APPLICATION OF SENSORS

TO CHEMICAL PROCESSES
Basic informations
Course content:

• Sensors classification
• Sensor characteristics
• Physical principles of sensing
• Temperature, pressure, flow, and displacement sensors
• Actuators: control valve
• Microcontroller

Course material:

• Slides
• Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications,
Jacob Fraden, 4th ed., 2010, ISBN 978-1-4419-6465-6, Springer
(online)

lucia.gambuzza@dieei.unict.it
Why?
Why do we want (and need) to study the functioning of sensors and actuators?
Sensors are everywhere
Sensors are everywhere
Flow diagram for a typical oil refinery

Fluid systems and units commonly have

instrumentation such as temperature
and pressure sensors and flow
measuring devices at select locations in
a plant.

Fluid systems for carrying liquids and

gases include piping and tubing of
various diameter sizes, various types of
valves for controlling or stopping flow,
pumps for moving or pressurizing liquid,
and compressors for pressurizing or
moving gases.
Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
Piping and Instrumentation Diagram P&ID
Piping and Instrumentation Diagram P&ID
Temperature

Temperature is the most important measurand

in the chemical industry. It affects the raw
materials and must be precisely controlled as
well as monitored to prevent variations in
quality and unwanted reactions.
Pressure, level and flow

In addition to temperature the measurands pressure, level, and flow also

play a major role in the manufacturing and processing of many chemicals.
Humidity

Do you produce dry, pulverized products?

Then humidity definitely plays a decisive role in your production plant.

%
Liquid analysis

In addition to devices that acquire classic

parameters like temperature, pressure, and
humidity in the fields of manufacturing,
storage, and refinement of chemicals, also
measuring devices and sensors for use in
liquid chemical media (e.g. for pH value and
conductivity measurement) are required.
Wastewater Treatment Chemistry

Like every water treatment system,

municipal systems have certain
limitations regarding quantity, pH,
biological and chemical oxygen
demand, and others. Therefore the
wastewater of the chemical industry
needs to be adjusted accordingly to
meet the local requirements and to
ensure their functionality.
Wastewater Treatment Chemistry
pH in Wastewater

Municipal wastewater systems can handle wastewater only in within certain limits,
especially if the operate a biological treatment step. So before industrial wastewater
enters the municipal system the pH value has to fulfill the local requirements and
needs to be adjusted if necessary.

The EasyControl pH sensor provides an entry

level pH sensor that works well in low
temperatures and low conductivity
applications.
Wastewater Treatment Chemistry
Dissolved Oxygen in Wastewater

The corrosivity status of wastewater and its influence on the municipal system can be
determined by its dissolved oxygen content and other parameters like pH and ORP. If
industrial wastewater is treated on site in a biological step the DO content is important
for its efficiency.

OxyGold G traditional polarographic DO

sensors offer parts-per-billion trace oxygen
measurement with a nA output signal
compatible with most transmitters and
controllers on the market.
Wastewater Treatment Chemistry
Conductivity in Wastewater

Salinity of wastewater and other solutions has an effect on the corrosion behavior and
the amount of oxygen that can be dissolved. The higher salinity gets the less oxygen
can get dissolved and thus the wastewater might have a negative effect on the
biological treatment and corrosion of the materials involved.

Conducell 4UxF 4-pole conductivity sensors

offer good linearity with a broad
measurement range and multiple electrode
options.
Water Preparation Chemistry

Wa te r tr e a tm e n t i s u s e d to
standardize and optimize water
based processes. Due to different
process requirements and raw water
qualities, purification steps leading to
defined process water is key. Purified
water helps to reduce scaling and
corrosion of valuable assets i.e.
reactors, heat exchangers, etc.
Water Preparation Chemistry
Water Purification Before Reverse Osmosis

Water needs to be treated in order to run reverse osmosis efficiently. As key indicator
for the success of the pre-treatment conductivity is measured. Some of the Reverse
osmosis units are located in hazardous environment areas requiring suitable
measurement technology.

pH sensor offers a perfect installations in

high / low pH applications
Water Preparation Chemistry
pH at Reverse Osmosis

Goal of the pH measurement at the reverse osmosis is to detect the break through of
ions influencing the pH value. These would increase the risk of corrosion in the
system. The pH sensors used need to measure precisely in a low ion containing
environment.

Polilyte pH sensors offer high accuracy and

longevity in industrial applications.
Water Preparation Chemistry
Water Purification After Reverse Osmosis

After Reverse osmosis conductivity measurement is used as an indicator for the

efficiency of the process.

Conducell UPW Arc 2-pole conductivity

sensors. Calibrations is stored in the sensor,
predictive diagnostics, automated
documentation, as well as user and process
assignment. Direct connection to the control
system eliminates the need for a transmitter,
many available communication protocols
provide the flexibility for simple integration.
Product Formulation

Before chemicals can be used or

applied suitable mixtures for
various applications need to be
formulated. The formulation
procedure needs to be monitored
closely because some recipes
require a chronological order of
the components in order to avoid
by products and to maximize the
yield.
Product Formulation
pH of the Product

The process conditions are monitored to keep control on the process and to ensure
the desired result.

Dissolved Oxygen in Cooling Water

Piping systems and heat exchangers are prone to corrosion if the content of dissolved
oxygen is too high, especially if the amount of corrosion inhibitors is too low at the
same time.

Conductivity in Cooling Water

As cooling water contains corrosion inhibitors conductivity measurement indicates if

their concentration is in the desired range. Reservoirs of cooling water need to be
refilled from time to time leading to a decrease in corrosion inhibitor concentration and
thus a higher risks for the piping system and heat exchangers.
INTRODUCTION TO
SENSORS
Feedback loop control

r(t) + e(t) u(t) v(t) y(t)

C(s) Ga(s) P(s)
-

Gs(s)

G_s(s) represents the transfer function of the sensor block

G_a(s) represents the transfer function of the actuators
Sensors r(t) + e(t)
C(s)
u(t)
Ga(s)
v(t)
P(s)
y(t)

Gs(s)

In the design of the feedback control system an important part is the

choice of measuring devices. A more or less appropriate choice may
affects the performance of the system.

The main problem is related to the accuracy of the measurement, we

want a measurement as precise as possible to improve the
performance of the control system.

However, the location of the sensor in the measurement system is also

important, or its dynamic behavior which reflects into the ability to
reduce any delays and / or measurement noises.
Example: temperature control
Sensors
Definition: a sensor is often defined as a device that receives and
responds to a signal or stimulus.

This definition is broad. In fact, it is so broad that it covers almost

everything from a human eye to a trigger in a pistol.

Example:
Level-control
Sensors
The operator adjusts the level of fluid in the tank by manipulating its valve.
Variations in the inlet flow rate, temperature changes (these would alter the
fluid’s viscosity and, consequently, the flow rate through the valve), and similar
disturbances must be compensated for by the operator.

Information -processing system

Sensor (sight tube + optic nerve)

Processing (brain)
Actuator (brain + valve)
Sensors
If a sight tube is designed properly, it will very quickly reflect variations
in the level, and it is said that the sensor has a fast speed response.

If the internal diameter of the tube is too small for a given fluid viscosity,
the level in the tube may lag behind the level in the tank .

Then, we have to consider a phase characteristic of such a sensor. In

some cases, the lag may be quite acceptable, whereas in other cases,
a better sight tube design would be required.

The sensor’s performance must be assessed only as a part of a data

acquisition system.
Sensors
The natural sensors, like those found in living organisms, usually
respond with signals, having an electro- chemical character

Human eye: electrical signals from the photoreceptors of the retina are
transmitted through the optic nerve.

In man-made devices information is also transmitted and processed in

electrical form—however, through the transport of electrons.

Sensors that are used in artificial systems must speak the same
language as the devices with which they are interfaced.

A sensor thus is a device that receives a stimulus and responds with an

electrical signal.
What is the meaning of stimulus?

The stimulus is the quantity, property, or condition that is sensed and

converted into electrical signal.

The purpose of a sensor is to respond to some kind of an input physical

property (stimulus) and to convert it into an electrical signal which is
compatible with electronic circuits.

We may say that a sensor is a translator of a generally nonelectrical

value into an electrical value. With the term “electrical” we mean a
signal which can be channeled, amplified, and modified with electronic
devices.
The sensor’s output signal may be in the form of voltage, current, or
charge.
Sensors vs transducers
The term sensor should be distinguished from transducer.

A transducer is a converter of one type of energy into another.

A sensor converts any type of energy into electrical energy.

An example of a transducer is a loudspeaker which converts an

electrical signal into a variable magnetic field and, subsequently, into
acoustic waves.

Transducer may be used as actuators in various systems. An actuator

may be described as opposite to a sensor, it converts electrical signal
into generally non electrical energy.

An example is the electrical motor which converts electric energy into

mechanical action.
Transducers

Transducers may be parts of a complex sensors.

For example, a chemical sensor may have a part which converts the
energy of a chemical reaction into heat (transducer) and another part, a
thermopile, which converts heat into an electrical signal. The
combination of the two makes a chemical sensor a device which
produces an electrical signal in response to a chemical reaction.

Note that many sensors incorporate at least one direct-type sensor and
a number of transducers. The direct sensors are those that employ
such physical effects that make a direct energy conversion into
electrical signal generation or modification.
Sensors

There are two types of sensors: direct and complex.

A direct sensor converts a stimulus into an electrical signal or modifies
an electrical signal by using an appropriate physical effect.
A complex sensor in addition needs one or more transducers of energy
before a direct sensor can be employed to generate an electrical
output.
Sensors
However…..

We will define a sensor an element that produces

an output dependent on a physical variable it is
affected by, according to a fixed law.

Distance Capacity electric

Sensor displacement
d C sensor
Transducers
However…..

We will define transducer a device which

transforms the quantity supplied by the primary
sensor into a more easily manageable output.

A sensor does not function by itself; it is always a part of a larger

system, the information-processing systems, that may incorporate
many other detectors, signal conditioners, signal processors, memory
devices, data recorders, and actuators.

The sensor (with respect to the transducer) is always the initial element
of the measurement process.
Information-processing systems
Information-processing systems

Positions of sensors in a data

acquisition system:
sensor 1 is non-contact;
sensors 2 and 3 are passive;
sensor 4 is active;
sensor 5 is internal to a data
acquisition system.
 Measurement process

POWER SUPPLY
Measurement
Physical
quantity

SIGNAL Visualize
SENSOR TRANSDUCER Store
CONDITIONER

Physical Electrical
signal signal

mean, filter, DAC and Monitoring

The state of the
ADC conversion
quantity is
changed as
response to an
input stimulus
Measurement process
The measurement process is an uninterrupted succession of
connected instruments and procedures in order to acquire and process
the input signal (the physical quantity to be measured) until the actual
measurement is obtained at the output.

POWER SUPPLY

Physical Measurement
quantity

SIGNAL Visualize
SENSOR TRANSDUCER
CONDITIONER Store

Physical Electrical
signal signal

The state of the mean, filter, DAC Monitoring

quantity is and ADC
changed as conversion
response to an
input stimulus
Signal conditioners

The output of a transducer cannot always be directly connected to a

measuring, processing or display instrument.

The electrical signal coming from the transducer may contain unwanted
components, it could be generally too noisy or weak (signals of the
order of millivolts or pico-ampere) to be transmitted at certain distance.

It is necessary to insert in the measurement process a further stage

which optimizes the connection between the sensor and the load.
Signal conditioners
Signal conditioning is a process of data acquisition, an instrument called a
signal conditioner is used to perform this process.

This instrument converts one type of electrical or mechanical signal (input-

signal) into another (output-signal). The purpose is to amplify and convert this
signal into an easy to read and compatible form for data-acquisition or
machine-control.

Signal Conversion
A signal conditioner picks up the signal and convert it into a higher level of
electrical signal. In a standard application, due to the different sensors being
employed, the signals generated may need to be converted to be usable for the
instruments they are connected too.
Signal conditioners
Linearization
Certain signal conditioners can perform linearization when the signals
produced by a sensor do not have a straight-line relationship with the physical
measurement (it is common for thermocouple signals).

Amplifying
This is the process of increasing the signal for processing or digitization. There
are two ways that signal amplification can be performed; by increasing the
resolution of the input signal, or by increasing the signal-to-noise ratio.

Filtering
Another important function of a signal conditioner is filtering, and this is where
the signal frequency spectrum is filtered to only include the valid data and block
any noise.
Sensors

Primary element of a measurement process which converts an input

signal into a signal suitable for the measurements

Element of a measurement process which converts a physical

quantity into an highly reliable electric signal

The whole measurement process comprises the sensor itself, the

signal conditioner and eventually other components

A device capable to produce an output signal as a result of an input

stimulus
Sensors classification
Sensors can be classified as:
‣ analog sensors if they produce continuous output signal or voltage which is
in general proportional to quantity to be measured. Quantities such as
temperature, speed, displacement, pressure, strain etc. are analog quantities
as they are continuous in nature.
• Example: Temperature of liquid can be measured using thermometer or
thermocouple which continuously responds to changes in temperature as
liquid is heated up or cooled down.
‣ digital sensors, if they produce discrete digital output signal or voltage which
is digital representation of quantity to be measured, it produces binary output
in the form of ones (1s) and zeros (0s).
Sensors
‣ Binary sensors if the output has just two values (on/off)
‣ Passive sensors, they generate electric signals without energy
consumption from the electronic circuits. (or in other words does not need
any additional energy source and directly generates an electric signal in
response to an external stimulus; that is, the input stimulus energy is
converted by the sensor into the output signal)
‣ Active sensors, they require an operating signal, which is provided by an
excitation circuit. (sometimes are called parametric because their own
properties change in response to an external effect and these properties
can be subsequently converted into electric signals. It can be stated that
a sensor’s parameter modulates the excitation signal and that modulation
carries information of the measured value)
Sensors
‣ Absolute sensors, they detect a stimulus in reference to an absolute
physical scale that is independent on the measurement conditions,
‣ Relative sensors, they produce a signal that relates to some special case.

Example of the absolute and relative sensors is a pressure sensor. An

absolute pressure sensor produces signal in reference to vacuum an
absolute zero on a pressure scale. A relative pressure sensor produces
signal with respect to a selected baseline that is not zero pressure (e.g., to
the atmospheric pressure).
Transducer
-The physical nature of a stimulus perceived by the sensor is modified in
another form of energy more suitable to be used in the other steps of the
measurement process

Example: mercury thermometer

It is a temperature measurement instrument that consists of a bulb from
which a thinner tube made of glass extends. Inside the bulb is the metal
mercury, which represents the sensing element, in fact its volume changes
depending on the temperature.

The external bulb amplify the dilatation of the metal and is marked to
highlights the temperature value.

The whole structure, with the sensing element and the signal conditioner
constitutes the temperature sensor, the thermometer.
Transducer

The output signals of a transducer differs from application to

application and can be mechanical signals, pneumatic signals or
electric signals.
In the majority of the applications the control systems incorporates
transducers which give electrical output signals, which can be used
in the microcontrollers and in the PLC (programmable logic
controller).
Type of stimulus
All the stimulus can be classified mainly into 6 different groups based on
their characteristics

Mechanical: position (linear, angular), acceleration, force, stress,

pressure, strain, moment,…
Thermal: temperature, specific heat, flux, thermal conductivity,…
Electric: current, charge, potential, voltage, electric field, conductivity,…
Magnetic: magnetic field, magnetic flux, permeability,…
Optical: wave amplitude, phase, polarization, wave velocity,…
Chemical: components, concentration, PH, redox potential, reaction
rate,…
Physical effects
Quantity measured

there are many other interesting quantities: acceleration, vibration, humidity,

level, pressure, velocity, ...
SENSOR
CHARACTERISTICS
Some general properties
An ideal or theoretical output–stimulus relationship exists for every
sensor. If the sensor is ideally designed and fabricated with ideal
materials by ideal workers using ideal tools, the output of such a
sensor would always represent the true value of the stimulus.

True value: value obtained as the consequence of a perfect

measurement. It is an idealized concept and in general it is defined as
conventionally true value, that is, value of a quantity, under particular
conditions and accepted by convention as true.

Accuracy: deviation of a value represented by the sensor from the

ideal or true value at its input.
Some general properties

Input range : range of stimuli which may be converted by a sensor, it

represents the range from the lowest xmin and the highest xmax
possible input value that can be applied to the sensor.

Full scale: sometimes the full scale value refers only to the maximum
value xmax that can be applied to the sensor.

Transfer function: represents (in graphical or mathematical form) the

relation between stimulus (s) and response electrical signal (S)
produced by the sensor. This relation can be written as S= f(s), with s
input stimulus and S output of the sensor.
Some general properties
The transfer function describe the behavior
of a sensor. If the sensor is ideal sensor
then the output will always correspond to
the true value of the input signal and the
transfer function will be a straight line.

A real sensor have a real transfer function

which produces an output deviation from
the true value of the input stimulus.

With ideal sensor x-> z -> Y

With real sensor x-> Z -> Y’
With real sensor Y’-> z’ -> x’

Inaccuracy in the measurement is equal to

-δ
[Handbook of modern sensors, Jacob Fraden]
Some general properties
Accuracy (i.e. the capacity of a measuring instrument to give RESULTS close
to the TRUE VALUE of the measured quantity) can be expressed as

ε ( xv ) = xm − xv
- Absolute error, (results of the measurement - true value)

- A percentage of the relative error (absolute error/true xm − xv

value) ε a = 100
xv
- A percentage, where xm is the value measured in the
worst case, xv is the true value and xFS is the full scale or xm − xv
highest value that can be measured by the sensor. xm-xv ε f = 100
xFS
represents the absolute error massimo che ha il sensore
Some general properties

Sensor calibration: calibrate means “to check, adjuster determine by

comparison with a standard”, calibration is a “comparison between
measurements”.

Sensor calibration is the relationship between the physical

measurement variable X and the signal variable S

A sensor (and an instrument) is calibrated by applying a number of

KNOWN physical inputs and recording the response of the system.
The purpose of the calibration is to find the parameters of the transfer
function so that the fully designed function can be employed during
the measurement process to compute any stimulus in the desirable
range (not only at the points used during the calibration).
Some general properties

Calibration method: calibration can be done in different ways

1. Calculation of the transfer function or its approximation to fit the

selected calibration points
2. Adjustment of the data acquisition system to modify the measured
data by making them to fit into an ideal transfer function
3. Modification of the sensor’ properties to fit the predetermined
transfer function
Some general properties
Calibration error: is the inaccuracy permitted by a manufacturer when a
sensor is calibrated in the factory. This error is of a systematic nature, meaning
that it is added to all possible real transfer functions.
It shifts the accuracy of transduction for
each stimulus point by a constant. This
error is not necessarily uniform over the
range and may change depending on the
type of error in the calibration. To
determine the slope and the intercept of
the function, two stimuli, s1 and s2, are
applied to the sensor. The sensor
responds with two corresponding output
signals A1 and A2. The first response was
measured absolutely accurately, however,
the higher signal was measured with error
-Δ. This results in errors in the slope and
intercept calculation.
Some general properties
Precision: is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same
reading when repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same
prescribed conditions.
- Precision implies agreement between successive readings, NOT
closeness to the true value
- Precision is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
- Precision is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.

High precision low accuracy

Measure

True value

Low precision high accuracy

time
Some general properties
Precision and accuracy

High precision high accuracy Low precision and low accuracy

High precision low accuracy Low precision and high accuracy

Some general properties
Precision and accuracy

The data of precision and accuracy of a sensor, reported in the data

sheet, refer to the behavior of the device under specific working
conditions and when the device is calibrated.
Some general properties
Two terms closely related to precision are Repeatability and
Reproducibility.

Repeatability: is the precision of a set of measurements taken over a

short time interval

Reproducibility: is the precision of a set of measurements BUT:

1. taken over a long time interval or
2. Performed by different operators or
3. with different instruments or
4. in different laboratories
Some general properties
Repeatability error: is caused by the inability of a sensor to
represent the same value under identical conditions. It is expressed
as the maximum difference between output readings as determined
by two calibrating cycles, unless otherwise specified. It is usually
represented as % of FS:
Some general properties
Rangeability

Rangeability of an instrument is the range over which it meets the

stated performance specifications.

The data of precision and accuracy of a sensor cannot be applied to all

the input range of the stimuli, but only to a part of it.

In the remaining part of the input range the sensor could have poor
performance.

It represents the ratio between the full scale (the maximum input
stimulus) and the range in which the sensor works according the data
of precision and accuracy.
Some general properties
Sensitivity: indicates how much the output changes when the input
quantity measured by the sensors changes
For instance, if the mercury in a
thermometer moves 1 cm when the
temperature changes by 1°C, its
sensitivity is 1 cm/°C.
y
Represents the slope of the
Δy
calibration curve. An ideal sensor
will have a large and constant
sensitivity. A nonlinear transfer
f u n c t i o n e x h i b i t s d i f f e r e n t Δy
sensitivities at different points, in
this case the sensitivity is defined
as a first derivative of the transfer
function. Δu Δu u
Some general properties
Some general properties
Resolution: describes the smallest increments of stimulus Δumin which
can be sensed. It is the minimal change of the input necessary to
produce a detectable change at the output.

When the increment is form zero, it is called threshold.

Some general properties
Saturation: every sensor has its operating limits. Even if it is considered
linear, at some levels of the input stimuli, its output signal no longer will
be responsive. A further increase in stimulus does not produce a
desirable output. It is said that the sensor exhibits a span-end nonlinearity
or saturation.

Transfer function with saturation

Some general properties
Dead band

The dead band is the insensitivity of a sensor in a specific range of

input signals. In that range, the output may remain near a certain
value (often zero) over an entire dead-band zone.
Some general properties
Excitation

Excitation is the electrical signal needed for the active sensor

operation. Excitation is specified as a range of voltage and/or
current. For some sensors, the frequency of the excitation signal
and its stability must also be specified. Variations in the excitation
may alter the sensor transfer function and cause output errors.

An example of excitation signal specification:

Maximum current through a thermistor
in still air 50 µA in water 200 µA
Dynamical behavior
The sensor response to a variable input is different from that exhibited when
the input signal are constant. The sensor, when operating under static
conditions, is described by the transfer function, the range of input stimuli, the
calibration curve, …

However, when an input signal varies, the sensor' response does not follow
instantly. The sensor is then characterized by a characteristic which is a
function of time, called dynamic characteristic.

If the sensor’ response is not instantaneous, the output signals could indicate
values different from the real inputs, thus producing a dynamic error which will
depend on time.

During the measurement process, the dynamic error could produce oscillations
in the output signals or could introduce delays in the whole measurement.

The warm-up is the time required by the sensor to work properly in the range
where accuracy and precision are defined.
Dynamical behavior
Dynamic characteristics are determined by analyzing the response of
the sensor to a family of variable input waveform. For example we can
monitor the behavior when the input is a step function (the input is zero
when t<0 and has a finite value for t>0).

In this case the output

is still a step function
but with a delay.
Dynamical behavior
For a first order system the output is characterized by

- rise time: time necessary to

change the output from the 10%
to 90% of the final value
- Ti m e t o r e a c h a s p e c i f i c
percentage of the final value.
- Dead time, time from the
application of the input signal to
the time in which the system
reaches the 5% of the final
value.
Some general properties
Stability: The ability of the transducer to maintain its operating
characteristics unaltered for a certain relatively long period of time. It
is expressed by specifying the maximum variation that can occur at
the output with the same measurand and operating conditions, within
a given time interval.

It can be associated with the term drift, which is the (slow and
continuous) variation of the measured value that is not associated
with a variation of the measurement quantity.

Reliability is the ability of a sensor to perform a required function

under stated conditions for a stated period. It is expressed in
statistical terms as a probability that the device will function without
failure over a specified time or a number of uses. It specifies a
failure, either temporary or permanent, exceeding the limits of a
sensor’s performance under normal operating conditions.
Some general properties
Hysteresis: The difference between two
output values that correspond to the
same input depending on the trajectory
followed by the sensor (i.e.,
magnetization in ferromagnetic
materials).

For example, a displacement sensor

when the object moves from left to right
at a certain point produces a voltage
which differs by 20 mV from that when
the object moves from right to left. If the
sensitivity of the sensor is 10 mV/mm,
the hysteresis error in terms of
displacement units is 2 mm. Typical
causes for hysteresis are friction and
structural changes in the materials.
Some general properties

Environmental conditions: Environmental conditions to which a sensor is

subjected do not include variables which the sensor measures. For instance, an
air-pressure sensor usually is subjected not just to air pressure but to other
influences as well, such as the temperatures of air and surrounding
components, humidity, vibration, ionizing radiation, electromagnetic fields,
gravitational forces, and so forth. All of these factors may and usually do affect
the sensor’s performance. Both static and dynamic variations in these conditions
should be considered. Even if a manufacturer does not specify such effects, an
application engineer should simulate them during the prototype phase of the
design process. If, indeed, the environmental factors degrade the sensor’s
performance, additional corrective measures may be required. Many sensors
change with temperature and their transfer functions may shift significantly.
Special compensating elements are often incorporated either directly into the
sensor or into signal conditioning circuits, to compensate for temperature errors.
How to choose a sensor

✓ Characteristics of the system

✓ Full range

✓ Accuracy, precision, resolution, sensitivity

✓ Dynamical characteristics

✓ Reliability

✓ Installation, maintenance cost

✓ Environmental conditions