plates that caused their crystal lattices
to twist and bend. The critical event that turned once-colourless diamonds into pink was a
monumental collision between Western Australia and Northern Australia.
25. Blue Hole

The blue hole is the second deepest marine sinkhole or cavern
discovered in Chetumal Bay, off the coast of the Yucatan
Peninsula in Mexico
Colour Dark blue, caused by the high transparency of water and bright white
carbonate sand
Water Poor, commonly anoxic below a certain depth
Circulation
Sea Life An unfavourable environment for most sea life can support large
numbers of bacteria that live off sulfur compounds
What are Blue They are large, undersea vertical caves or sinkholes found in coastal
Holes regions.
Karst formation Blue Holes are found on coastal karst platforms around the world. They
are formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone,
dolomite, or gypsum
Deepest Blue Dragon Hole (Longdong) in the South China Sea
Hole
NOTES
Overall Largest Great Blue Hole, located 100 kilometres from the coast of Belize, is 300
Blue Hole meters wide and 125 meters deep
26. Seamounts
27. Ureilite
A recent study suggests that Madhya Pradesh's famous Dhala impact crater was created by an
extraordinarily rare and ancient meteorite known as Ureilite.
About the meteorite:

Meteorites are extra-terrestrial rocks or metallic objects that survive their journey through
Earth's atmosphere and land on the planet's surface. They originate from asteroids, comets, or
other celestial bodies in space.
What are Ureilites?

These are a rare class of primitive meteorites that consist of silicate rock with olivine and
pyroxene, along with less than 10% of carbon, metal sulphides, and fine-grained silicates.
The Ureilite that created the Dhala crater was approximately one kilometre in diameter and
crashed into Earth's atmosphere at an extraordinary speed of 15 km/s about 2500 to 1700 million
years ago.
Significance: With this discovery, scientists hope to uncover more secrets about the rare
meteorite crater and its potential role in Earth's early history, including its impact on bringing
water to the planet and the development of life.
• The Dhala crater is Asia's largest and the world's seventh-largest impact crater.
In India, three meteor impact craters are found:

• Ramgarh in Rajasthan
• Lonar in Maharashtra
NOTES
• Dhala in MP
28. Palghat Gap
29. Maharashtra's Sahyadri plateau

Land-use changes in Maharashtra's Sahyadri plateau, specifically the rapid shift from traditional
local grain cultivation to monoculture plantations of mango and cashew, are impacting various
elusive amphibians, insects, and reptiles that live under loose rocks.
What is a Plateau?
A plateau is a flat, elevated landform with a relatively level surface, often surrounded by steep
slopes or cliffs. It is higher than the surrounding areas and typically stretches over large areas.
About Sahyadri plateau:

The Sahyadri plateau is located in the western part of India, parallel to the Arabian Sea. It
stretches from Gujarat in the north to Karnataka in the south. It has an average elevation of
around 1,000 meters.
About Sahyadri mountain ranges

The Western Ghats of Maharashtra are locally known as the Sahyadri ranges. Kalsubai is the
highest peak in Maharashtra. Kaas Plateau also known as the Maharashtra Valley of Flowers is
situated in the Sahyadri range of Western Ghats.
Destruction of rocks
NOTES
The Deccan Sheet Rocks in Hyderabad are home to a unique and vibrant ecosystem, including
rare flora and fauna. However, the rapid destruction of these rocks due to urban development is
threatening the survival of this diverse ecosystem.
How the destruction of rocks affects flora and fauna?

1. It disrupts their natural habitats, leading to the loss of biodiversity.
2. Many plants and animals, especially those adapted to rocky environments, lose their homes
and food sources.
3. This disruption can result in the decline or extinction of certain species, impacting the
delicate balance of the ecosystem.
4. The removal of rocks can alter microclimates and water availability, further affecting the
survival of flora and fauna.
30. Northern Lights In India
31. Gulf Stream

A scientific study has raised concerns that the Gulf Stream system, known as the Atlantic
Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), could collapse as early as 2025.
• The AMOC drives the Atlantic's currents and plays a crucial role in determining Europe's
weather. If it were to collapse, it could lead to lower temperatures and catastrophic
climate impacts.
About Gulf Stream:
NOTES
The Gulf Stream is a powerful ocean current in the North Atlantic Ocean. It originates in the Gulf
of Mexico and flows north-eastward along the eastern
coast of the United States, then across the Atlantic towards
Europe. It plays a significant role in regulating the climate
by transporting warm water and heat from the tropics to
higher latitudes, influencing weather patterns and
temperatures in coastal regions.
About AMOC:
It is a large system of ocean currents. It is the Atlantic
branch of the ocean conveyor belt or ThermoHaline
Circulation (THC) and distributes heat and nutrients
throughout the world’s ocean basins.
• AMOC carries warm surface waters from the tropics towards the Northern Hemisphere,
where it cools and sinks.
• It then returns to the tropics and then to the South Atlantic as a bottom current. From
there it is distributed to all ocean basins via the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.
The ACC is the most important current in the Southern Ocean, and the only current that
flows completely around the globe.
NOTES
Places in News
Places in India
1. Lakshadweep
• It is a union territory of
India, comprising 36
islands situated
between the Arabian
Sea and the Laccadive
Sea.
• The name means "one
lakh islands" in
Malayalam and
Sanskrit, though there
are no more than a
hundred islands.
• The total area is around
32 km2, forming the
smallest union
territory.
• Kavaratti is the capital,
and the region falls under the jurisdiction of the Kerala High Court.
• The Union Territory was established in 1956 upon British departure.
• The majority follow Islam, particularly the Shafi school. The language spoken is Jeseri, with
Dhivehi in Minicoy. The culture is similar to Mappilas in Kerala.
2. Sela Road Tunnel

The Sela Tunnel has been excavated below the Sela Pass; a high-altitude mountain pass
situated at an elevation of 4,200 meters (13,800 feet) above sea level. This tunnel aims to provide
"all-weather" connectivity to Tawang, a remote and strategically significant district in the region.
It will be the world's longest bi-lane tunnel at an altitude above 13,000 feet.
3. Krishna-Godavari basin
The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) has
successfully initiated crude oil production from its KG-
DWN-98/2 deep-sea project in the Krishna-Godavari
basin off the east coast of India.
• It is situated in Andhra Pradesh and the Bay of

Bengal is a vast deltaic plain formed by the Krishna
and Godavari rivers.
• Covering 15,000 sq. km on land and 25,000 sq. km
offshore, it has 5 km thick sediments deposited from
Late Carboniferous to Pleistocene.
• The basin features upland and coastal plains, flood,
and delta plains. Notably, the D-6 block in this basin
holds India's largest natural gas reserves, discovered
by ONGC in 1983.
• Besides its geological significance, the basin is home
to the Vulnerable Olive Ridley Sea Turtle.
NOTES
4. Aravali Range
The Aravalli Range is regarded as the
"lungs" for the highly polluted air in
Delhi–National Capital Region (NCR).
More than 25% and 31 hill ranges of the
Aravallis in Rajasthan had vanished due to
illegal quarrying.
• Aravalli Range is among the world's

oldest fold mountains and is situated
in northwest India across states like
Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Haryana, as
well as the Union Territory of Delhi.
• Extending from southwest to
northeast, the highest peak is Guru
Shikhar near Mount Abu in Rajasthan.
• Rivers like Banas and Sahibi (Yamuna
tributaries) and Luni River originate
from the Aravalli region, serving as a water divide between the Indus and Ganga Basins.
• Known for rich mineral deposits including zinc, gold, silver, copper, dolomite, and marble, the
Aravalli Hills hold significance in geological and ecological contexts.
5. Imphal River
• It originates from
the northern hills
of Karong in
Senapati District
and is joined by
the Iril River at
Lilong, which is a
significant
watercourse
draining the
central plain.
• The river, along
with others,
contributes to the
formation of
swamps and lakes,
including the
renowned Loktak
Lake.
6. Chambal River
• Originating at Janapav south of Mhow town, the perennial Chambal River flows in a
northeastern direction through Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.
NOTES
• It converges with five rivers, including the
Chambal, Kwari, Yamuna, Sind, and Pahuj, at
Pachnada near Bhareh in Uttar Pradesh.
• The main tributaries are the left-hand Banas and
Mej, and the right-hand Parbati, Kali Sindh, and
Shipra rivers.
• Notable dams along its course include Gandhi
Sagar, Rana Pratap Sagar, and Jawahar Sagar. The
Chambal River is home to the National Chambal
Sanctuary, a critical habitat for the endangered
Gharial
7. Cauvery basin
The Cauvery basin has witnessed the loss of
approximately 12,850 sq. km of natural
vegetation between 1965 and 2016, with
Karnataka accounting for three-fourths of the
decline, according to a study by scientists at the
Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru.
• Karnataka has just around 20% of the
area under forest cover
Cauvery River
• It is the third largest river –
after Godavari and Krishna – in southern
India, and the largest in the state of Tamil
Nadu, known as ‘Ponni’ in Tamil.
• Originates in Karnataka (Talakaveri in
the Brahmagiri range in the Western
Ghats, Kodagu district) and eventually drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• Its left bank tributaries include Arkavathi, Hemavathi, Shimsa, and Harangi, while right bank
tributaries consist of Lakshmantirtha, Suvarnavati, Noyil, Bhavani, Kabini, and Amaravathi.
8. Narmada River
Severe rains in Gujarat caused the Narmada River to flood, displacing thousands. Some blame the
Sardar Sarovar Dam operators for their delayed actions.
The Sardar Sarovar Dam (opened

2017) is a concrete gravity dam
built on the Narmada River in
Navagam near the town of
Kevadiya, Narmada District, in the
state of Gujarat. The dam was
constructed to provide water and
electricity to four Indian states:
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, and Rajasthan
The Narmada is the largest west-

flowing river, the fifth-largest in
India, flowing through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat before reaching the Gulf of
Cambay. It is situated between the Vindhya and Satpura Ranges. Notable dams in the Narmada
Basin include the Sardar Sarovar Dam, Rani Avanti Bai Sagar (Bargi) Dam, and Maheshwar Dam.
NOTES
9. Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project

• It is a run-of-river dam that
aims to generate 2,000 MW of
power by harnessing the
potential of the Subansiri River,
which flows along the border of
Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
• It is India’s largest hydel
project under construction.
• The project is being executed by
the National Hydroelectric
Power Corporation (NHPC).
About Subansiri River

Subansiri (518km) (also called “Gold River”) is a trans-Himalayan river and the largest tributary of
the Upper Brahmaputra River. It flows into India through the Miri Hills of Arunachal Pradesh.
10. Banni Grassland

Aspect Details
Location Banni Grassland is situated near the Great Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
Size It is considered to be the largest Grassland in Asia, spreading over 2,618
kilometres and accounting for almost 45% of the pastures in Gujarat.
Formation The land in Banni was formed from the sediments deposited by the Indus
and other rivers over thousands of years.
Ecosystem Two ecosystems, wetlands, and grasslands, coexist in Banni.
Vegetation The vegetation is sparse and highly dependent on rainfall. It is dominated by
low-growing forbs and graminoids, many of which are halophiles (salt-
tolerant). The grasslands were traditionally managed by a system of
rotational grazing.
Reserve In 1955, the court notified the grassland as a reserve forest. In 2019, the
Forest Status National Green Tribunal (NGT) ordered to demarcation of the boundaries of
Banni grassland and restricted non-forest activities.
Most of the livestock keepers in Banni belong to the Maldhari community.
They rear the Banni or Sindhi buffalo, Kankrej cattle, sheep, goats, horses,
donkeys and camels
Significance The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has identified Banni Grassland as one of
the last remaining habitats of the cheetah in India.
11. Valparai plateau

Elephants in the Valparai plateau undertake an annual migration that typically starts in
September and continues until March. The elephants usually migrate from the Kerala side to the
Valparai plateau (Tamil Nadu)
What is Valparai plateau?

• It is a region located in the Western Ghats mountain range of India, specifically in the
Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu.
• Valparai is a hill station known for its tea, coffee plantations, and cardamom plantations. The
area serves as a crucial habitat for wildlife, including elephants that undertake an annual
migration through the region.
• The Valparai plateau is part of the Anamalai Tiger Reserve (ATR), contributing to its
biodiversity and ecological significance.
NOTES
12. Ennore Creek

During the recent Cyclone Michaung, an oil spill occurred from the Chennai Petroleum
Corporation Limited (CPCL) into the Buckingham Canal and Ennore Creek in Tamil Nadu.
Ennore Creek in Chennai, situated along the Coromandel Coast, serves as a crucial buffer for the
aquifers of the Araniyar-Kosasthalaiyar Basin, protecting them from the sea. Positioned in the
floodplains of three rivers on a disaster-prone coastline, Chennai relies on wetlands like Ennore
Creek as natural shock absorbers during calamities.
13. Char Dham Highway Project
14. Bekal Fort

Bekal Fort, dating back to 1650 AD and constructed by
Shivappa Nayaka of the Keladi dynasty, is known as the
largest fort in Kerala. Throughout its history, the fort has
witnessed the rise and fall of various dynasties and
eventually came under the control of the Kingdom of
Mysore.
Bekal Fort's unique structure, seemingly emerging from

the sea, features a water tank, an observation tower
attributed to Tipu Sultan, a zigzag entrance, defensive
trenches, and strategically placed holes in its outer walls
for naval defence.
NOTES
Its solid construction is reminiscent of forts like Thalassery Fort and St. Angelo Fort in Kannur,
both built by the Dutch.
15. Harami Nala (Sir Creek, Gujarat)

Harami Nala is a 22-kilometer tidal channel that serves as a
natural boundary between India and Pakistan. The channel
carries water and mud and is inhabited by protected marine
species. Vast marshy mudflats surround it, with temperatures
reaching above 50° Celsius in summer.
Sir Creek, originally Ban Ganga, is a 96-km tidal estuary in the

uninhabited marshlands of the Indus River Delta on the border
between India and Pakistan. The creek flows into the Arabian
Sea and separates Gujarat state in India from Sindh province in
Pakistan.
16. Konkan belt

• It is a coastal plain in
western India that extends
along the western coasts of
Maharashtra, Goa, and
Karnataka.
• The Konkan is a narrow
lowland that's only about
50 km wide.
• It's bounded by the
Western Ghats Mountain
range to the east, the
Arabian Sea to the west,
the Daman Ganga River to
the north, and the River
Aghanashini to the south.
17. Kaobal Gali-Mushkoh Valley

The Kaobal Gali-Mushkoh Valley, which was once a battlefield during the Kargil War, has now
opened up for tourists.
About Kaobal Gali-Mushkoh Valley:

• It is located in Kargil's Drass
Sector and was a battlefield
during the 1999 Kargil war
between India and Pakistan.
• The region includes the Gurez
Valley in north Kashmir, which
was previously inaccessible to
civilians due to shelling from
Pakistan but now connects with
the Mushkoh Valley in Kargil's
Drass Sector.
• Kaobal Gali, the highest pass at a height of 4,167 meters in Gurez, connects Gurez to
Mushkoh Valley.
NOTES
The Gurez Valley is close to the Line of Control (LoC) and is also home to ibex, musk deer and
marmots, Himalayan brown bear and snow leopard. The Kishanganga River flows through the
valley.
18. Parachik Glacier

Parachik Glacier is a mountain glacier in Kargil, Ladakh. It is a mass of ice moving slowly down
the Nun-Kun slopes. This ice mass falls finally into the Suru River. It is one of the largest glaciers in
the Suru River valley, covering an area of 53 square km and is 14 km long. The Suru River valley is
a part of the southern Zanskar Ranges in the western Himalayas
Places around the World
19. Indo-China Border

India shares a total boundary of around 3,488 km with China (the second largest after
Bangladesh).
The Sino-Indian border is generally divided into three sectors namely: Western sector, Middle
sector, and Eastern sector. 5 states viz. Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim
and Arunachal Pradesh share a border with China.
20. The India-Myanmar

border
• The India-Myanmar border is a
1,643-kilometer international
boundary running from the
tripoint with China in the north
to the tripoint with Bangladesh in
the south.
• The trijunction between India,
China, and Myanmar is yet to be
agreed upon, with the de facto
NOTES
tripoint located just north of the Diphu Pass.
• The border traverses various geographical features, including the Mishmi Hills, Patkai, Kassom
Ranges, Tiau River, and Chin Hills, before reaching the Bangladeshi tripoint through irregular
lines.
21. Agartala-Akhaura railway

The Tripura-Bangladesh railway link (about
12km) was recently inaugurated. This
project, known as the Agartala-Akhaura
railway, has the potential to dramatically
reduce travel time between Agartala and
Kolkata from 31 hours to just 10 hours,
opening up new opportunities for tourism,
trade, and people-to-people exchanges
between the two countries.
Funding for the project is entirely provided by India, with contributions from the Ministry for
Development of North East Region and the Ministry of External Affairs.
Other Rail Link are:

Train Name Route Description
Bandhan Kolkata to Khulna Rebooted an old rail link; Previously Barisal Express;
Express Restored in 2017; Crosses the Petrapole-Benapole
border.
Maitree Kolkata to Dhaka Started in April 2008.
Express Cantonment
Mitali Siliguri to Announced by PM Modi in March 2021.
Express Bangladesh capital
22. Durand Line

The Durand Line forms the Afghanistan–Pakistan border, a 2,670-
kilometre international border between Afghanistan and Pakistan in
South Asia.
The western end runs to the border with Iran and the eastern end to the
border with China.
Other Boundary Lines:

Line Description
McMahon Proposed by Lieutenant Colonel Sir Arthur Henry McMahon in 1914 at the
Line Shimla Convention. Separates Tibet, China, and India. LAC alignment in the
eastern sector follows the 1914 McMahon Line.
Radcliffe Drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, it divided British India into India and Pakistan.
Line Serves as the border between India and Pakistan (west) and India and
Bangladesh (east). Named after the chairman of the Boundary Commissions, Sir
Cyril Radcliffe.
23. Katchatheevu Island

• The island of Katchatheevu is a tiny uninhabited landmass
located in the Palk Strait between India and Sri Lanka.
• The island, which was ceded to Sri Lanka by the Indian
government in 1974, has sparked ongoing debates and protests
in Tamil Nadu due to its historical and cultural significance, as
well as its impact on fishermen's livelihoods.
NOTES
• Tamil Nadu continues to call for the retrieval of Katchatheevu from Sri Lanka.
24. Mauritius
The Union Cabinet has approved a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed between the
ISRO and the Mauritius Research and Innovation Council (MRIC) for the development of a Joint
Small Satellite.
• Mauritius is an island country in the

Indian Ocean.
• It comprises the main island,
Rodrigues, Agaléga, and St. Brandon,
forming part of the Mascarene
Islands.
• The capital is Port Louis.
• Explored by Arabs in 975, Portuguese
and Dutch sailors visited later.
• Mauritius is ethnically diverse, with
Hinduism being the predominant religion.
• It follows a Westminster parliamentary system, boasts high economic and political freedom,
and is classified as a high-income economy.
• Known for its biodiversity, Mauritius is home to endemic species and, historically, the dodo.
• It is consistently ranked as the most peaceful African country.
25. Peru
• It is a country in South America that's home to a section of the Amazon rainforest and
Machu Picchu, an ancient Incan city high in the Andes mountains.
• The region around Machu Picchu, including the Sacred Valley, Inca Trail and the colonial city
of Cusco, is rich in archaeological sites. On Peru’s arid Pacific coast is Lima, the capital.
26. Lake Titicaca

Lake Titicaca, situated in the Andes on the border between Bolivia and Peru, is facing historic low
water levels.
Lake Titicaca is one of South America's largest and most ancient lakes and the world’s highest
navigable lake. It is the birthplace of the Incas. Its waters are famously still and brightly reflective.
Around it is Titicaca National Reserve, sheltering rare aquatic wildlife such as giant frogs.
27. Lake Victoria

• Lake Victoria, Africa's largest lake and the world's second-largest freshwater lake, spans
approximately 59,947 km² and is shared by Kenya (6%), Uganda (43%), and Tanzania (51%).
• Fed by rivers like Kagera, Katonga, Sio, Yala, Nyando, Sondu Miriu, and Mara, it contributes to
the River Nile's water.
• As one of the African Great Lakes, Lake Victoria holds
significance as Africa's largest lake by area, the world's
largest tropical lake, and the second-largest freshwater lake
globally after Lake Superior in North America
28. Dominican Republic

• It is a Caribbean nation that shares the island of Hispaniola
with Haiti to the west.
NOTES
• Its terrain comprises rainforest, savannah and highlands, including Pico Duarte, the
Caribbean’s tallest mountain.
• Its capital city is Santo Domingo.
29. Uganda
Uganda is a landlocked country in East Africa whose
diverse landscape encompasses the snow-capped
Rwenzori Mountains and immense Lake Victoria.
Its abundant wildlife includes chimpanzees as well as
rare birds.
Remote Bwindi Impenetrable National Park is a
renowned mountain gorilla sanctuary.
30. Kra Isthmus

The Kra Isthmus, located on the Malay Peninsula in Thailand, has gained strategic importance
due to a proposed transit artery that could connect the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand.
This isthmus, just 44 km wide at its

narrowest point, has the potential to
impact international trade and security
similarly to the historical significance of
the Suez and Panama Canals. Recently,
the Thai Prime Minister officially
presented a multi-billion-dollar land-
bridge project.
An isthmus is a narrow strip of land that

connects two larger land masses and is bordered by water on two sides.
The Kra Isthmus in Thailand is the narrowest part of the Malay Peninsula. The isthmus is
bordered to the west by the Andaman Sea and to the east by the Gulf of Thailand
31. Mount Merapi (Indonesia)

Indonesia's Mount Merapi erupted on Sumatra
Island. The eruption sent a 3,000-meter ash column
into the sky, causing volcanic debris to impact
nearby villages.
• Mount Merapi, is an active stratovolcano

located on the border between the province of
Central Java and the Special Region of
Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
• It is the most active volcano in Indonesia and
has erupted regularly since 1548.
• Indonesia, situated on the subduction zone (the Indo-Australian Plate is subducting under
the Eurasian Plate), part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, experiences frequent volcanic and seismic
events.
NOTES
32. Mount Celia Gold Operation (Western Australia)
NMDC, a State-owned Steel CPSE, has expanded its mineral portfolio by inaugurating the Mount
Celia Gold Operation in Western Australia.
This marks NMDC's first venture into gold mining.
The Mt Celia project is located 180km northeast of

Kalgoorlie. Kalgoorlie is famous for its rich gold mining
history. It played a significant role in the Western
Australian gold rush of the late 19th century. The
"Golden Mile," a vast stretch of gold-bearing land, is located in the Kalgoorlie-Boulder area,
making it one of the most productive gold mining regions in the world
33. Mount Etna

Mount Etna, Europe's most active volcano,
has been erupting for over a year, causing
disruptions such as flight cancellations and
vehicle bans due to ash accumulation.
About Mount Etna

• It is an active stratovolcano on the east
coast of Sicily, Italy, in the Metropolitan
City of Catania and the highest
Mediterranean island mountain.
• It is located above the convergent plate
margin between the African Plate and
the Eurasian Plate.
• Mount Etna, with a recorded history of
volcanic activity dating back to 1500
B.C., has erupted over 200 times.
List of some of the most active volcanoes on Earth:

Volcano Location Notable Characteristics
Mount Etna Italy Highest Mediterranean Island Mountain, continuous
eruptions
Kilauea Hawaii, USA Long-term eruptions, ongoing since 1983
Mauna Loa Hawaii, USA One of the largest shield volcanoes, last erupted in
1984
Merapi Indonesia Frequent and highly explosive eruptions
Eyjafjallajökull Iceland Disrupted air travel in 2010 with ash clouds
Fagradalsfjall Iceland Ongoing eruptions attracted attention with recent
activity
Dukono Indonesia Long-term eruption since August 1933
Santa Maria Guatemala Erupting since June 1922, one of the most active in
Central America
Yasur Vanuatu Erupting since about 1270 (± 110 years), ongoing
34. Tonga
In 2023, record-high temperatures have been observed globally. Scientists attribute this unusual
heat to various factors, including an underwater volcanic eruption off Tonga (Hunga Tonga-Hunga
Ha'apai) in the South Pacific in January 2022.
NOTES
While most volcanic eruptions typically
cool the planet due to sun-dimming
particles, this eruption released a
significant amount of water vapour
and Sulfur dioxide into the
stratosphere, a natural greenhouse gas
that traps heat.
The volcano is located in the Tonga

island of the South Pacific Ocean. It is
part of the Tonga–Kermadec Islands
volcanic arc formed due to the
subduction of the Pacific Plate under
the Indo-Australian Plate.
Tonga is a Polynesian kingdom of more than 170 South Pacific islands, many uninhabited, most
lined in white beaches and coral reefs and covered with tropical rainforest.
35. Italy
• Italy is a boot-shaped peninsula in southern
Europe into the Adriatic Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea,
and Mediterranean Sea.
• Its location has played an important role in its
history.
• The sea surrounds Italy, and mountains
crisscross the interior, dividing it into regions.
36. Guyana and Venezuela

Guyana and Venezuela are in conflict
over the resource-rich Essequibo
region, historically claimed by both
nations.
About Esequiba
• Guayana Esequiba is a disputed
territory west of the Essequibo
River, claimed by both Guyana
and Venezuela.
• Guyana's claim has been
internationally accepted since
the 1899 Paris Arbitral Award.
• The boundary dispute originated from colonial powers (Spain in the case of Venezuela, and
the Netherlands and the United Kingdom in the case of Guyana) and persisted after the
independence of Venezuela and Guyana.
37. Nagorno-Karabakh region

Armenia and Azerbaijan are fighting over the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region, resulting in
casualties and significant tensions. The region, recognized as part of Azerbaijan but controlled by
NOTES
ethnic Armenians, has been a source of conflict for decades, with recent escalations in 2020 and
2023.
The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict is

an ethnic and territorial dispute
between Armenia and
Azerbaijan. It centres on
the Nagorno-Karabakh region,
predominantly Armenian-
populated but
within Azerbaijan’s borders. A
ceasefire mediated by Russia in
1994 left the region
under Armenian control, though
it’s still recognized as part of Azerbaijan.
38. Golan Heights

The Golan Heights, spanning about 1,800 km2, is a
basaltic plateau bordered by the Yarmouk River, the
Sea of Galilee, Hula Valley, Mount Hermon, and Wadi
Raqqad.
It was captured by Israel from Syria during the 1967
Six-Day War.
39. Yemen
• Yemen is a country in West Asia located at
the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula.
• It shares borders with Saudi Arabia and
Oman and maritime borders with Eritrea,
Djibouti, and Somalia.
• Yemen is a member of the Arab League, the
United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement,
and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.
40. Somalia
• It is a country in the Horn of Africa.
• The country is bordered by Ethiopia to the west,
Djibouti to the northwest, the Gulf of Aden to the
north, the Indian Ocean to the east, and Kenya to the
southwest.
• Somalia has the longest coastline on Africa's
mainland.
Countries called the Horn of Africa: SEED

• S- Somalia
• E- Ethiopia
• E- Eritrea
• D- Djibouti
NOTES
41. Tanzania
India and Tanzania have elevated their ties to a strategic
partnership level. They signed six agreements covering digital
cooperation, culture, sports, maritime industries, and white
shipping information sharing.
Tanzania is an East African country known for its vast

wilderness areas. They include the plains of Serengeti National
Park, populated by the “big five” game (elephant, lion, leopard,
buffalo, rhino), and Kilimanjaro National Park, home to Africa’s highest mountain.
42. Bhutan
• Bhutan is a landlocked country in the Eastern
Himalayas, bordered by China and India. Known
as "Druk Yul" or "Land of the Thunder Dragon,"
it has a constitutional monarchy with a king as
the head of state and a prime minister as the
head of government.
• Vajrayana Buddhism is the state religion, and
Gangkhar Puensum is its highest peak, also the
highest unclimbed mountain globally.
43. Maldives
• The Maldives is a South Asian archipelagic state in the
Indian Ocean, southwest of Sri Lanka and India.
• Comprising 26 atolls, it is the smallest country in Asia
and one of the world's most geographically dispersed
sovereign states.
• With a total area of about 90,000 square kilometres,
including the sea, and a population of 521,021, it is the
2nd least-populous country in Asia. Malé is the
capital, situated on the Chagos–Laccadive Ridge,
making it the world's lowest-lying country.
• Inhabited for over 2,500 years, the Maldives has a rich
history influenced by Islam, and European colonial
powers, and achieved independence from the United
Kingdom in 1965.
44. Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea, in the southwestern Pacific,
encompasses the eastern half of New Guinea and its
offshore islands. A country of immense cultural and
biological diversity, it’s known for its beaches and coral
reefs.
It has several volcanoes primarily due to its location on

the Pacific Ring of Fire. This region is characterized by
intense tectonic activity, including the subduction of
several tectonic plates beneath the Pacific Plate
NOTES
45. Armenia
• Armenia is a landlocked country in the mountainous
Caucasus region between Asia and Europe. Yerevan is
the capital.
• Armenia was the first state to adopt Christianity as its
official religion.
• It underwent the Armenian genocide during World
War I. After periods of independence and Soviet rule,
it became independent in 1991.
46. Japan's Kuril Islands

The Kuril Islands dispute, known as the Northern Territories
dispute in Japan, is a territorial dispute between Japan and
Russia over the ownership of the four southernmost Kuril
Islands.
The Kuril Islands are a volcanic archipelago administered as

part of the Sakhalin Oblast in the Russian Far East. The
islands stretch approximately 1,300 km northeast from
Hokkaido in Japan to Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia,
separating the Sea of Okhotsk from the North Pacific Ocean.
47. World’s Oldest Fort (Amnya Fort) in Siberia

Hunter-gatherers built the world's
oldest known fort 8,000 years ago
in Siberia, challenging the
assumption that fortresses were
exclusive to agricultural societies.
The Amnya fort along the Amnya

River in western Siberia consists of
pit-house depressions with earthen
walls and wooden palisades,
suggesting advanced agricultural
and defensive capabilities.
Siberia is a vast Russian province

encompassing most of Northern
Asia, with terrain spanning tundra, coniferous forest and mountain ranges including the Ural,
Altai and Verkhoyansk. Lake Baikal, in its south, is the world’s deepest lake, circled by a network
of hiking paths called the Great Baikal Trail. The Trans-Siberian Railway passes Baikal on its route
between Moscow and the Sea of Japan
48. Rafah Crossing

• The Rafah Crossing is the southernmost exit point
from the Gaza Strip and shares a border with
Egypt's Sinai Peninsula.
• It is controlled by Egypt and is the only exit that
does not lead to Israeli territory.
• Currently, both Erez and Kerem Shalom border
crossings, controlled by Israel, are closed, making
NOTES
Rafah the primary entry and exit point for Gaza's people and humanitarian aid.
49. Suez Canal

It is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt (completed in 1859),
connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus
of Suez and dividing Africa and Asia.
The 193 km long canal is a key trade route between Europe and Asia.
What is Ben Gurion Canal Project?

The Ben Gurion Canal Project is a theoretical proposal to cut a canal through Israel's Negev
Desert, creating an alternative route to the Suez Canal. Envisioned in the 1960s, it aimed to
challenge Egypt's monopoly on the shortest trade route between Europe and Asia.
However, the project faces immense challenges, including logistical complexities, high costs, a
longer route, and security concerns in a region marked by ongoing military threats.
Who was Ben Gurion?

David Ben-Gurion (1886–1973) was Israel's founding father and its first Prime Minister. He played
a pivotal role in establishing the state of Israel in 1948
50. Kawah Ijen Crater Lake (East Java, Indonesia)

Kawah Ijen Crater Lake in East
Java, Indonesia, is the world's
largest acidic lake, as it contains
high concentrations of sulphuric
and hydrochloric acids, making it
unswimmable.
It's easily visible from space

(turquoise blue waters) and has a
pH as low as 0.5, similar to car
battery acid. The lake also emits
hot, flammable sulphurous gases
that burn with an eerie blue
flame, blue fire, creating a
mesmerizing nighttime spectacle. Despite its harsh conditions, there is life in the form of
microbial communities (mainly Archaea) in the lake and its acidic river.
It's a UNESCO Global Geopark with unique geological, biological, and cultural features. The active
vent at the edge of the lake serves as a significant source of elemental sulfur, supporting a
rigorous mining operation.
NOTES
51. Tuvalu
• Tuvalu, formerly the Ellice Islands,
is a Polynesian island nation in the
Pacific Ocean, located between
Hawaii and Australia.
• It is a volcanic archipelago
comprising three reef islands and
six true atolls.
• It is the fourth smallest country
globally, with the highest point at
4.6 meters above sea level.
• It is often referred to as the first
country that will be totally submerged, due to climate change.
52. Nordic-Baltic (NB8) countries

The Nordic-Baltic (NB8) countries refer to a
group of eight nations in Northern Europe,
comprising the Nordic countries (Denmark,
Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) and the
Baltic states (states along the Baltic Sea)
(Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania).
These countries collaborate on various
economic, diplomatic, and strategic initiatives to
promote regional cooperation and address
shared challenges.
This region is characterized by close geographical proximity and shared historical, cultural, and
economic ties. It serves as a platform for collaboration and partnership among the countries in
areas such as trade, innovation, and diplomatic relations.
53. Baltic Sea

• The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is
enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia,
Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and
Central European Plain.
• It separates the Scandinavian Peninsula from the rest of
continental Europe.
54. Taiwan
• Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a country in East Asia.
• It is located at the junction of the East and South China Seas in
the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People’s Republic of
China to the northwest, Japan to the northeast, and the
Philippines to the south.
55. South China Sea

The South China Sea is an arm of the western Pacific Ocean in
Southeast Asia. It is located to the south of China, east and south of
NOTES
Vietnam, west of the Philippines,
and north of the island of Borneo.
It's a major global shipping route,
with about one-third of the
world's shipping passing through
it, contributing significantly to its
geopolitical significance. There are
multiple contested islands in this
region, including the
• Paracel Islands (claimed by
China, Taiwan, and
Vietnam)
• Spratly Islands (claimed by
China, Taiwan, Vietnam,
Brunei, and the
Philippines)
• Scarborough Shoal
(claimed by the
Philippines, China, and
Taiwan)
Additionally, China has been

constructing artificial islets in the
region since 2010. The 2016
UNCLOS ruling dismissed China’s
claims within the nine-dashed line
and clarified that the disputed
Islands are not its maritime entitlement.
56. Nairobi (Kenya)

Kenya is a country in East Africa with a coastline on the
Indian Ocean. It encompasses savannah, lakelands, the
dramatic Great Rift Valley and mountain highlands. It's also
home to Maasai Mara Reserve, known for its annual
wildebeest migrations, and Amboseli National Park, offering
views of Tanzania's 5,895m Mt. Kilimanjaro.
57. Argentina
Argentina is a country in the southern half of South America. It
is the second-largest country in South America after Brazil.
The Andes Mountains, which run through both Argentina and
Chile, are known for hosting lithium-rich brine deposits.
The region’s unique geological conditions make it conducive to
the formation and concentration of lithium resources.
58. Maui
Maui is an island in the Central Pacific, part of the Hawaiian archipelago. The Hawaiian Islands
are an archipelago of eight major volcanic islands, several atolls, and numerous smaller islets in
NOTES
the North Pacific Ocean, extending
some 1,500 miles from the island of
Hawaiʻi in the south to the
northernmost Kure Atoll.
Formation: The Hawaiian Islands were

formed by a hot spot occurring in the
middle of the Pacific Plate. While the
hot spot itself is fixed, the plate is
moving. So, as the plate moved over
the hot spot, the string of islands that
make up the Hawaiian Island chain
was formed.
59. Kigali (Rwanda)

Kigali is the capital city of Rwanda.
Kigali Genocide Memorial documents
the 1994 mass killings in Rwanda, associated with the
country’s civil war.
Rwanda is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of

Central Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and
Southeast Africa converge. Located a few degrees south of
the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of
the Congo.
60. UK's Rosebank oil field

The Rosebank oil field, located
northwest of the Shetland Islands,
is a significant untapped reserve
with the potential to produce 300
million barrels of oil. It's expected
to contribute 8% of the UK's total
oil production and generate jobs
until 2051.
The North Sea lies between Great Britai n, Denmark,

Norway, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and France. An epeiric sea (on the continental plate
and having a very low depth avg. of 90m) on the European continental shelf, it connects to
the Atlantic Ocean through the English Channel in the south and the Norwegian Sea in the north.
61. Timor-Leste
• Timor-Leste is a Southeast Asian nation
occupying half the island of Timor and is ringed
by coral reefs teeming with marine life.
• It comprises the eastern half of the island of
Timor, of which the western half is
administered by Indonesia, the exclave of
Oecusse on the island's north-western half, and
the minor islands of Atauro and Jaco.
• Australia is the country's southern neighbour, separated by the Timor Sea.
NOTES
Timor-Leste was a Portuguese colony until 1975, followed by Indonesian rule after the conflict. In
1999, it gained independence through a UN-sponsored act and became the 1st sovereign state of
the 21st century (in 2002)
62. Sulina Channel (Danube

River)
• The Sulina Channel holds
immense importance for
Ukraine's grain trade.
• The Sulina Channel, a
distributary of the Danube,
connecting major Ukrainian
ports to the Black Sea within
Romania's borders.
• The Danube is the second-
longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It rises in the Black Forest mountains of
western Germany and flows for 2,850 km to its mouth on the Black Sea.
63. Panama Canal

The Panama Canal is an 82 km
artificial waterway in Panama,
connecting the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans and dividing
North and South America.
It allows ships to avoid the

lengthy and dangerous voyage
around Cape Horn. Panama
itself forms an isthmus (a
narrow land strip connecting
two larger landmasses)
between North and South
America.
This differs from straits, which

are narrow waterways joining
larger bodies of water, like the
Strait of Gibraltar.
The canal lifts ships through

locks to Gatun Lake and then
lowers them. Originally under
French control in the late
1800s, the United States
completed the project in 1914
and managed it until 1999
when Panama took over. It's
now operated by the Panama
Canal Authority.
NOTES
64. Northern Sea Route (NSR)
• It is the shortest shipping route connecting Europe and
the Asia-Pacific region. Spanning 5,600 km, it passes
through four seas of the Arctic Ocean.
• The route starts at the boundary between the Barents
and Kara seas (Kara Strait) and concludes at the
Bering Strait (Provideniya Bay).
• The NSR offers potential distance savings of up to
50% compared to existing shipping lanes via Suez or
Panama.
65. Antarctica's Blood Falls

• After more than a century of curiosity,
scientists have finally unravelled the
mystery behind Antarctica's Blood
Falls, a bright red waterfall that flows
from Taylor Glacier.
• The iconic red hue is caused by the
presence of small "iron-rich
nanospheres" (various elements such
as iron, silicon, calcium, aluminium,
and sodium) in the water.
• The Taylor Glacier is an Antarctic
glacier about 54 kilometres long,
flowing from the plateau of Victoria Land into the western end of Taylor Valley, north of the
Kukri Hills, south of the Asgard Range.
66. Ghana
Ghana is a country in West Africa.
It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the
Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing
borders with Ivory Coast in the west,
Burkina Faso in the north, and Togo in
the east.
Accra is the capital of Ghana, on the
Atlantic coast of West Africa.
NOTES
Miscellaneous
1. Iron Ore Sector in India
Iron ore refers to rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be extracted economically. It
typically contains iron oxides, and the primary types include hematite, magnetite, and taconite.
Status:
India is self-sufficient in iron ore production. It contributes 7% to global production.
Distribution of Iron Ore:

• India is endowed with abundant
resources of iron ore, with the largest
reserve of iron ore in Asia.
• The iron ore mines occur in close
proximity to the coal fields in the
northeastern plateau region which
adds to their advantage.
• States:
o About 95% of total the
reserves of iron ore are
located in the States of
Odisha, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka,
Goa, Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• Mines:
o In Odisha, iron ore occurs in
a series of hill ranges in
Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar. The important mines here include Badampahar
(Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu (Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundergarh).
o Jharkhand has some of the oldest iron ore mines and most of the iron and steel
plants are located around them.
▪ Important mines include Noamundi and Gua in Poorbi and Pashchimi
Singhbhum districts, further extending to Durg, Dantewara and Bailadila.
• Other regions:
o Karnataka - Sandur-Hospet area of Ballari district, Baba Budan hills and Kudremukh
in Chikkamagaluru district and parts of Shivamogga, Chitradurg and Tumakuru
districts.
o Chandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts of Maharashtra; Karimnagar and
Warangal districts of Telangana; Kurnool, Cuddapah and Anantapur districts of
Andhra Pradesh; Salem and Nilgiris districts of Tamil Nadu
o Goa has also emerged as an important producer of iron ore.
2. India Meteorological Department

The India Meteorological Department (IMD) celebrated its 150th year of establishment and
service to the nation.
• The India Meteorological Department (IMD) is the primary government agency for
meteorology and related topics.
• It is responsible for weather forecasting, seismology, and meteorological observations.
• The IMD was established in 1875 by the Government of India. Its parent organization is the
Ministry of Earth Sciences. The IMD's subsidiaries include the Regional Meteorological
Centre, Chennai and the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology.
NOTES
3. Tantalum
Tantalum, a rare metal, has recently been discovered in the Sutlej River by an IIT Ropar team.
What is Tantalum? It is a grey, heavy, and highly corrosion-resistant element with the
atomic number 73
Discovery: Tantalum is a rare metal which was first discovered in 1802 by Swedish
chemist Anders Gustaf Ekenberg.
Properties: Grey, heavy, highly corrosion-resistant
Forms an oxide layer when exposed to air
Ductile, allowing stretching into thin wires
Extremely resistant to chemical attack at temperatures below 150°C
High melting point, exceeded only by tungsten and rhenium.
Uses of Tantalum: Capacitors in the electronic sector for compact energy storage.
Component in chemical plants, nuclear power plants, aircraft, and
missiles.
Substitute for platinum due to its high melting point.
Used in medical applications for surgical equipment and implants.
Composite with tantalum carbide (TaC) used in high-speed machine
tool cutting edges.
Significance of The discovery in the Sutlej River sand suggests a potential domestic
Discovery: source, reducing import dependence and benefiting India's electronics
and semiconductor industry.
India imports almost all of its Tantalum, mainly from the United States,
the United Kingdom, and Germany. Democratic Republic of the Congo
is the largest producer in the world.
Reserve in India Tantalum ore is available in India in the form of tantalite-columbite ore
in mines in Bihar, Rajasthan, and Karnataka.
About Satluj River: It is the easternmost tributary of the Indus River and the longest of the
five rivers in Punjab, northern India, and Pakistan (Jhelum, Chenab,
Ravi, Beas and Satluj).
It is also known as Satadree, an antecedent river maintaining its original
course despite topographic changes.
It rises on the north slope of the Himalayas in Lake
La’nga in southwestern Tibet.
Sutlej River meets the Beas River in Harike in the Ferozpur district
before entering Pakistan. The combined rivers then form the Panjnad,
the link between the Five Rivers and the Indus.
It is home to Bhakra Dam and the Luhri Stage-I Hydro Electric
Project Flows from Tibet to India, meeting the Beas River in Punjab.
4. Graphite
• China is the world's largest producer of natural graphite, accounting for two-thirds of global
supply.
• While Mozambique, Madagascar, and Brazil are significant non-Chinese producers, China
also refines over 90% of the world's graphite for use in EV battery anodes
• Graphite is a naturally occurring crystalline form of carbon. It's made up of stacked layers of
graphene. Graphite is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions.
• Graphite is a mineral that's found in metamorphic and igneous rocks. It's extremely soft,
cleaves with very light pressure, and has a very low specific gravity.
NOTES
• Graphite is a good conductor of electricity and heat. It's also lighter than diamond, smooth
and slippery to touch.
• Graphite, a key component in electric vehicle (EV) batteries, has seen a surge in demand due
to the growth of the EV industry. The battery end-use market for graphite has grown by
250% globally since 2018
5. Vanadium
What are Critical Raw Materials?

Critical raw materials are substances that are of high economic importance and are essential for
the production of various goods, technologies, and industries. These materials are considered
critical due to their potential supply chain risks, geopolitical concerns, and their importance for
strategic sectors.
Examples of critical raw materials include:

Examples Description
Rare Earth Used in high-tech products like electronics, wind turbines, and electric
Elements vehicle batteries. Includes neodymium, europium, and dysprosium.
Lithium Essential for lithium-ion batteries in EVs, smartphones, laptops, and
renewable energy storage.
Cobalt The key component in lithium-ion batteries, crucial for electric vehicles and
portable electronics.
NOTES
Vanadium Used in aerospace, defence, and energy storage, including vanadium
redox flow batteries
Platinum Group Critical for catalytic converters in vehicles and industrial processes.
Metals Includes platinum, palladium, and rhodium.
Graphite An essential component in lithium-ion batteries and various industrial
applications.
Antimony Used in flame retardants, semiconductors, and as a hardening agent in
lead-acid batteries.
Tungsten Essential for high-temperature applications, particularly in aerospace and
defence.
Rare Metals Materials like tantalum and niobium, are used in electronic components
and aerospace applications.
About the Gulf of Khambhat (Gulf of Cambay)
It is a bay on the Arabian Sea coast of India, bordering the state of Gujarat just north of Mumbai
and Diu Island.
6. Lithium Extraction
India has successfully extracted lithium from the mineral concentrate on a laboratory scale.
• The country has demonstrated its capability to develop technologies for the beneficiation of
lithium ore to lithium mineral concentrate.
• The processing and refining methods for lithium ore can vary depending on the type of
lithium deposit, the characteristics of the ore, and the intended end-use of the lithium
compounds.
India has recently identified a comprehensive list of 30 critical minerals, including lithium, as
part of its mineral security strategy.
About Lithium:
• Lithium (Li), sometimes also referred to as ‘White gold’ due to its high demand for
rechargeable batteries, is a soft and silvery-white metal.
Major Global Lithium Reserves:

• Chile > Australia > and Argentina are the top countries with Li reserves.
• Lithium Triangle: Chile, Argentina, Bolivia.
NOTES
7. Global North/South Divide (Brandt Line)
The Brandt Line (an imaginary line) is a
concept that categorizes the world into richer
countries mainly in the Northern Hemisphere
and poorer countries mostly in the Southern
Hemisphere, highlighting global economic
disparities.
"Global North" (wealthier communities) and

a "Global South" (poorer communities) exist
both within and among nations.
The line is based on the “North-South: A Programme for Survival”, a report addressing the
problems of international inequality
8. Palaeo Proxies
Palaeo proxies, short for paleoclimate proxies, are indirect pieces of evidence that scientists use
to infer past climate conditions. Since instrumental climate records (such as thermometer
measurements) are only available for a relatively short period, usually a few hundred years,
scientists rely on various natural sources to reconstruct climate conditions over longer timescales.
To estimate past temperatures, scientists also use isotopes that undergo steady radioactive
decay.
Limitations of these techniques?

Palaeo proxy technique has limitations. It can only provide temperature anomalies on long
timescales, such as centuries or thousands of years. Even the best proxies only offer estimates
on weekly or seasonal timescales. Additionally, all temperature proxies are local or regional,
making global temperature estimates uncertain.

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Places in News ............................................................................................................ 31

PLACES AROUND THE WORLD ...................................................................................................... 37

Features of National Landslide Susceptibility Map:

India's Vulnerability to Landslides (as per ISRO’s Landslide Atlas of India)

Government Measures for Landslide Impact Mitigation:

Important Straits of the World are:

Cyclone intensification is influenced by factors such as warm ocean temperatures, Tropical

But what creates the spin?

What happens when a cyclone hits the land?

What are the different parts of a cyclone’s structure?

How are cyclones named?

As an RSMC, the IMD names the

Changing characters of cyclones in India:

How climate change can rapidly intensify tropical storms:

The IMD’s four colour codes are:

About The Fujiwhara effect:

5. Pacific Decadal Oscillation

About Pacific Decadal Oscillation:

What is a Mediterranean storm?

Libya is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It

What causes El Nino?

Weather changes because of La Nina:

9. Indian Ocean Dipole

There are two phases of the Indian Ocean Dipole:

The ionosphere is a layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is

11. Peninsular River Vs Himalayan Rivers

Difference between the Himalayan and Peninsular River System:

12. Iridescent clouds

• Earthquakes occur due to the movement of tectonic

Reasons for Frequent Earthquakes in Afghanistan:

What is tectonic deformation?

14. Morocco’s earthquake

Reason for the Earthquake:

More about Oblique-Reverse Fault:

Various types of faults:

Type of Fault Description

Strike-Slip Faults Horizontal movement along the fault

Oblique-Slip Faults Show characteristics of both dip-slip and

Earthquake Prone areas in

How was Zealandia formed?

Zealandia began as part of the

Zealandia separated from the landmasses to its

Evidence in support of Zealandia as a continent:

What is plate tectonics and how continents are formed?

Process of Continental Formation:

16. Almora Fault

However, experts dispute this claim,

What is the Almora Fault?

17. Pontus plate

18. E Prime Layer

What is an E-Prime Layer?

19. Underwater Volcano Eruption

What are phreatomagmatic eruptions?

About Japan's Ogasawara island chain:

20. Seismic Activity in Iceland

What are the reasons for the seismic activity in Iceland?

What is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge?

21. Poor Air Quality in Mumbai

Reasons Behind Rising Air Pollution in Mumbai Recently:

What is the Air Quality Index (AQI)?

What is Glacial Lake outburst flood (GLOF)?