GENERAL AGRONOMY

Atmosphere
1600 km

4. Thermosphere (80 - 1600 km)

200 km Ionopause
Ionosphere
80 km Mesopause
3. Mesosphere (50 - 80 km)
50 km Stratopause
2. Stratosphere (18 - 50 km)
25 km
Ozone Layer (18 - 25 km)
18 km Tropopause
1. Troposphere (8 - 18 km)
8 km
0 km
 Temperature = Pressure
 Pressure = Temperature
1. Troposphere :- 8 – 18 km
 Heaviest layer of atmosphere (> 75 % of atmosphere’s mass)
 Lower layer of atmosphere.
 Temperature decrease with increase in altitude @ 6 0C/km.
 All weather phenomena like clouds, rain, mist, fog, dew etc. occur in troposphere.
2. Stratosphere :- 18 – 50 km
 Warmest layer
 It is actual seat of most of the photochemical reaction in air.
 Presence of ozone layer (18 – 25 km), hence called Ozonosphere.
 Ozone depletion by CFC
 1 mol. CFC destroy :- 1 lakh mol. of Ozone
 Aero plane fly in stratosphere.
3. Mesosphere :- 50 – 80 km
 Coldest region, strong decrease in temperature with increase in altitude.
4. Thermosphere :- 80 – 1600 km
 It is outer most layer, so also known as “Exosphere”.
 The lower layer of thermosphere is called “Ionosphere”.
 Long distance radio communication is possible through ionosphere.
 In Ionosphere :- F1 + F2 layer called as “Appleton layer”.
 Temperature increase with altitude.
S. Composition of Atmosphere
Name of Gas Composition of Soil
No. Volume basis Weight basis
1. Nitrogen 78.08 % 75.5 % 79.2 %
2. Oxygen 20.95 % 23.14 % 20.6 %
3. Argan 0.93 % 1.232 % 0.90
0.25 – 0.30 %
0.03 %
4. Carbon dioxide 1.0 % (8 – 10 % more than
(300 ppm conc.)
atmospheric CO2)

Weather & Climate) )

 IMD :- Indian Meteorology Department, Pune (1875)
 WMO :- World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (1951)
 ISRO :- Indian Space Research Organization, Bengaluru, Karnataka
Weather :-
 State or condition of atmosphere at a given place and at a given time, eg. a day, a week, a
month etc.
 It is daily variations or conditions of lower layers of the atmosphere.
 Meteorology (greek word):- study of weather
Climate :-
 Summation of weather conditions over a given region during a comparatively longer
period (according to WMO, 31 years).
 Climatology :- study of climate.
Classification of Climate :-
A. According to De Candolle (1900 AD) :- classify on the basis of vegetation.
B. According to Koppen (1936) :-
 Classify on the basis of weather elements, divided into 5 groups.
C. According to Troll (1965) :- explain vegetation zones of tropical Africa and S. America.
 Suitable for agricultural purpose.
 ICRISAT, Hyderabad adopted this classification.
D. Thornthwaite :- based on PE (Precipitation of effectiveness) index.
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑃)
 PE index :- 𝑥 100
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐸)

E. Moisture Deficit Index (MDI):-

 AICRP on dry land adopted this classification.
𝑃 − 𝑃𝐸𝑇
 MDI :- 𝑥 100
𝑃𝐸𝑇

 Where, P :- Precipitation, PET :- Potential evapotranspiration

 Sub Humid :- 0 to 33.3 (MDI)
 Semi - Arid :- - 33.3 to – 66.6 (MDI)
 Arid :- > - 66.6
Elements of Weather :-
1. Solar Radiation :-
 Solar radiation reach on earth surface take 8 minute 20 sec.
 Maximum solar radiation at 12 PM.
 Solar constant :- 1.94 cal/cm2/min or 1353 watts/m2 (in SI unit).
 Pyrheliometer :- measure the amount of direct solar radiation.
 Pyranometer :- measure total incoming solar radiation.
 The ratio of incoming and outgoing solar radiations is known as “Albedo”, it is measured
by Albedo meter.
 Albedo of earth surface :- 35 - 40 %
 Albedo of copped area :- 23 - 30 %
2. Temperature :-
 Measure by thermometer.
  Two type of thermometer :- (i) Minimum thermometer (alcohol), (ii) Maximum
thermometer (mercury).
 Maximum temperature at 2 PM and Minimum temperature at 4 AM.
 Bio chemical reactions will be double due to increase in every 10 0C temperature.
 In most of plants, the photosynthesis rate high at 30 - 35 0C.
 More than 45 0C temperature, the respiration rate decrease.
 0
F - 32/9 = 0C/5 K = C + 2730
Kharif Crops Rabi Crops Optimum temp. for other crop
Tobacco :- 16 - 17 0C
1. For germination:- 30 - 350C 1. For germination :- 20 -25 0C
(for nicotine)
2. For growth :- 25 - 30 0C 2. For growth :- 15 - 20 0C Potato :- 18 0C (for tuber)
Tomato :- 21 - 24 0C
3. For ripening :- 20 - 25 0C 3. For ripening:- 20 - 25 0C
(for lycopene)

3. Wind :-
 Anemometer :- used to measure wind speed.
 Wind vane :- instrument for showing the direction of the wind.
 Windward :- direction of wind comes
 Leeward :- direction of wind goes
 Winds of high speed are called Squalls.
4. Humidity :-
i. Relative Humidity :-
 Ratio between the amount of water vapour present in the air and the amount of water
vapour required for saturation at a particular temperature and pressure.
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟
 Relative humidity (%) :- 𝑥 100
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ii. Absoulte Humidity :- unit is g/m3

 Absolute or actual quantity of water vapour by weight present in a given volume of air.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
 Absolute humidity (g/m3) :- 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

iii. Specific Humidity :- unit is g/kg

 Weight of water vapour per unit weight of air.
 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
 Specific humidity (g/kg) :- 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟

5. Rain/Precipitation :-
 Droplet size of rain :- > 0.5 mm to 6 mm
 Drizzle :- < 0.5 mm droplet size.
 Rime is a freezing fog.
 Sleet :- solid precipitation in the form of small particles of clear ice.
 Hail :- similar to sleet, but it is larger in size.
 Mist :- evaporate before reach on earth.
 Rain gauge :- measurement of rain.
 Nimbo-stratus is common associates of steady precipitation, whether rain or snow.
 Rainy Day :- > 2.5 mm rains during 24 hours
 Average rainy day in country :- 130 days/year
 Total rainfall generated volume in India is : 400 mha-m
6. Atmospheric Pressure:
 It is the weight of the column of air at any given place and time.
 It is measured by Aneroid Barometer. It is measured as force per unit area.
 The units used by meteorologists for this purpose are called millibars (mb).
 One millibars force of one gram on a sq. cm.
 A pressure 1000 mb = weight of 1.053 kg. Sq. cm.
 Normal pressure at sea level is 76 cm (1013.25 mb).
 On the earth’s surface there are seven pressure belts. They are equatorial low (the
doldrums) the sub-tropical high (horse latitudes), the sub-polar low and the polar high.
Except the equatorial low, all others have matching pairs in the Northern and the
Southern Hemisphere.

Water Budget of India :-

 In India, total generated rainfall volume :- 400 mha-m.
 400 m ha meter

Infiltration Runoff Immediate Evaporation

(215 m ha m) (115 m ha m) (70 m ha m)

Soil Moisture Ground Water From Rainfall From Snowfall

(165 m ha m) (50 m ha m) (105 m ha m) (10 m ha m)

Monsoon :-
 The word monsoon is derived from Arabic word “mousin” which means season.
1. South West Mansoon :-
 South – West monsoon period is called grand period of rainfall in India.
 This monsoon reach South India (Kerala) around first of June every year.
 Two branches of south west monsoon :-
(i) Arabian Sea Branch :- 770 mm, 80 % of SW monsoon
 Moves northward
(ii) Bay of Bengal Branch :- 340 mm, 20 % of SW monsoon
 Moves up to Assam
 Both these branches occasionally clash near Delhi.
2. North East Monsoon:-
 Onset at 15 Oct. to Mid Dec.
 Southern states (AP & TN)
 TN gets highest rainfall than AP
 Retreating Monsoon
 15 % of total rainfall in India
Average Rainfall :-
 In World :- 1,000 mm
 In India :- 1194 mm
 In Rajasthan :- 575 mm,
 Highest rainfall in India at Mawsynram, Meghalaya.
Artificial Rain :-
1. Silver Iodide (AgI) :- Cold Cloud
2. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) :- Hot Cloud
Winter Rain :- Due to western depression
Stevenson Screen :-
1. Minimum thermometer :- Alcohol
2. Maximum thermometer :- Mercury
Important terms :-
 Isobar :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal atmospheric pressure.
 Isotherm :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal temperature.
 Isohyets :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal amount of rainfall.
 Isopluvial :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal depth of rainfall.
 Isotech :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal wind velocities.
 Isohels :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal sunshine hours.
 Isohaline :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal salinity.
 Isostere :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal moisture contents.
 Isophene :- imaginary lines connecting points of similar seasonal phenomenon.
 Contour :- lines joining equal elevations.
Frost Management :-
 1. By smoke, 2. By irrigation, 3. H2SO4 @ 0.1 %]
 4. Cycocel @ 0.03 %, 5. DMSO (Di-methyl sulfo oxide) @ 0.05 %
Lapse Rate :- vertical decrease in temperature at 6.5 0C/km
Adiabatic Lapse Rate :-
 The rate at which the temperature changes as air rises or falls.
 Dry adiabatic lapse rate is 10 0C/km.
Cyclone :-
 A cyclone is a roughly circular low pressure area whose diameter may be from hundred
to a thousand miles.
 Atmospheric pressure is lowest in the center of this region and increase rapidly outward.
 Eg. Tornado (USA), Typhons (China, Japan), Herrikens (USA)
PAR :- Photo synthetic active radiation
  Photosynthesis in green leaves use solar energy in wavelengths from 0.4 to 0.7 nm.
Weather Forecasting :- Types :-
1. Short Range Weather Forecasting :-
 < 3 days or up to 72 hrs
 Generally for 24 hours
 70 - 80 % chances of correctness
 Twice a day and valid for 36 hrs
 Synoptic model used for short range weather forecasting.
2. Medium Range Weather Forecasting :-
 3 - 10 days
 Generally used in agriculture.
 NC-MRWF :- National Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting, New Delhi
3. Long Range Weather Forecasting :- for more than 10 days.
Agro-climatic Regional Planning :-
 Initiated in 1988 by Planning Commission under 7th Five Year Plan
 Planning Commission headed by PM
 Now, NITI Aayog (1 Jan 2015)
Agro-climatic Zones :-
 India :- 15 agro-climatic zones according to planning commission
 India :- 131 agro-climatic zones according to NARP/ICAR
 Rajasthan :- 10 agro-climatic zones
Agro-ecological Region :- India
 According to NBSS & LUP :- 21
 According to ICAR :- 8
Agroclimatic Zones of India :-
Zone Name of Zone State/Area Important Points
i Western Himalayan Zone Jammu & Kashmir, H.P., Silty loam soils.
U.P. Lands of region have steep
slopes in undulating terrain.
ii Eastern Himalayan Zone Sikkim, Darjeeling Hills of Shifting cultivation is practiced
Arunachal Pradesh, in 1/3 of cultivated area.
 Meghalaya, Nagaland,
Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram,
Assam & Jalpaiguri
iii. Lower Gangetic Palins West – lower Gangetic Soils are mostly alluvial and are
plains prone to floods.
iv Middle Gangetic Plains 12 districts of UP, 27 Cropping intensity of this zone
districts of Bihar is 142 %.
v Upper Gangetic Plains 32 districts of UP A good potential for
exploitation of ground water
exists.
vi Trans – Gangetic Plains Punjab, Haryana, Union Highest net sown area.
Territories of Delhi, Highest irrigated area.
Chandigarh, Sriganganagar High cropping intensity.
district of Rajasthan High ground water utilization.
vii Eastern Plateau & Hills Eastern part of MP, Topography is undulating.
Southern part of WB, most Irrigation is through tanks and
of Inland Orissa. tube-wells.
viii Central Plateau & Hills 46 districts of MP, Semi - arid dry to sub - humid
Chatisgarh, UP, Rajasthan climate.
ix Western Plateau & Hills Major parts of MH, parts of Average rainfall is 904 mm.
MP, one district of
Rajasthan
x Southern Plateau & Hills 35 districts of Andhra Semi – arid zones.
Pradesh, Karnataka, TN
xi East Coast Plains & Hills East coast of TN, Andhra Soils are mainly alluvial and
Pradesh and Orissa. coastal sands.
Irrigation is through canals and
tanks.
xii West Coast Plains & West coast of TN, Kerala, Variety of crop patterns, rainfall
Ghats Karnataka, Maharashtra and and soil types.
Goa
xiii Gujarat Plains & Hills 19 districts of Gujarat Arid zone.
Irrigation through wells & tube-
wells
xiv Western Dry Zone 9 districts of Rajasthan Hot sandy desert, erratic rainfall
Famine & drought common
features.
xv Islands Zone Island territories of Largely forest zone with
Andaman & Nicobar and undulated lands.
Lakshadeep

Dryland Agriculture
 Cultivation of crops entirely under rainfed condition.
 Types of dryland agriculture :-
1. Dry Farming :- annual rainfall < 750 mm, crop failure due to prolonged dry spells.
 Practiced in arid regions. Alternate land use system is suggested.
2. Dryland Farming :- annual rainfall 750 – 1150 mm. Practiced in semi – arid regions.
 Drainage facility required especially in black soils.
3. Rainfed Farming :- annual rainfall > 1150 mm. less chances of crop failure.
 This farming is practiced in humid regions.
Difference between Dryland and Rainfed Farming :-
S. No. Particulars Dryland Farming Rainfed Farming
1. Rainfall 750 – 1150 mm > 1150 mm
2. Cropping period < 200 days > 200 days
3. Area of cultivation Arid and Semi-arid Humid and Sub-humid
4. Cropping system Single crop or Intercropping or double
intercropping cropping
5. Constraints Wind and water erosion Water erosion

Principles of dry farming :-

A. Moisture conservation principles :-
 Increase water holding capacity of soil.
  Use of mulching
 Use of anti-transpirants :-
1. Stomata closing type :- Phenyl Mercuric Acetate (PMA), Atrazine, ABA, CO2
2. Film forming type :- Mobileaf, Waxes, Oils, Silicone, Hexadecanol
3. Reflecting type :- Kaolin (5 %), Celite (a diatomaceous earth product)
4. Growth retardants :- Cycocel (ccc)
B. Crop Management Principles :-
 Selection of crop :- Sorghum, Bajra, Castor, Guar, Til, Sarson etc.
 Use of high seed rate (10 – 15 %)
 Selection of drought resistant varieties.
S. No. Crop Varieties best for dry farming
1. Pearl Millet WCC – 75, RHB – 90
2. Sorghum CSH – 6, CSH – 14, SPV – 96, CSV - 17
3. Sesamum RT – 127, RT – 46, TC – 25
4. Groundnut GG – 2, JL – 24
5. Soybean NRC – 37
6. Mustard Aravali, Pusa Bold, Durgamani, R.H. – 30
7. Gram Dahod Yellow, C – 235
8. Wheat Mukta
9. Barley RD – 31
10. Guar Durgapura Safed, Durgapura Jay, RGC – 936
11. Green gram K - 851, RMG – 62, Pusa Baisakhi
12. Moth bean RMO – 40, Jadia, Jwala
13. Pigeon pea Prabhat
14. Black gram T – 9, Barkha
15. Cowpea FS – 68, C – 152

Irrigation
 95 % part of protoplasm of plant made by water.
 Water plays an important role in all metabolic activities of plant.
 Life saving irrigation :- Kharif crops
  Supplementary irrigation :- Rabi crops
 Duty of water :- a form of expression for the quantity of water required for
irrigation to bring a crop to maturity.
8.64 𝑥 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
 Duty of Water :- 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 (∆)

 Base :- Period of irrigation which crop requires for full maturity.

 Delta :- total depth of water required by a crop during the entire period of the
crop.
Water requirement of crop :-
S. No. Name of crop Water requirement (mm)
1. Rapeseed 250 – 300
2. Pulses 300 – 500
3. Cabbage 300 – 500
4. Pea & Onion 350 – 500
5. Tobacco 400 – 600
6. Wheat & Sorghum 450 – 650
7. Soybean 450 – 750
8. Groundnut & Potato 500 – 700
9. Maize 500 – 800
10. Sugar beet 550 – 750
11. Tomato 600 – 800
12. Cotton 700 – 1300
13. Rice 900 – 2500
14. Citrus 900 - 1200
15. Banana 1200 – 2200
16. Sugarcane 1500 – 2500
Methods of Irrigation Scheduling :-
1. Transpiration ratio approach :-
 Amount of water transpired by a crop to produce unit amount of dry matter.
 This is also known as absolute approach.
2. Soil moisture deficit approach :-
 For maize and wheat :- 25 % depletion of available soil moisture.
 For drought resistant crops :- 50 % depletion of available soil moisture.
3. Climatological approach or IW/CPE Ratio :-
 Known as soil moisture index approach.
 IW/CPE ratio serve as soil moisture stress index.
 Lower the IW/CPE ratio will be more stress.
 It is scientific approach but not practically important.
4. Critical Stage of Crops:-
 The state of growth when plants are most sensitive to shortage of water.
S.No. Name of Crop Critical stage for water IW/CPE Ratio
1. Rice Panicle formation, flowering time 1.2 (highest)
2. Wheat CRI, Tillering, Jointing, Flowering, Milking, Dough 0.9
3. Maize Tasseling and Silking 0.9
4. Cotton Flowering and boll formation stage 0.7
5. Groundnut Flowering, pegging, grain formation stage 0.6
6. Safflower Flowering stage 0.4 (lowest)

Methods of Irrigation :-
A. Surface method :- mostly used in India.
1. Check Basin :- mostly used.
 Mostly used for close space crop like Wheat, Rice etc.
 Slope :- 2 – 3 %
2. Ring Basin :- mostly used in fruit crops.
3. Border Method :- slope : 0.5 – 1.0 %
4. Furrow Method :-
 In this method, only 1/2 to 1/5 part of soil is wetted.
 Mostly used in sugarcane, tuber crops.
 Highest efficiency among surface method.
 Corrugation :- small and shallow furrows are known as corrugations.
5. Flood Method :- easiest method.
  Mostly used in wet land Rice.
6. Surge Method :- on – off mode of irrigation.
7. Cablegation / automatic method :- form of gated – pipe system.
 The plug is allowed to move down slops through the pipe at a controlled rate.
B. Sub Surface :-
 In India, used in coconut orchard in Kerala.
 For vegetable cultivation in Gujarat & Kashmir.
 Costly method of irrigation and used in foreign countries.
C. Sprinkler Method :-
 Used in undulating field condition. Suitable for sandy soils.
 Suitable for saline soils to leach salts.
 Water flow rate :- 1000 litre/hour
 Pressure :- 2.5 – 4 kg/cm2
D. Drip /Micro/ Trickle irrigation Method :-
 Discovered in Israel.
 Herbigation :- Herbicide + Irrigation
 Fertigation :- Fertilizer + Irrigation
 Pressure :- 1 – 2 kg/cm2
 Water discharge :- 4 litre/hour
Drip Method Sprinkler Method
Water save 50 – 60 % 40 – 50 %
Water use efficiency 90 – 95 % 50 – 60 %

E. Tayphoon :- modified drip system. Used in sugarcane crop.

Water Use Efficiency :-
1. Crop :- WUE (crop) :- Y/ET
 Where, Y :- Yield, ET :- Evapotranspiration
2. Field :- WUE (field) :- Y/WR
 Where, Y :- Yield, WR :- Water Requirement
S. No. Name of crop Water use efficiency (kg/ha mm)
1. Finger millet 13.4 (highest)
2. Wheat 12.6
3. Groundnut 9.2
4. Sorghum 9.0
5. Bajra & Maize 8.0
6. Rice 3.7 (lowest)

Methods of Measurement of Irrigation Water:-

1. Orifices :-
 Measure water in small streams like flow into border stripes furrow/ check basin.
2. Weirs :-
 Measure the flow in an irrigation channel.
 Discharge through weir :- Q = CLHm
 Discharged relationship for suppressed weirs :- 0.0184 LH3/2

900 V – notch Weir :- excellent for measuring small flows. Q = 0.0138 H25
3. Parshall flume/ Venture flume :-
 Combination of orifice and weir.
 Used even in relatively shallow channels like irrigation furrows with flat grades.
Measurement of irrigation water :-
 1 Cusec :- 28.3 litres
 1 Cumec :- 1000 litres or 103
 1 ha mm :- 10, 000 litres or 104
 1 ha cm :- 1,00,000 litres or 105
 1 ha m :- 100, 000, 00 litres or 107

Measures of Water height :-

 1 Atm. :- 1036 cm of water
 1 Bar :- 1023 cm of water
Conservation units :-
 1 ha :- 10,000 m2
  1 ha :- 5 Bigha
 1 Bigha :- 2,000 m2 (0.2 ha)
 1 ha :- 2.47 acre
 1 Acre :- 0.405 ha
Classification of Watershed :-
1. Mini watershed :- 10 - 100 ha
2. Micro watershed :- 100 - 1000 ha
3. Mili watershed :- 1000 - 10,000 ha
4. Sub-micro watershed :- 10,000 - 50,000 ha
5. Macro watershed :- > 50,000 ha
Drainage
 Removal of excess water form field is known as drainage.
A. Surface Drainage :- simplest method.
 Most common method of drainage, used in India.
 Bedding system :- small furrows are formed at known intervals parallel to the slope for
drainage.
 Parallel field ditch :- similar to bedding system. Effective and suited for both irrigated
and rainfed.
 Parallel open field ditch :- deeper in depth and steeper side slopes than parallel field
ditch.
 BBF :- Broad Bed and Furrow system, used in groundnut and maize.
B. Sub – Surface Drainage :-
 Mole drainage :- it is egg shaped, made by Mole plough in clay soil.
 Tile drains including perforated pipes. Arrangement of tiles are natural or random,
herring bone type (no submain), gridiron type (one side arrangement) and cut off or
interceptor.
 Vertical drainage :- drainage by wells.
 Deep open drains are made in which water is collected by seepage, which drain out form
the field.
 Combinations of tiles and open drains.
 Buried drainage also made, drains filled with tiles, fibres or plastics.
 Seed
 Seed is a fertilized ovule (ripened ovule) consisting of intact embryo, stored food and
seed coat which is viable.
 Any plant part used for sowing is known as seed.
 ISTA :- International Seed Testing Association, Geneva, Switzerland (1924)
 India becomes member of ISTA in 1961.
 National Seed Corporation, New Delhi (7 Nov. 1963)
 Seed Act :- passed on 29 October 1966 and enforced on 2 October 1969.
 Seed Rule formed in 1968.
 National seed project :- 1976
 The seed control order :- 1983
 Farmer’s Right Act :- 2001
 PPV & FR :- Protection of plant variety and farmer’s right act :- 2001
 Patent Act :- 2002
 The seed bill :- 2004
Classes of Seed :-
1. Nucleolus Seed :-
 Seeds are produced by plant breeder.
 100 % genetic purity.
2. Breeder Seed :-
 Produced form nucleus seed by plant breeder.
 100 % genetic purity.
 Golden yellow tag.
3. Foundation Seed :-
 Produced from breeder seed by NSC or SSC.
 Also known as mother seed.
 99.5 % genetic purity and 98 % physical purity.
 White colour tag denotes foundation seed.
4. Registered Seed :-
 Produced form foundation seeds.
 Purple colour tag denotes registered seed.
  This class of seeds not produced in India.
5. Certified Seed :-
 Produced form registered/foundation seeds at farmers’ field in the supervision of NSC or
SSC.
 Genetic purity :- 99.1 %
 Blue colour tag denotes certified seed.
 This seed is available for general distribution to farmers for commercial crop production.
Characteristics of Improved Seed:-
1. Genetic Purity :- it is permitted upto 0.1 % only.
2. Physical Purity :- physical impurities is known as dockage.
3. High seed vigour
4. High germination per cent :-
S. No. Name of Crop Germination %
1. Maize 90 % (highest)
2. Wheat, Barley, Gram 85 %
3. Rice, Sorghum, Sesamum, Berseem, Lucern 80 %
4. Bajra, Moong, Urd, Moth bean, Arhar, Cowpea 75 %
5. Groundnut, Soybean, Sunflower, Cluster bean 70 %
6. Cotton, Okra 65 %

5. Moisture content :- seeds should be store at 8- 10 per cent moisture content.

 Below 8 per cent moisture content no storage pest damage the seeds except Khapra
Beetle, Trogoderma grenarium damage the seed below 8 per cent moisture content.
6. Real value of seed :-
Germination % x Purity %
 Real Value :- 100

 Real value of seed should be more than 75 %.

 Seeds having a real value below 70 % are usually not preferred for sowing purposes
because of poor germination and purity values.
 Real value is also known as “utility percentage of seed”.
Isolation Distance :-
  The distance between two varieties of same crop for maintaining genetic and physical
purity of hybrid seed, is known as isolation distance.
S. Foundation Certified
Name of Crop
No. seed (m) seed (m)
1. Wheat, Barley, Rice, Oat, Groundnut, Soybean 3 3
2. Potato 5 5
3. Greengram, Blackgram, Khesari, Gram, Field Pea 20 10
4. Guar, Frenchbean, Cowpea, Linseed, Tomato 50 25
5. Hybrid Cotton 50 30
6. Sorghum, Arhar, Brinjal 200 100
7. Rapeseed & Mustard, Safflower, Sunflower 400 200
8. Maize, Okra, Chilli, Chrysanthemum, Marigold 400 200
9. Bajra 1000 200
10. Cucurbits 1000 600
11. Onion, Carrot 1000 800
12. Cabbage, Cauliflower, Radish, Turnip, Sugarbeet 1600 1000

Seed Index :- weight of 100 seeds. In case of bold seeds like maize.
Test Weight :- weight of 1000 seeds. In case of small seeds like wheat.
Seed Viability Test :-
1. Potassium Permagnate Method (KMnO4):-
 Qualitative test to find out whether seeds are viable.
 Increase in the proportion of dead seed, increase the discolouration of the solution.
2. Indigocarmine method:-
 Portion of dead seeds is determined by counting the number of stained.
3. Tetrazolium Chloride Test :-
 It is also known as biological test.
 Seeds soaked in 0.5 – 2.0 % solution of 2, 3, 5 Triphenyl Tetrazolium Chloride.
 The viable or living seeds take bright colour and the colour becomes more intense in
the embryo.
4. Grodex Test :-
  It is a seed germination indicator and is a brand name of Triphenyl Tetrazolium Bromide
in powder form.
Grow out test :- for genetic purity.
Germination test :- working sample involve (25 gm)
Types of Seed:-
1. Orthodox seed 2. Recalcitrant seed
Long lived seeds Short lived seeds
Can be successfully dried to moisture contents as Can be dried to moisture contents as 20
low as 5 % without injury and are able to tolerate – 30 % and are able to sensitive
freezing. freezing.
Orthodox seed is also known as “Desiccation Recalcitrant seed is also known as
Tolerant Seeds”. “Desiccation Sensitive Seeds”.
Eg. Cereal & Legume crops, Citrus, Chilli, Guava, Eg. Tea, Mango, Litchi, Coconut

Seed Dormancy :-
 The period of inactivity or arrested development of seed is known as seed dormancy.
Types of dormancy :-
1. Innate dormancy :- genetically controlled dormancy.
2. Enforced dormancy :- due to deeper placement of seeds.
3. Induced dormancy :- due to sudden physiological changes like water logging.
Dormancy management :-
A. Physical Treatment :-
 Heat treatment at 40 – 45 0C
 Low temperature treatment at 2 – 8 0C for 12 – 24 hours
 Alternate drying and wetting of seeds for several times.
 Dehusking or removal of seed coat (scarification) by rubbing to make it permeable to
water.
 Alternate heating and cooling of seeds for several times.
B. Chemicals :-
 KNO3 (1 - 3 %) :- strongest and used for immediate dormancy break after harvesting.
 Thiourea (1 % in potato), Ascorbic acid.
  GA3 :- hormone used to break dormancy.
 Kinetin (1 – 100 PPM), Ethylene
 Dehumidification :- removal of water vapour form the air in storage. Silica gel is most
common desiccant used as chemical dehumidifier.
Weed
 Weed is a plant growing out of place and out of time.
 Father of weed science :- Jethrotull.
 Book :- “Horse Hoeing Husbandry” written by Jethrotull.
 NRC on Weed :- Jabalpur (MP)
 King of weed :- Congress grass/Parthenium
 Toxic substance in congress grass :- Parthenin
 Wild oat has all three type of dormancy (Innate, Induced & enforced).
 Censer mechanism :- present in mexican poppy, Argemone mexicana.
 Dropsy Disease :- Mexican poppy, Argemone mexicana seeds mixed with mustard seeds
and crushed, brought death and blindness in human being.
 In Baru/Johnson grass (Sorghum halpense), HCN formation during tillering stage.
Seed production capacity of weeds:-
 Congress grass & Mexican poppy :- 5,000/plant
 Cuscuta/dodder :- 16,000/plant
 Bathua/Chenopodium :- 72,000/plant
 Makoy :- 1,75,000/plant
 Wild Amaranthus :- 1,96,000/plant
Classification of weeds :-
A. Based on life cycle :-
1. Annual weed :- kharif and rabi season weeds.
S. No. Kharif Season Rabi Season
1. Junglee Chaulai, Amaranthus viridis Krishna nil, Anagalis arvensis
2. Motha, Cyperus rotundus Tinpatia, Desmodium trifolium
3. Lahsua, Digera arvensis Hiran Khuri, Convolvulus arvensis
4. Datura festoosa Vanpyaji, Asphodelus tenuifolius
5. Vishkhopra, Boerhavia diffusa Mexican poppy, Argemone mexicana
 6. Kasaundhi, Cassia occidentalis Bathua, Chenopodium album
7. Chhoti duddhi, Euphorbia thymiloia Cuscuta reflexa

2. Biennial weed:- Kasani (Chicorium intybus), wild carrot etc.

3. Perennial weed :- Johanson grass, Motha.
B. Based on Seed Coat :-
1. Monocot :- Kans, Pyaji, Water hyacinth, Phalaris minor
2. Dicot :- Bathua, Hiran khuri, Cuscuta, Satyanashi
C. Based on Leaves :-
1. Narrow leaf :- Phalaris minor, Cyperus rotundus
2. Broad leaf :- Hiran Khuri, Bathua, Mexican poppy
D. Based on crop – weed relationship :-
1. Micro-climatic weed :- Kasani, Chicorium intybus in Berseem.
2. Parasitic weeds :-
 Total stem parasite :- C : Cuscuta reflexa in Lucern
 Partial stem parasite :- L : Loranthus in Mango & Citrus
 Total root parasite :- O : Orobanchae/Broom rape in Tobacco, Mustard
 Partial root parasite :- S : Striga/witch weed in Sorghum, Bajra, Maize
3. Crop related weeds :-
 Crop specific weeds :- Chicory in Berseem
 Mimicry weeds :- Wild rice in paddy. Wild oat and canary grass in Wheat.
 Relative weed :- growing of other crop plants. Eg Barley plant in Wheat field.
 Absolute weed :- All weeds i.e. these are always weeds.
 Rogue weed :- other variety plant in the same crop.
 Volunteer weed :- such weeds are grown from the fallen seeds of previous or preceding
crop in the field.
E. Based on growing :-
1. Obligate weed :- occurs only in cultivated land. Eg. Chenopodium sp.
2. Facultative weed :- such weed grown both as wild and in cultivated habits. Eg. Lantana.
3. Noxious weed :- undesirable troublesome and difficult to control.
 Eg. Cyperus rotandus, Lanatana, Parthenium hysterophorus, Cynodon dactylon etc.
Satellite / Objectionable weed :-
 A noxious weed, whose seeds are difficult to separate, once mixed with crop seed.
 Eg. Avena fatua, Chicory, Cuscuta, Canary grass etc.
Propagation of weeds:-
 Hiran Khuri :- Roots Cuscuta :- Stem
 Carrot grass :- Crown Motha :- Suckers
 Bermuda grass :- Rhizome/Runners/Stolons Tiger grass :- Rhizome
 Water hyacinth :- Offshoot Johanson grass :- Rhizome
 Purple nut sedge :- Tubers
Critical Period of Weed Competition :-
S. No. Name of Crop Critical period (days after sowing)
From To
1. Upland Rice Entire period
2. Transplanted Rice, Maize, Sorghum, 15 45
Soybean, Sesame
3. Wheat, Sunflower, Blackgram 30 45
4. Cotton 15 60
5. Sugarcane 30 120
6. Groundnut 30 50
7. Castor 30 60

Weed as host for insect-pest and diseases :-

S. No. Name of Weed Name of Insect-Pest or Name of Crop affected
Disease
1. Berberis & Mahonia Black or stem rust Wheat
2. Thalictrum Leaf or brown rust Wheat
3. Anjan grass, Cenchurus ciliaris Ergot Pearl Millet
4. Kans, Saccharum spontaneum Downy Mildew Maize
5. Bathua, Chenopodium album Helicoverpa armigera Cotton, Pea, Tomato
6. Agropyron portulaca Wilt Tomato
7. Leersia oryzoides Bacterial leaf blight Rice
8. Echinochloa colonum Stem borer Rice
Weed Management :-
A. Cultural Method :-
1. Tillage
2. Stale Seed Bed :-
 The irrigation is applied in field at before sowing of crop, to allow the germination of
weeds and destroyed emerging weeds.
3. Hand Hoeing; 4. Flooding; 5. Mulching
B. Biological Method:-
1. Use of bioherbicides :-
 Collego (fungal spores of Colletorichum gleospoides) :- cause stem and leaf blight in
weed.
 Bipolaris (fungal spores of Biopolaris sorghicola) :- effective against Sorghum halpense.
 Devine (fungal spores of Phytopthora palmivora) :- cause root rot in weeds.
 Biophos :- it is fermented product of Streptomyces hygroscopicus.
2. Bioagents :-
 Most of bioagents belong to Hymenoptera order.
 Control of weeds by use of bioagents is known as “parabiological control”.
S. No. Name of Weed Name of Bioagent Year
Bioagent introduced from
1. Jarayan, Lantana camara Crocidosema Mexico 1921
lantana
Teleonemia Australia 1941
scrupulosa
2. Prickly pear, Dactylopies Brazil 1795
Opuntia vulgaris ceylonicus
Cactoblastis Argentina 1925
cactorum
Dactylopius Srilanka 1926
opuntiae
3. Water hyacinth, Orthogalumna Florida 1982
Eichhornia crassipes terebrantis
Neochetina Argentina 1983
eichhorniae & N.
bruchi
4. Congress grass, Chrysomelidae Mexico 1983
Parthenium hysterophorus beetle,
First time reported in Pune Zygogramma
(MH), 1955 bicolorata
5. Water fern, Curculionidae Australia 1982
Salvinia molesta weevil,
Cryptobagous
salvinae

C. Chemical Method:-
1. Based on Selectivity :-
i. Selective herbicides :- 2, 4 – D, Isoproturon, Fluchloralin, Triazines, Pendimethalin.
ii. Non selective herbicides :- Paraquat, diquat, Glyphosate.
2. Based on mode of action :-
i. Contact herbicides :- Paraquat, diquat, Glyphosate.
ii. Systemic herbicides :- Fluchloralin, Pendimethalin, 2, 4- D, Triazines, Simeazine
3. Based on time of application :-
i. PPI :- pre plant incorporated
 eg. Fluchloralin (Basalin), Trifluralin, Alachlor
ii. PE :- Pre Emergence
 Eg. :- Atrazine, Pendimethalin, Simeazin, most of selective herbicides
iii. POE :- Post Emergence
 Eg. :- 2, 4 – D, Isoproturon, Paraquat, Diquat, Glyphosate, Benthiocarb
iv. Lay by application :- application of herbicide after last cultivation.
4. Based on chemical nature :-
S. No. Group Examples of herbicides
1. Amides Alachlor, Propanil, Butachlor
2. Aliphatics Dalapon
3. Bipyridilliums Paraquat, Diquat
4. Dinitro anilines Fluchloralin, Pendimethalin
5. Phenoxy 2, 4 – D, MCPA
6. Phenols Dinoseb
7. Thiocarbamates Benthiocarb
8. Triazines Atrazine, Simazine, Metribuzin, Terbutryn
9. Sulfonyl Ureas Sulfosulfuron, Metsulfuron
10. Phenyl Ureas Monuron, Diuron
11. Uracils Bromacil, Terbacil
12. Diphenyl ethers Nitrofen (Tok-E- 25)
Important herbicides and their trade names :-
S. No. Name of herbicide Trade Name
1. Alachlor Lasso
2. Atrazine Atratex, Atrataf
3. Butachlor Machete
4. Dalapon Dowpon, Hexapon
5. Diuron Karmex
6. Fluchloralin Basalin
7. Glyphosate Roundup, Ranger
8. Imazethyapyr Pursuit, Hammer
9. Isoproturon Arelon
10. Metachlor Dual
11. Metribuzin Sencor
12. Nitrofen Tok – E - 25
13. Oxadiazon Ronstar
14. Oxyfluorfen Goal
 15. Paraquat Gramoxone, Weedol
16. Pendimethalin Stomp
17. Propanil Stamp F - 34
18. Simazine Aquazine
19. Sulfosulfuron Leader
20. 2, 4 - D Plantgard, Weedar, Weedone, Planotox

Wheat
 Botanical Name :- Triticum aestivum (Auto-polyploidy)
 Family :- Gramniae /Poaceae
 Origin :- South West Asia or Turkey or Asia Minor
 Flower :- Spike Fruit Type :- Caryopsis
 Wheat is C3, monocot, qualitative long day plant.
 Wheat is king of cereal crops.
 Wheat is staple food of world.
 Due to cleistogamy, wheat is self-pollinated crop.
 Protein :- 8 – 10 % (Wheat protein is known as “Gluten”)
 Wheat chapati quality depend on gluten content.
 Haploid chromosome number (x) in wheat is 07.
 Number of chromosome number in embryo sac of wheat is (3n) 63.
 Directorate of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Hariyana.
Triticale:- 2n :- 56
 First man made cereal (intergeneric)
 Developed by Rimpu (1890)
 Triticale :- Wheat x Rye
 First variety of triticale :- DT – 46
 New variety of triticale :- T – 1419 from PAU, Ludhiana.
Pseudo / Buck Wheat:- Fagopyrum esculentum, Family :- Polygonaceae
 Sowing time ;- June – July, Variety :- Tokiyo
 Infloresence :- Achene, Day neutral plant (DNP)
 Alkaloid present in leaf and flower is “Rutin”.
Classification of wheat:-
A. Diploid :- 2n = 2x = 14
 Triticum monococcum, grown 1 % area of India.
B. Tetraploid :- 2n = 4x = 28
i. Triticum dicoccum (emmer wheat):- for Uppumav in South India.
ii. Triticum durum (macroni wheat):- used for preparation of suji and semya.
 It is grown in 12 % area of India.
C. Hexaploid:- 2n = 6x = 42
i. Triticum aestivum :- Mexican /dwarf wheat
 It is grown in 87 % area of India.
ii. Triticum spherococcum :- Indian dwarf wheat
Climate :-
 For vegetative growth cold and moist climate
 For reproductive growth hot and dry climate.
 Below 15 0C temperature is harmful during flowering stage of wheat.
S. No. Name of crop growth stage Optimum Temperature
1. G – Germination stage 20 – 25 0C
2. T – Tillering stage 16 – 20 0C
3. G – Growth stage 20 – 23 0C
4. R – Ripening stage 23 – 25 0C

Sowing Time:- first to third week of November

For sowing of wheat, the implement is famous:- Seed drill
Seed Rate:-
 Timely sowing :- 100 kg/ha
 Late sowing :- 125 kg/ha
 By dibbler :- 25 – 30 kg/ha
 For zero tillage sowing :- 140 – 150 kg/ha
 Hybrid wheat seed rate :- 65 kg/ha
Spacing:-
 Normal timely sown crop:- R x R = 22.5 cm, P x P = 8 – 10 cm
  Late sown crop :- R x R = 20 cm, P x P = 8 – 10 cm
Depth of Sowing:-
 Depth of sowing in wheat is depend on length of coleoptiles.
 For dwarf varieties 4 – 5 cm depth.
 For tall varieties 7 – 9 cm depth.
Seed Treatment:- FIR
 Fungicide, Insecticide and Rhizobium culture (Azetobactor is used in wheat)
Fertilizer Management:-
 Irrigated condition :- 120 : 60 : 40 (N : P : K)
 Unirrigated condition:- 60 : 40 : 20 (N : P : K)
 Zn in wheat :- 25 kg/ha
Fertilizer application method:-
 Half N, full P & K at the time of sowing as basal dose.
 Half N, divide into two parts. Apply at first and second irrigations, respectively.
FIRB:- Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed System
 New method of wheat sowing .
 Bed :- 37.5 cm and Furrow :- 30 cm, Total 67.5 cm
 Bed may be 90 or 120 cm wide.
 Give higher yield of crop and save water as compare to other method of sowing.
BBF:- Broad Bed and Furrow Method
 Mostly applied in maize and groundnut crop.
 Broad Bed :- 90 cm, Furrow :- 45 cm and Raised bed :- 30 cm
 Adopt at 0.5 % slope and clay soil.
Irrigation Management:- 6 critical stages. Water requirement:- 450 – 650 mm
S. No. Name of critical stage Days after sowing (DAS)
1. CRI – Crown Root Initiation 20 – 25 DAS (21 DAS)
2. Tillering stage 40 – 45 DAS
3. Jointing/booting stage 60 – 65 DAS
4. Flowering stage 80 – 85 DAS
5. Milking stage 100 – 105 DAS
6. Dough stage 115 – 120 DAS
  If one irrigation available :- CRI
 If two irrigation available :- CRI & Late jointing/ Pre flowering stage
 If three irrigation available :- CRI, Late jointing/Pre flowering and Milking stage.
Varieties:-
1. Single gene dwarf varieties:-
 Sonalika, Sujata, Rohini, Girja, Pusa lerma (mutant of Lerma Roja 64 – A),
 C – 306 (tallest and best for rainfed), UP – 262
2. Double gene dwarf varieties:-
 Cheoti lerma :- resistant to all three type of rust
 Kalyan Sona :- Sensitive to all three type of rust.
 Sonaro – 64, Sarbati Sonaro (mutant variety), HD 2329 (Janak),
 HD 2009 (Arjun), HD 1981 (Pratap)
3. Triple gene dwarf varieties:-
 Heera, moti, jawahar, jyoti, lal bahadur, UP 301
4. Timely sown in irrigated areas:- Raj. 3077, Raj. 3777, Sonalika
5. Late sowing:- Lok-1, Raj. 3765, Sonalika
6. Rainfed condition:- Sujata, C 306, WH 533
7. Saline susceptible:- K – 65, Raj. 3077
8. Hybrid Wheat :- Hyprex 007 (Japan)
9. Other:-
 Raj. 4120 variety is resistant to UG – 99 rust.
 Best chapatti quality wheat varieties :- WH – 147, Raj. 3077
 In 1963, Lerma Roja 64-A and Sonaro 64 released in India, HD 2329 (Janak); all three
varieties has great importance in green revolution in India.
Triticum durum / macroni wheat varieties:-
 Raj. 1911, jayraj, malvraj, meghdoot, malvika (16 % protein, highest)
Weed:-
 Canary grass/mimicry weed/monocot/ narrow leaf weed of wheat :- Phalaris minor
 Test weight of Phalaris minor is 2 gm, while wheat is 40 gm.
 Objectionable weed :- Hirankhuri, Convonvules arvensis (field bind weed)
Weed Management:-
A. Management of broad leaf weeds:-
 2, 4 – D ester @ 500 gm/ha at 30 – 35 DAS
 2, 4 – D amine @ 750 gm/ha at 30 – 35 DAS
 2, 4 – D Na salt @ 1.0 kg/ha at 30 – 35 DAS
 Metsulfuron @ 4 gm/ha at 30 – 35 DAS
 Trisulfuron (carfentrozen) @ 20 gm/ha at 30 – 35 DAS
B. Management of narrow leaf weeds:-
 Isoproturon @ 750 gm/ha at 30 – 35 DAS
 In Hisar, Dr. R.K. Malik observed that Phalaris minor developed resistant against
isoproturon.
 Now a days, Sulfosulfuron @ 25 – 30 gm/ha is used against Phalaris minor.
Harvest Index:-
 Concept developed by Donald.
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
 H.I. : 𝑥 100
𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

 H.I. of wheat is 40 – 45 %.
 Grain : Straw ratio of Mexican dwarf Wheat is 1 : 1.5
 Normal wheat grain : straw ratio is 1 : 2
Yield:-
 Irrigated condition:- 40 – 50 q/ha
 Unirrigated condition :- 20 – 25 q/ha
Other special point:-
 To measure hardness of wheat grain by Perling index.
 The dwarfing agent in wheat is cycocel (ccc).
 Shelling % of wheat is 60.
 Wheat and Mustard intercropping at 9 : 1 ratio, respectively.
Barley
 Botanical Name :- Hordeum vulgare
 Family :- Graminae/Poaceae
 Origin :- Ethopia
 2n :- 14
  Long day plant
 Flower :- Spike Fruit type :- Caryopsis
 Barley protein: - Hordin
 Barley protein contains negligible amount of gluten. So, chapatti of barely is easily
digestible that’s good for diabities patients.
 Saline tolerant crop :- Barley > Sugarbeet > Dhaincha
 Bulbosum technique in barely for haploid production.
 In India, normally six row barley is cultivated.
Classification:- n = 7, 2n = 14
1. Hordeum irregular :- two row barely (rows are not continue)
2. Hordeum distection:- two row barley (both the rows are continue)
3. Hordeum vulgare:- six row barley (rows are continue)
Climate:-
 Temperature for growth :- 12 – 15 0C
 Temperature for ripening :- 30 0C
Sowing Time :- 15 Oct. – 15 Nov.
Seed Rate :- 100 kg/ha, problematic soil/late sowing :- 125 kg/ha
Spacing :- Timely sowing :- R x R :- 22.5 cm, P x P :- 8 – 10 cm
Depth of Sowing :- 4 – 5 cm
Varieties:-
 Molya resistant varieties:- Rajkiran (RD-387), RD – 2052, RD – 2035, RD – 2624
 Huskless varieties:- Dolma, Kailash, Himani, Karan-3
 For timely sowing :- Jyoti, RD – 2035, RD – 2552, RD – 2592
 Saline tolerant :- BL – 2 (Bilara-2)
 For malting purpose :- RS – 6 (ARS, Durgapura, Jaipur), Amber
 For chapatti making :- Karan- 16, Karan – 19
 Drought resistant :- RD – 31
 Dual purpose variety :- RD – 2715 (grain + straw)
 Mutant variety:- RDB – 1
 Foreign variety:- Clipper (Australian variety)
 Fodder varieties :- Ratna, Karan – 2, 5, 10
  For late sowing :- RS -6
Critical stages for water :-
 Active tillering stage :- 30 – 35 DAS
 Flag leaf/ booting/ jointing stage :- 60 – 65 DAS
 Milking / grain filling stage :- 80 – 85 DAS
Yield :- Irrigated condition :- 30 – 35 q/ha, Un-irrigated condition:- 10 – 15 q/ha
BTT :- Balanced Tertiary Trisomic (2n + 1)
 Developed by R.T. Ramage (1956 – 1960)
 No need of emasculation
 For hybrid seed production of barley.
Rice
 Botanical Name :- Oryza sativa
 Family :- Graminae / Poaceae
 Origin :- Indo-Burma/ South East Asia
 Fruit type :- Caryopsis
 2n :- 24, AICRP on Rice 1965
 Protein :- 6 – 7 % (oryzin)
 Short day plant and self-pollinated crop
 India staple food is Rice
 Dwarfing gene of rice :- Dee – geo – woo – gen
 Test weight of rice :- 25 gm
 Test weight of basmati rice :- 21 gm
 Aroma in rice due to Diacetyl 1 – propenil
 Brown manure related with which crop :- Rice
 Para (W. Bengal & Bihar) and Utera (MP) related to rice.
 Which gas emits from rice field :- Methane/ CH4 /Marsh gas
 Browning of rice due to Fe toxicity.
 White eye of rice due to Fe deficiency.
 Ivory disease of rice due to S deficiency.
 Akiochi disease of rice due to H2S toxicity.
 Rice leaves have parenchyma tissue.
  Rice stem is known as haulm or culm
 Non-traditional areas of rice cultivation :- Punjab, Hariyana
 Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI), Cuttack, Orissa (1946)
 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Manila, Philippines (1960)
 Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad.
Hulling:- obtain white rice from brown rice.
 Hulled rice :- brown rice, de-hulled rice :- white rice
 Rice grain is tightly covered by lema and palea, that is known as hull.
𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑅𝑖𝑐𝑒
 Hulling % :- 𝑥 100
𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑅𝑖𝑐𝑒

 Hulling % of rice :- 66 % or 2/3 of paddy

 In rice, grain : straw (hull) ratio :- 2 : 1
Milling % :- 50 – 55 %, flour / rice x 100
Golden rice :- Ingo potricas
 Rice source of vitamin – A (𝛽 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑒)
 Vitamin – A in golden rice :- 37 PPM
Super rice :- G.S. Khus
 Highly nutritive rice (> 25 %)
Hybrid rice :- Yuvan Long Ping
 First in China in 1970 by CMS lines
 Secondly hybrid rice developed by India.
Parboiling :- heat treatment of rice.
 It conserve Vit.- B12, In parboiling Vit. – A lost.
V-shaped Rice Cultivation :- concept developed by Matsushima, 1967
Drum Culture in Rice:-
 Developed by International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines
 For water saving and timely transplanting, this method is adopt
 In this method germinated seeds are used for sowing.
 Seed rate :- 35 – 40 kg/ha, spacing of row to row is 20 cm
Classification:- Oryza have 24 species, in which 2 species are cultivated
1. Oryza sativa :- normal rice, highly cultivated rice in world. Oryza sativa has 22 sub species.
Classification of Oryza sativa according to climate :-
 i. Indica :- Oryza sativa var. indica, grown in India
 Having leaves slightly pubescent and pale green in colour.
 Awnless or possess short and smooth awns.
ii. Japonica:- Oryza sativa var. japonica, grown in Japan.
 Adapted for cultivation in the sub-tropical and warm temperate regions.
 May be awned or awnless. Leaves narrow and dark green in colour.
iii. Javanica:- Oryza sativa var. javanica, grown in Indonesia
 stiff straw, long panicle with awned grains, sparse tillering habit, long duration
2. Oryza glaberrima :- grown in South Africa.
Climate:-
 Hot and humid climate.
 Blooming temperature :- 26.5 – 29.5 0C
 Ripening temperature :- 20 – 25 0C
Soil:- clay loam soil (black soil is best for rice, cotton cultivation)
 pH :- 4 – 6 (slightly acidic soil best for rice, tea and potato cultivation)
Classification of rice:- according to sowing time
S. Season Local Name Part of country Sowing time Harvesting
No. time
1. Autumn Aus West Bengal, Bihar May - June Sep. – Oct.
2. Kharif/winter Aman/Aghani Bihar, Orrisa June - July Nov. – Dec.
3. Summer Boro W. Bengal Nov. – Dec. March - April
Dalua Orrisa

Varieties:-
TN – 1 :- First dwarf variety of rice in world :- TN – 1 (Taichung Native), 1965
 TN – 1 :- Dee – geo – woo – gen x Tarai yung chug
 TN – 1 (1965) :- first time in India brought by G.V. Chalam from IRRI
IR - 8 :- First high yielding dwarf variety of rice in world :- IR – 8
 IR – 8 :- Dee – geo – woo – gen x Peta (Indonesia) by Bichel (1966)
 IR – 8 was introduced in India in 1966 by IRRI
 IR – 8, also known as “Miracle Rice of World”
  Dee – geo – woo – gen :- brown tipped short legged
Jaya:- first high yielding dwarf variety of rice in India.
 Jaya :- TN – 1 (Taiwan) x Type – 141 (Indian variety) by Dr. Shastry (1968)
 Jaya is also known as “Miracle Rice of India”.
Padma :- Type – 141 x TN – 1
Mutant varieties:- Jaggnath (first), other :- Satavari, prbhavati
Direct sowing :- Bala, Pusa 2 – 21
Drought tolerant :- Bala, Kanchan, Kiran, Bhavani
Saline resistant:- IR – 8, Lunishree (super rice)
Waterlogged areas :- Jalmagna, Madhukar, Chakiya – 59, Jalpriya
Form IARI :- Norin – 8 , Norin – 18, Pusa 2 – 21, Basmati – 370 etc.
PRH- 10 :- first hybrid variety of basmati rice in world.
Phalguna:- gall midge resistant variety.
TKM – 6 :- Yellow stem borer resistant variety.
Mudgo :- BPH resistant variety
Sabarmati:- highest protein content.
Blast resistant varieties :- Jaya, Varanasi, Saket – 4, Prasad, Govind
By private institute :- PHB – 71
Hybrid Rice :- APRH – I/II (Andhra), MGR – 1 (CORH-1), KRH – 1 (Karnatka)
Seed Rate:-
 Broadcasting method :- 100 kg/ha
 Hybrid rice :- 15 kg/ha
 SRI method :- 5 kg/ha
 Basmati Rice :- 45 kg/ha
Type of rice cultivation:-
A. Upland :- no puddling require.
B. Low land :- Puddling require
C. Nursery Method :-
i. Dry Bed Method:- useful in rainfed areas, no puddling
ii. Wet Bed Method:- irrigated areas. Do puddling.
 Nursery area required :- 1000 m2 (1/10)
  Bed :- length 8 m and width 1.25 – 1.5 m
 Plant ready for transplanting :- 20 – 25 days
 Plants ready for transplanting: - 15 – 20 cm height, 4 – 5 leaf stage.
 Incubation period :- 24 – 36 hours
iii. Dapog Method:-
 Developed by IRRI, Manila, Philippines
 In India mostly used in southern states specially in Andhra Pradesh
 Nursery prepared on soil-less medium
 Incubation period :- 36 – 48 hours
 Nursery area :- 25 – 30 m2
 Seed rate :- 3 kg/m2 (75 – 90 kg/ha)
 1 m2 seedling sufficient for 200 m2 field.
 Plants ready for transplanting :- 11 – 13 days
 Met nursery related with rice.
 35 days old plants are not used for transplanting in rice.
Puddling:- By puddler
 Destroying soil structure
 Reduce deep percolation
 Increase bulk density about 1.4 to 1.7 g/cc
 Control weeds and increase nutrient availability and soil aeration
Zones in Rice :-
1. Upper Zone :- 1 – 10 mm
 O2 supply good, oxidized zone.
 Nitrate fertilizer should be apply in this zone.
2. Lower Zone :- > 10 mm
 O2 not present, reduced zone
 Ammonical fertilizer should be apply in this zone.
Water Management:-
 Water requirement:- 900 – 2500 mm
 Critical stage for water :- Booting
 In cereal crop require 400 – 500 litres of water for production of 1 kg dry matter.
  In Rice, require 5000 litres of water for production of 1 kg dry matter.
 Always maintain 5 cm water level in rice field.
 Before maturity (10 – 15 days) of rice, water drain from field.
Fertilizer Management:-
 N : 80 – 120 kg/ha, P :- 40 – 60 kg/ha, K : 30 – 40 kg/ha
 N fertilizer best for rice :- Ammonium Sulphate (N : 20.4 %, S : 24.5 %)
 Ammonical fertilizer should be apply in reduced zone.
 Rice absorb N as Ammonia/NH4+
 Rice can be absorb N as NH4+ and NO3-
 Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in rice :- 30 – 40 %, in other crops :- 40 – 50 %
Bio-fertilizer :-
i. Azolla :- water fern
 before transplanting as green manure @ 1 – 2 ton/ha
 after transplanting @ 0.5 – 1 ton/ha
ii. BGA :- Blue Green Algae
 N- fixation require Ca
 Apply at 7 – 10 DAT @ 15 kg/ha, it save 20 kg N/ha
iii. Azospirillum
Bushening:-
 Ploughing at 25 – 45 days (4 – 6 weeks) after transplanting in standing crop (rice) by
plough.
 Main purpose is weed management, better soil aeration, increase plant stability.
Weed:-
 Mimicry weed:- barn yard grass :- Echinochloa crusgalli
 Wild rice :- Echinochloa colonum
 Water hyacinth :- Eicchornia crassipes
Weed Management:-
 Propanil (Stam F-34) @ 3 kg/ha at 6 – 8 DAT (POE)
 Butachlor as PE
 Benthiocarb
Yield :- 40 – 45 q/ha
SRI :- System of Rice Intensification
 Originated in Madagascar in 1983.
 1983, French Jesuit Father Henri De Laulanie in Madagascar.
 Seed Rate :- 5 kg/ha,
 Plants/m2 :- 16, spacing :- 25 x 25 cm
 For produce 1 kg of dry matter require 1571 litre of water.
 Transplanting of single seedling at 2 leaf stage (8 – 12 days).
 Transplant one plant per hill.
 High productivity of irrigated rice.
Khaira/Fe Rust:-
 Firstly observed by Dr. Y.L. Nene (1966) at Pantnagar, UK
 Due to Zn deficiency
 Apply zinc sulphate @ 25 kg/ha or spray 0.5 % zinc sulphate.
Fouling crop:- High weed problem in direct sowing rice crop, is known as fouling crop.
Maize
 Botanical Name :- Zea mays
 Family :- Graminae/Poaceae
 Origin :- Mexico
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 20
 Maize is known as “queen of cereal crop”.
 Maize is also known as “Miracle Crop”, because its higher production capacity.
 Inflorescence :- Spike,
 male flower : Tassal (45 – 50 DAS), female flower : Silk (5 – 7 days after tasseling)
 Short day plant.
 Monoceious plant and have protoandry condition (male flower mature first)
 Maize is cross pollinated crop
 Detasseling :- removal of male part from the plant
 Fruit type : caryopsis
 Gene related to maize :- opaque -2 , flory -2
 Test weight :- 200 – 250 gm
 Protein :- 10 % (zein)
  Two amino acids viz., lysine and tryptophan absent in maize protein.
 Fat :- 4 %, Carbohydrate :- 70 %
 Non tillering plants :- Maize, sorghum and pearlmillet.
 Brace and prope roots present in maize.
 Ancestor of maize :- Teosinate
 AICRP on Maize :- first in 1957.
 DMR :- Directorate of Maize Research, New Delhi.
 CIMMYT :- Mexico, work on wheat and maize
 Number of rows in cob of maize :- 16 – 20
 Number of grain in per row :- 50 – 60
Classification of Maize :- Kipps (1959), as grain characteristics
1. Flint corn :- Zea mays indurata, mostly grown in india, it is also known as yellow maize
2. Dent cron :- Zea mays indentata, mostly grown in USA (95 % area)
3. Pop corn :- Zea mays averta, grains are soft
4. Soft corn/flour maize :- Zea mays amylacea, used for flour
5. Sweet corn :- Zea mays saccharata, sweetness in grain
6. Waxy corn :- Zea mays ceretina, grain used for preparation of waxy material
7. Pod corn :- Zea mays tunicata, husk on every grain of maize, it is primitive type of maize.
HQPM /QPM :- High Quality Protein Maize
 Absence of two amino acids viz., lysine and trypthophan in normal maize. So, quality of
maize is not good.
 Dr. S.K. Vasal do work on HQPM/QPM
 Dr. S.K. Vasal, maize breeder at CIMMYT, Mexico and used Opaque – 2 gene.
 In HQPM/QPM maize have both amino acids viz., lysine and tryptophan. So, quality of
maize protein is increased.
 For this work Dr. S.K. Vasal awarded as world food prize in 2000.
 HQPM/QPM varieties :- HQPM – 1, HQPM – 5, Shaktiman -1, Shaktiman – 2
Qpaque-2 composite varieties:- released three varieties like Protina, Shakti and Ratna in 1970.
Techniques of hybrid seed production:-
1. Single cross technique:-
 Given by E.M. East and G.H. Shull in 1910.
  East and Shull also give concept of hybrid maize.
2. Double cross technique:-
 Given by D.F. Jones in 1920.
 Mostly used in India.
 In India 1961, there were four varieties viz., Ganga -1, Ganga -101, Deccan and Ranjeet
developed by double cross techniques and released.
3. Triple cross technique or top cross:-
 Cross between single cross variety and open pollinated variety.
 Varieties :- Ganga-2, Ganga-4, Hi-starch
Climate :-
 Optimum temperature for germination :- 21 - 23 0C
 Optimum temperature for growth :- 23 0C
Varieties:-
1. Local varieties :- Malan (Kumbalgarh), Sati, Basi, Nagari etc.
2. Hybrid varieties:- Ganga Safed – 2 (double top cross variety)
 Ganga – 1, Ganga – 101, Ranjeet, Deccan,
 PEHM (pusa early hybrid maize) – 1, PEHM – 2
3. Composite varieties:- Released in 1967 were vikram, vijay and amber
 Mahi Kanchan and Mahi Dhawal :- Dungrapura and Banswara region of Rajasthan.
 Navjot, Kiran, Surya, Jawahar, Kisan etc.
4. HQPM :- Shaktiman – 1, Shaktiman – 2, HQPM – 1, HQPM – 1, 5
5. Opaque – 2 composites:- Protina, Shakti and Ratna
6. Pop corn :- Amber, Jawahar pop corn -11, Pearl pop corn
7. Sweet corn :- Madhuri (composite variety), Priya, Sugar – 75
 Sweet corn contains ferulic acid, that is act as antioxidant.
8. Fodder varieties :- African tall, Ganga – 5.
9. Top cross varieties :- Ganga -2, Hi-starch
10. Baby corn varieties :- Prakash, HM-4, Him – 129, VL – 42
Sowing time :- Kharif :- June – July, Rabi :- Nov. – Dec.
Seed Rate :-
 Hybrid maize :- 20 – 25 kg/ha
  Composite maize :- 18 – 20 kg/ha
 For fodder purpose :- 35 – 40 kg/ha
 Rabi maize :- 35 kg/ha
 Baby corn (for vegetable) :- 25 kg/ha
 Pop corn :- 10 – 12 kg/ha
 Sweet corn :- 6 kg/ha
Spacing:-
 Kharif :- R x R :- 60 cm, P x P :- 25 cm, plant population :- 66, 666 per ha
 Rabi :- R x R :- 60 cm, P x P :- 18 cm, plant population :- 92, 592 per ha
Fertilizer Management:-
 Irrigated :- 90 – 120 kg/ha N, 40 kg/ha P and 30 kg/ha K
 Rainfed :- 60 – 90 kg/ha N, 30 kg/ha P and 20 kg/ha K
 Hybrid :- 120 kg/ha N, 60 kg/ha P and 40 kg/ha K
 Composite :- 80 kg/ha N, 30 kg/ha P and 20 kg/ha K
 1/3 N, full P and K should be apply at the time of sowing as basal dose.
 1/3 N at knee height stage of crop
 1/3 N at tasseling stage of crop
 In maize, after tasseling stage there is no use of nitrogen i.e. plant uses negligible amount
of nitrogen.
Water Management:- Water requirement:- 500 – 800 mm
 Critical stages for water :- i. Tasseling (45 – 50 DAS), ii. Silking (5 – 7 days after
tasseling)
Weed Management :- initial 45 – 50 are critical for crop.
 For broad leaf weeds in maize :- Atrazine @ 0.5 kg/ha
 For narrow leaf weeds in maize :- Alachlor (Lasso) @ 2 kg/ha
 For both broad and narrow leaf weeds in maize :- Smimeazin @ 0.5 kg/ha, Tembotrin
(Loudis)
Yield :- Kharif : 40 q/ha, Rabi :- 45 – 55 q/ha
Rabi Maize :-
 In which state of India rabi maize is grown more than other state :- Bihar
 Laxmi variety mostly used as rabi maize in Bihar.
  In Rajasthan, rabi maize grown in Banswara, Dungarpur, Udaipur and Chittorgarh
districts.
 Spacing :- 60 x 18 cm
Physiological disorder of Maize:-
 White bud of maize :- Zn deficiency
 Purpling of leaves :- P deficiency
 “V” shaped chlorosis :- N deficiency
 Lodging of plant :- high N and deficiency of K

Sorghum
 Botanical Name :- Sorghum bicolar
 Family :- Graminae / Poaceae
 Origin :- Africa
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 20
 Infloresence :- Panicle
 Fruit type :- Caryopsis
 Monoecious plant, protogyny condition present.
 Sorghum is often cross pollinated crop.
 C4 and short day plant.
 Sorghum is king of coarse millet.
 Protein :- 10.4 (high lucin amino acid i.e. 7.4 – 17 %)
 Due to high lucin amino acid Pallegra disease.
 Sorghum is known as “camel crop”.
 Carbohydrate :- 72 %, fat :- 1.9 %
 Rabi sorghum grown in Maharashtra, Bihar
 At initial stage of crop contain high HCN/prussic acid/ dhurin.
 Formation of HCN in roots and synthesis in leaves.
 HCN found in leaves.
 Due to high HCN content, the fodder of crop at initial stage, not feed to animals.
 200 PPM prussic acid kill a calf.
 500 PPM prussic acid kill a cow.
Varieties:-
 First hybrid variety :- CSH – 1 (1964)
 Male sterile line :- Combine Kafir – 60
 Drought resistant variety :- CSV – 17 (composite)
 Best variety for rabi sorghum :- M 35 – 1
 Composite varieties :- SPV – 96, 245, CSV – 10
 Sweet sorghum variety :- RSSV – 24, 45, 56, 59
 Striga resistant variety :- BC – 9
 Anthracnose, leaf bligh, brown leaf spot resistant variety :- CSV – 17
 Best for intercropping :- CSH – 14
 Fodder varieties :-
i. Single cut :- Pusa Chari – 1, Hariyana Chari 171
ii. Double cut :- MP Chari – 1
iii. Multicut :- SSG – 59 – 3 (Meethi sudan), Maldandi, Proagro chari
Temperature :- optimum temp. for growth :- 26 – 30 0C
Sowing Time :- June – July
Seed Rate :- For grain :- 12 – 15 kg/ha, for fodder :- 35 – 40 kg/ha
Spacing :- R x R :- 30 - 45 cm, P x P : 12 – 15 cm
Biofertilizer :- Azetobactor, Azospirillium
Fertilizer Management:- 80 kg/ha N, 40 kg/ha P and 30 kg/ha K
Water Management:- Most critical stage for water:- post flowing stage
Weed Management:-
 Striga/witch weed :- Partial root parasite, have suicidal germination
 Striga problem mainly in sorghum, maize, sugarcane and sunflower
 Weed management for borad leaf weed :- 2, 4 – D @ 0.5 – 0.75 kg/ha
Yield :- Hybrid :- 35 – 40 q/ha, composite :- 25 – 35 q/ha

Pearl Millet
 Botanical Name :- Pennisetum glucum
 Family :- Graminae/ Poaceae
 Origin :- Africa
  Chromosome number (2n) :- 14
 C4 and short day plant
 Protogyny condition present, crop is cross pollinated.
 Carbohydrate :- 67 %, Protein :- 11.6 %
 Fat :- 5 % (highest among cereal crop)
 Infloresece :- Spike, fruit type :- Caryopsis
 Bajra is also known as “Poor Man’s Food”.
 Highest production in world :- India
 Highest production in India :- Rajasthan
 Highest production in Rajasthan :- Barmer
 Gene related to bajra :- Tift 23 – A
 Pearl millet is self-irrigated crop.
Climate :- optimum temperature for growth :- 20 – 28 0C
Varieties :-
 HB -1 :- first hybrid variety (1965).
 HB – 1 :- Tift 23 A (male sterile) x Bil 3 B
 First hybrid developed from local parent :- HB – 41
 Best for low rainfall area :- WCC – 75, Pusa – 605
 Pusa Moti :- from Pusa, New Delhi
 Composite varieties :- RCB – 2 (Durgapura), Raj. 171, ICTP – 8203 (early maturing)
 RCB – 2, RHB – 30, RHB – 90 (ARS, Durgapura)
 Fodder varities :- Raj. 121, Raj. 173, Raj. 177
Sowing Time :- June – July
Seed Rate :- 4 – 5 kg/ha
Spacing :- R x R : 45 cm, R x R : 10 – 15 cm
Nursery:- R.D. Gautum
 Area :- 500 – 600 m2
 Seed rate :- 1.5 – 2.5 kg/ha
 Plants ready for transplanting :- 20 – 21 days after.
Fertilizer Management :- 60 – 90 : 30 : 30 kg/ha (N : P : K)
Water Management:-
  2/3 (66%) area of bajra based on rainfall
 Critical stage for water :- flowering stage.
Weedicide :- Atrazin @ 0.5 kg/ha
Yield :- Dryland : 12 – 15 q/ha, Improved technique :- 20 – 30 q/ha
Minor Millets
 Family :- Graminae
 Kodo millet is coarsest of all food grains.
 Kodo millet is highly drought resistant crop.
 Ragi/finger millet is good for diabetes patient.
 Proso millet has high protein content (12.5 %).
S. Name of minor Botanical Seed Rate Varieties
No. millet name
1. Finger millet/ Eleusine Line sowing : 8 – 10 Padmavathi, Gautami (AP),
Ragi/ Mandua coracana kg/ha JNR – 852 (MP), GN – 3
Transplanting : 4 kg/ha (Gujarat), RAU – 5 (Bihar)
2. Proso millet / Panicum 8 – 12 kg/ha Sagar, Nagarjuna, Bhawna,
Cheena miliaceum (line sowing) CO – 1, TNAU - 63
3. Barnyard millet / Echinochloa 8 – 10 kg/ha K – 1, T – 46, VL – 1,
Sawan frumentacea Kanchan, Chandan, IPM - 151
4. Kodo millet / Paspalum 10 – 15 kg/ha JK – 62, 76 (MP), JK – 2 (Guj.)
Varagu/ Haraka/ scrobiculatum APK – 1 & KMV – 20 (TN),
Arikalu
5. Foxtail millet / Setaria italica 8 – 10 kg/ha Krishna, Arjuna, AK-132 -1
Kakun/ Italian/ (AP)
German Gavari (SR – 11) :- Rajasthan
6. Little millet / Panicum 10 kg/ha : line sowing CO – 3, CO – 4 (Samai),
Kutki/ Samai sumatrense 12.5 kg/ha : broadcast Paiyur – 1, Paiyur – 2

Groundnut
 Botanical Name :- Arachis hypogaea
 Family :- Leguminosae
  Origin :- Brazil
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 40
 Also known as :- Peanut, Monkeynut, Earthnut, Manila nut
 Fruit type :- Lomentum/pod
 Oil :- 46 %, Protein :- 26 %
 Germination type :- Epigeal
 Groundnut is known as king of oilseed crop.
 All pulses are legume. Eg. Gram, greengram, blackgram
 But all legume are not pulses. Eg. Groundut, sunhemp
 Groundnut is C3 plant and short day plant.
 Groundnut is self - pollinated crop.
 Highest nitrogen content in cake of which oilseed crop :- Groundnut (7.3 %)
 NRC on groundnut at Junagarh, Gujrat. First NRC, 1 Oct. 1979
 Due to positive geotropism, the pegs are formed inside the ground.
 The pagging process in groundnut started at 55 DAS
 Shelling % of groundut :- 68 – 75 %
 Flowers opens at 6 to 8 AM.
 The flowers are yellow, complete, papilonate and sessile. Usually flowering takes place
between 24 to 30 DAS, which is earlier in bunch type than in spreading ones.
 Yellowing of leaves of groundnut :- Fe deficiency
 For initiating flower in groundnut spray planofix or NAA @ 40 ppm at 40 DAS.
 Pungency in oil of groundnut due to oxidation.
 In India, the area and production of groundnut is highest among oilseed crop.
Growth Habitat :-
1. Determinate growth habit:- vegetative and reproductive growth in different time.
2. Indeterminate growth habit :- vegetative and reproductive growth at same time.
 Eg. Groundnut.
Classification of groundnut :-
1. Bunch/ Erect/ Spanish/ Valencia group :-
 Arachis hypogaea sub sp. fastigiata
 Erect type groundnut is supposed to originate from Arachis pusilla.
  There is no dormancy in seeds.
 Flowering period lasts for 3 – 8 weeks.
 Induced dormancy by MH @ 250 PPM
2. Spreading /Trailing / Running/ Virginia group :-
 Arachis hypogaea sub sp. procumbens
 This is supposed to originate from Arachis prostrate.
 Flowering period lasts for 6 – 10 weeks.
 There is dormancy in seeds.
 Dormancy can be break by high temperature, 0.7 % ethylene chlorohydrins, seed soaking
in 10 PPM solution of NAA / IAA.
Climate:-
 For germination:- 27 – 30 0C, for flowering :- 24 – 27 0C
 For pegging :- 20 – 23 0C, at grain formation in pod :- 20 – 34 0C
Soil:- sandy loam and black cotton soil is best for groundnut cultivation.
Field preparation :-
 use of Phorate 10 G or Carbofuron 3 G or Quinolphos 5 % D at 20 – 25 kg/ha at the time
of sowing for management of termite and white grub.
Varieties:-
1. Bunch type :- AK – 12 – 24, GG – 2, J – 30 (GG – 7), Jyoti, JL – 24 (short duration)
2. Spreading type:- M – 13 (Tikka resistant), RS -1 (pink grain),
 MA – 10 (Chitra), Chandra, GAUG – 10,
3. Semi-spreading type :- HNG – 10, TMV – 10
4. For Zaid :- TAG – 24 (Tikka resistant), GG – 2, M – 13
Sowing Time :- June – July
Seed Treatment :- Rhizobium culture :- Rhizobium leguminosarum
Seed Rate:-
 Bunch type :- 80 – 100 kg/ha
 Spreading type :- 60 – 80 kg/ha
Spacing :-
 Bunch type:- 30 x 10 cm
 Spreading type:- 45 x 15 cm
Fertilizer Management:-
 N : P : K @ 20 : 60 : 40 kg/ha
 Phosphorus applied as SSP (S: 12 %, P : 16 %, Ca: 19 %).
 Zypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) @ 250 kg/ha should be apply.
 Popping :- Ca deficiency
 Hollow heart in peanut :- B deficiency
Water Management :- Critical stages:- i. pre flowering stage and ii. Pegging stage
Weed Management:- Tok – E – 25 (Nitrofen) @ 1.5 – 2 kg/ha
Earthing up :- 30 DAS
Losses in storage :-
 Due to high moisture content in grain, there is fungi, Aspergillus flavus grows. So,
“Aflatoxin” develop, due to this grains are bitter in taste.
 10 – 20 PPM aflatoxin can kill a cow.
Yield:- Bunch type :- 10 – 12 q/ha, Spreading type :- 15 – 17 q/ha
Soybean
 Botanical Name :- Glycine max
 Family :- Leguminosae
 Origin :- China
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 40
 Germination type :- Egigeal
 Inflorescence :- Raceme
 Fruit :- Pod
 Protein :- 40 % (nodulin)
 Oil :- 20 %
 Carbohydrate :- 21 %, Fat :- 19.5 %
 Most of soybean protein is globulin
 Toxic substance found in soybean :- Goitrogen
 The highest area of which crop in world among genetically modified plants :- Soybean
 Soybean is wonder crop or yellow jewel, poor man’s meat
 Boneless meat, high protein content.
 Soybean is an pulse cum oilseed crop.
  Soybean have low amount of Sulphur amino acids like Methionine (1.2 %) and Cysteine
(0.8 %).
 Lysine (6.2 %) and tryptophan (1.4 %) found in soybean.
 Lysine amino acid :- low in cereal crops.
 Methionine amino acid :- low in oilseed and pulse crops.
 Soybean is not used as dal, because of presence of trypsin inhibitor and enzyme
lipoxidase (due to this off flavor in soybean).
 NRC on Soybean :- Indore, M.P. (1987)
 Soya state :- M.P.
 Growth gene related with soybean :- Dt1 and Dt2
 Growth habit :- Indeterminate growth habit.
 C3, Short day plant, self - pollinated crop.
 Soybean has enough amount of Vit. B.
 Leaves of soybean and berseem are trifoliate.
 Black colour of soybean due to presence of anthocyanin.
 In water logging condition, the arenchymatous tissue formation in soybean.
 Bradyrhizobium japonicum present in roots of soybean, which fixes nitrogen.
 Unsaturated fatty acids:- Linoleic acid/ omega – 6 fatty acid (56 – 60 %) and Linolenic
acid/ omega – 3 fatty acid (5 – 10 %)
 Saturated fatty acids :- 12 – 14 % Palmitic and Steric acid.
Varieties:-
 Alankar, Gourav, Moneta
 Best for rainfed area :- NRC – 37 (Ahilya)
 Girdle beetle resistant :- NRC – 12
 Ankur, Shilajeet, Soya – 1, Pratap Raj Soya – 3, NRC – 7, JS series, Pusa – 16, Pusa – 20
 American Varieties :- Bragg, Lee, Kent
Sowing Time :- June – July
Seed Rate :- 80 kg/ha
Spacing :- 30 – 45 x 10 – 15 cm (R x P)
Biofertilizer :- Rhizobium japonicum
Fertilizer Management:-
  N : 20 kg/ha; P2O5 : 60 kg/ha; K2O : 20 kg/ha
 Nodule formation in soybean is more in case of which nutrient :- P
 Zypsum :- 250 kg/ha or Zinc Sulphate :- 25 kg/ha
Water Management :- water requirement : 450 – 700 mm
 Critical stages for water :- i. Pre flowering and ii. Pod formation stage.
Weed Management:-
 Main weed of soybean :- Safed Murga, Celosia argentia.
 Herbicides:- Fluchloralin @ 0.75 – 1.0 kg/ha (PPI), Pendimethalin @ 0.75 – 1.0 kg/ha
(PE) and Imezathyper @ 75 - 100 gm/ha (POE).
Mixed Cropping :- Soybean (Moneta) + Pigeonpea (ICPL – 87/ Pragati).
Other product of Soybean :-
1. Soya Flour :- 10 %
 9 kg of wheat flour + 1 kg of soybean flour.
2. Soya Milk :-
 6 – 8 litre soya milk obtain from 1 kg of soybean.
 Cost :- 4 – 5 rupees per kg of soybean.
 Fat :- 2.5 % and Protein :- 3.5 %
3. Soya Paneer :-
 Prepare form soya milk.
 In China and Japan, soya paneer is known as “Tofu”.
 Fat :- 9 % and Protein :- 14 %
4. Soya Biscuit:-
 Wheat or Soybean flour + Maida @ 1 : 3 ratio.
Yield :- Un-irrigated : 10 – 15 q/ha, irrigated : 25 – 30 q/ha.
Sesamum/Til
 Botanical Name :- Sesamum indicum
 Family :- Pedaliaceae
 Origin :- South West Africa
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 26
 Inflorescence :- Raceme
 Fruit :- Capsule
  Self – pollinated crop.
 Sesamum is also known as “Queen of oilseed crop”.
 Sesamum is a poor man’s ghee.
 Oil :- 46 – 54 %
 Protein :- 18 – 20 %
 Sesamum oil store more time due to which substance :- Sisemol
 Flavour in sesamum oil like pop - corn :- Acetyl pyrizin.
Oil/protein Groundnut Soybean Sesamum
Oil 46 % 20 % 46 – 54 %
Protein 26 % 40 % 18 – 20 %

Sowing Time :- June – July

Seed Rate :-
 Normal seed rate :- 3 – 4 kg/ha
 Non – branching type :- 4 – 5 kg/ha
 Branching type :- 2 – 2.5 kg/ha
Spacing :-- 30 x 10 cm (R x P)
Sowing depth :- 2 – 3 cm
Varieties:-
 Black seeded variety :- TA – 22
 White seeded variety :- TC – 25 (branching type), Pratap /C – 50 (non - branching type),
TA – 130, RT – 46, RT – 125, RT – 103 (branching type), RT – 25.
 Drought tolerant and high export quality :- RT – 127
 RT – 351 :- Quadric capsules variety. Seed white, mature in 85 days. Capsule per plant :
47 and oil : 49.7 %.
Fertilizer Management:- N : 20 – 40 kg/ha; P2O5 : 20 kg/ha.
Weedicide:- Fluchloralin @ 0.75 – 1.0 kg/ha (PPI), Pendimethalin @ 0.75 – 1.0 kg/ha (PE)
Water Management:- critical stages:- i. flowering stage and ii. Grain formation in capsule.
Yield :- 8 – 10 q/ha
Other important points:-
 Highest consumption of which oil in World :- Oil palm
  Highest consumption of which oil in India :- Groundnut
 Highest consumption of which sugar in World :- Sugarbeet.
 Highest consumption of which sugar in India :- Sugarcane
 Sugarcane production in World :- India.
 Bowl of sugar :- Cuba (highest productivity)
Castor
 Botanical Name :- Ricinus communis
 Family :- Euphorbiaceae
 Origin :- Africa/Ethiopia
 Inflorescence :- Raceme
 Fruit :- Capsule
 Oil :- 45 % (ricinoleic acid : 85 %)
 Castor is an important industrial oilseed crop.
 Castor oil is the chief material for the production of sebacic acid which is the basic
ingredient in the production of synthetic resins and fibres.
 Castor oil is used as a lubricant in all moving parts of machinery, and for internal
combustion engines especially those used in aeroplanes.
 In dyeing industries, it is used for the preparation of “Turkey Red”.
 Castor oil cake contains “Ricin”, which is toxic for cattle.
 Castor cake contain 5.5 % N; 1.8 – 1.9 % P and 1.1 % K.
 Rearing of silkworm on castor :- Eri-silk.
Varieties:-
 Aruna :- mutant variety.
 Bhagya, Sobhagya, Gauch-1, Gauch-2
 GCH – 3 (Gujarat Castor Hybrid - 3):- first hybrid in India, 1968
Sowing Time :- June – July
Seed Rate :- 12 – 15 kg/ha
Spacing:- 60 – 90 x 45 cm (R x P).
Depth of Sowing :- 5 – 6 cm.
Fertilizer Management:- N: 60 kg/ha; P2O5 : 40 kg/ha; K2O : 40 kg/ha
Nipping:- removal of upper portion of plant for promoting reproductive growth of plant.
Water Management:- Mass flowering stage is very critical for water.
Weed Management:- Eptan @ 3 – 4 kg/ha, generally used in castor.
Botrytis:- it is fungal disease of castor due to cloudy weather during the flowering period.
Yield :- 20 – 25 q/ha.
Linseed
 Botanical Name :- Linum usitatissimum
 Family :- Linaceae
 Origin :- Mediterranean region
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 30
 Inflorescence :- Raceme
 Fruit :- Capsule / Seed ball (globular in shape)
 Oil content :- 33 – 47 %
 Oil cake contains:- 36 % protein, N : 5 %; P : 1.4 %; K : 1.8 %
 Linseed is a self – pollinated crop.
 Linseed is an important oilseed and fibre crop.
 Linseed grown for seed as well as fibre (flex), which is used for the manufacture of linen.
 Wild flax Linum angustifolium is ancestor of cultivated species Linum usitatissimum.
 At the time of flowering, frost is very harmful to the crop.
 Fatty acids in oil :- Omega - 3 - fatty acid.
 Temperature :- 21 – 26.5 0C
 Linseed grown with rice as relay cropping, which is paira cropping in West Bengal &
Bihar, while in M.P. known as utera cropping.
 Seed rate of linseed in relay cropping :- 10 kg/ha
Varieties:-
 Neelam, Hira, Mukta, Padmani,
 LC – 185 :- particularly used for cultivation under broadcast sowing in standing rice.
Flower blue colour.
 Himalini, Garima, Sweta, Kiran, Chambal, Surabhi, Sheetal
 Dual Purpose Varieties (grain + fibre):- Jeewan, Nagarkot, LCK – 8528, Gaurav
(resistant to rust)
Time of Sowing :- First week of October to First week of November
Seed Rate:- 20 – 30 kg/ha
Spacing:- 30 x 5 cm (R x P)
Fertilizer Management:- N : 50 kg/ha; P2O5 : 40 kg/ha
Water Management:- first at 30 – 40 DAS & second at just before flowering.
Retting:- temperature : 40 0C; (Sunhemp : 27 0C, Jute : 34 0C)
Yield:- 15 – 20 q/ha (seed).
Sunflower
 Botanical Name :- Helianthus annuus
 Family :- Compositae/Asteraceae
 Origin :- Mexico
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 34
 Infloresence :- Head/Capitulum
 Fruit :- Achene
 Germination type :- Epigeal
 Oil content :- 45 – 50 %
 Sunflower is an day neutral plant (DNP).
 Sunflower is an Boron indicator plant.
 Sunflower is an drought indicator plant.
 Pungency in sunflower oil due to oxidation.
 Sunflower grown in all three season.
 Sunflower is an ideal catch crop during the periods when land is otherwise left fallow.
 Oil is rich source of linoleic acid (64 %), which is good for heart patients.
 Oil cakes contain :- 40 – 44 % protein.
 Sunflower protein is known as inulin.
 Heiotropism :- Head towards sun.
 Protandrous condition, so crop is cross pollinated.
 Honey bee plays an important role in pollination.
 Hand pollination is an important in morning hours for proper pollination.
Varieties:-
 BSH – 1 (Bangalore Sunflower Hybrid):- First hybrid variety of sunflower in 1980.
 Open pollinated varieties:- Surya, modern, EC – 68414 (Peredovik)
  Badshah, Divyamukhi, CO-1, CO-2, MSFH – 8, MSFH – 30
 Laxmi, Vinimik, Armaverts, sunrise selection
Sowing Time:-
 Kharif :- first fortnight of July
 Rabi :- second fortnight of October
 Zaid :- first fortnight of March
Seed Rate:- 8 – 10 kg/ha
Spacing:- Kharif: 60 x 20 cm; Rabi & Zaid :- 45 x 20 cm
Fertilizer Management:- N: 60 – 80 kg/ha; P2O5 :60 kg/ha; K2O : 40 kg/ha
 N : vegetative growth; P : improve seed size, proper filling and increase oil content;
 K : grain filling and disease resistant.
Water Management:-
 Critical stages for water :- (i.) 4 – 5 leaf stage (40 – 50 DAS), (ii.) Flowering stage (75
DAS) and (iii.) Grain flowering stage (110 DAS).
 Crop is highly sensitive to water stress between flowering and grain filling stages. So,
atleast one of irrigation must be apply during this period.
Weed Management:-
 Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI); Alachlor or Pendimethalin @ 1.5 kg/ha (PE)
Yield:- 15 – 20 q/ha
Safflower
 Botanical Name :- Carthamus tinctorius
 Family :- Compositae/Asteraceae
 Origin :- India, Afghanistan and Ethiopia
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 20, 24, 44 & 64
 Inflorescence :- Head/Capitulum
 Fruit :- Achene (single seeded fruit)
 Safflower is more or less a DNP, but is thermo-sensitive.
 Oil content :- 24 – 36 %
 Oil has enough amount of linoleic acid (78 %), which is good for heart patients.
 Oil cake, particularly from decorticated seeds is used as a cattle feed. It contains 40 – 45
% protein, 7.9 % N, 2.2 % P and 1.9 % K.
  Cake obtained from un-decorticated seeds is used as manure, it contains 5 % N, 1.44 % P
and 1.23 % K.
 Rabi season crop, Long day plant.
Climate:- Optimum temperature for germination :- 15.5 0C
Varieties:-
 DSH – 129 :- first hybrid (1997)
 DSH – 185 :- first public sector CGMS safflower hybrid
 JSF – 7, JSF – 99 :- Spineless variety.
 Malavia – 305, Nag-7, Tara, Manjira, Bhima, Annagiri
Sowing Time :- first week of October to first week of November
Seed Rate :- 15 – 20 kg/ha
Spacing :- R x R :- 45 cm
Fertilizer Management :- 40 kg/ha N; 40 kg/ha P2O5 and 20 kg/ha K2O
Water Management:- Critical for water :- (i) flowering and (ii) grain filling stage.
Yield:- Un-irrigated : 6 – 8 q/ha; Irrigated :- 15 – 20 q/ha.
Mustard and Rapeseed
 Botanical Name :- Brassica sp.
 Family :- Cruciferae
 Origin :- China
 Oil content :- 37 – 49 %
 Mustard and Rapeseed is Rabi oilseed crop.
 Toxic substance in oil :- Glucosinate
 Pungency in oil :- Singrin/isothiocynate
 Linoleic acid :- 4.7 - 13 %
 Erucic acid (saturated fatty acids) in mustard and rapeseed :- 38 – 57 % (harmful for
body)
 Protein content in cake :- 35 %
 TMO :- Technology Mission on Oilseed start in 1986, now “ISOPOM” :- Integrated
Scheme on Pulses, Oilpalm, Oilseeds and Maize.
 Toria is a best catch crop.
 Glucosinolate in cake causes “Goiter disease”.
Difference between Mustard and Rapeseed :-
S. No. Mustard Rapeseed
1. Botanical name: Brassica juncea Botanical name: Brassica campestris
2. Plant height : 90 – 150 cm Plant height : 1 – 4 meter
3. Leaves are stalked Leaves are sessile
4. Fruit :- Siliqua Fruit :- Siliqua
5. Seeds are small in size and dark or Seeds are comparatively large in size and
red brown in colour. yellow or red brown in colour
6. Seed coat is rough Seed coat is smooth
7. High yield Low yield
Classification:-
Name of Common Local name Botanical name Ch. no. Oil
crop name (2n) %
A. Mustard Indian Rai/Raya/ Laha Brassica juncea 36 35
Mustard
Hill Mustard Paharai Rai B. juncea var. rugosa 36 35
Black Banarsi Rai B. nigra 16 35
Mustard
B. Sarson Turnip Rape Yellow sarson Brassica campestris 20 35 -
var. yellow sarson 48
Turnip Rape Brown sarson Brassica campestris 20 35 -
var. brown sarson 48
C. Toria Indian rape Yellow toria Brassica campestris 20 33 -
var. yellow toria 46
Indian rape Black toria or Brassica campestris 20 33 -
lahi var. black toria 46
D. Rocket, Garden Rocket, Rocket Eruca sativa 22 35
Taramira salad
E. White Ujali Sarson Brassica alba/ B. - 25
Mustard hilta
Mustard Triangle :-
 Given by Nagaheru.
Brassica nigra

(2n = 16 BB)

Brassica
B. juncea
carinata
2n = 36
2n = 34
AABB
BBCC

U – Cycle

Brassica Brassica
B. napus
oleracea compestris
2n: 38, AACC
2n = 18 CC 2n = 20 AA

Climate :-
 Germination :- 26 – 28 0C
 Vegetative growth :- 18 – 25 0C
Varieties :-
A. Mustard :-
 Pusa Jai Kisan (Bio-902) :- somaclonal variety of mustard developed by V.L. Chopra.
 Varuna (T – 59), Vashundhara, Pusa Bold, Aravali, Aashirwad, Rohini, Pusa Bahar,
 First hybrid of mustard :- NRCHB – 506 (DRMR, Sewar, Bhartpur)
 Late sown variety of mustard: - NRCHB – 101.
B. Rapeseed/Sarson:-
 Brown sarson :- Pusa Kalyani, BSH – 1
 Yellow sarson :- Vinoy, Pusa Gold, Ragini
C. Toria :- Bhavani, Sangam, Panchali
D. Taramira :- T – 27, RTM – 314, RTM – 2002 (Narendra Tara)
Sowing Time:-
 Toria :- mid to last week of September
 Sarson and Rai :- first fortnight of October.
Seed Rate :-
 Rapeseed and Mustard :- 4 – 5 kg/ha
 Taramira :- 5 kg/ha
Spacing:-
 Toria :- 30 x 10 cm (R x P)
 Sarson and Rai :- 45 x 10 – 15 (R x P)
Fertilizer Management:- 60 – 90 kg/ha N, 60 kg/ha P2O5; 40 kg/ha K2O
 Zypsum :- 250 kg/ha
 Spray of 0.1 % thiourea at 45 and 60 DAS that increase oil content.
Water Management:- critical stage for water :- Pre-bloom and Pod filling stage.
Weed Management:- cause 20 – 30 % reduction in yield of mustard crop.
 Orobanche :- total root parasite
 Mexican poppy (satyanashi) :- Argimone mexicana, objectionable weeds.
 Mixing of Mexican poppy seed with mustard cause “dropsy” disease.
 Nitrofen @ 1 – 1.5 kg/ha or Isoproturon @ 1 kg/ha (PE)
Canola:-
 Brassica napus and Brassica campestris contain 38 – 52 % erusic acid.
 Brassica juncea contain erusic acid (< 2 %) and glucosinolate (< 30 PPM), it is called as
double low or double zero (“00”) canola.
 Variety of double zero canola:- PDZM – 31 (Pusa Double Zero Mustard)
Yield:-
 Rapeseed :- 14 – 20 q/ha
 Mustard :- 20 – 25 q/ha
Pulse Crops
A. Chromosome number :-
 Kharif pulse :- 2n = 22, except horse gram 2n = 24
 Rabi pulse :- 2n = 14, except chickpea 2n = 14, 16
B. Germination type:-
S. Epigeal Hypogeal
No.
1. Epi : above; geal : earth surface Hypo : below, geal : earth surface
2. Germination outside the soil Germination inside the soil
3. Elongation of hypocotyl Elongation of epicotyl
4. Energy from cotyledon Energy form endosperm
5. Most kharif pulses except arhar Most rabi pulses except frenchbean
6. Other eg.:- Okra, Mustard, Cotton, Jute, Other eg. :- Rice, Lathyrus, Wheat, Barley, Pea
Castor, Tomato, Pumpkin, Cucumber

Pigeon Pea
 Botanical Name :- Cajanus cajan
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- Africa
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 22
 Protein :- 20.9 %
 Inflorescence :- Raceme, fruit : Pod
 Pigeon pea contributes about 15 % in total pulses area as well as production of India.
 Often cross pollinated crop.
Classification :-
S. No. Cajanus cajan var. bicolor Cajanus cajan var. flavus
1. Arhar Tur
2. Perennial plant Annual plant
3. Tall bushy plants Small plant
4. Late maturing Early maturing
5. 4 – 5 seeds per pod 2 – 3 seeds per pod
6. Mostly grown in North India Mostly grown in South India

Varieties :-
A. Early maturing varieties :-
 Prabhat :- extra early (115 – 135 days) maturing variety.
 UPAS – 120 (mature in 120 days), Manak, ICPL – 87 (Pragati)
 ICPH – 8 :- first hybrid variety developed by GMS line at ICRISAT, Hyderabad (1991)
B. Medium duration varieties:- Mukta (wilt resistant), BDN-1, BDN-2
C. Long duration varieties:- Pusa – 9, Bahar (265 days)
Sowing Time :- first fortnight of June
Seed Rate :- 12 – 15 kg/ha (sole crop); 6 – 8 kg (mixed/intercropping)
Spacing:- 60 – 75 x 15 – 20 cm (R x P)
Fertilizer Management:- 20 kg/ha N; 40 – 60 kg/ha P2O5; 30 kg/ha K2O
Weed Management:-
 Alachlor (Lasso) @ 3 litres/ha (PE) or Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Harvest index :- 19 % (lowest), Grain : Straw ratio :- 1 : 4.2
Yield:- 20 – 25 q/ha (grain)
Green Gram
 Botanical Name :- Vigna radiata
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Subfamily :- Papilionaceae
 Origin :- India
 Protein content :- 25 %
 C3, SDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Egigeal type of germination.
 Green gram allowed to sprout, ascorbic acid (Vit. C) is synthesized.
 No irrigation should be given when the crop is in full bloom stage.
Varieties :-
 Pusa Baisakhi, SML – 668, K – 851 (60 – 65 days), RMG – 344
 Sunena, Ganga – 8 (Gangotri), Asha, PDM – 11, Pant Moong – 1, Varsha,
 R 288-8 :- local selection from Rajasthan. Mature in 70 – 75 days.
 ML – 267, Kopergaon,
Sowing Time :- Kharif : June – July, Rabi : Oct. – Nov.; Zaid : March – April
Seed Rate :- Kharif :- 12 – 15 kg/ha; Rabi & Zaid :- 20 kg/ha
Spacing :- Kharif : 45 cm row to row; Rabi & Zaid : 30 cm row to row.
Fertilizer Management:- 15 – 20 kg/ha N; 40 – 50 kg/ha P2O5
Weed Management:- Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Yield:- 6 – 10 q/ha. Well managed crop :- 12 – 15 q/ha.
 Black Gram
 Botanical Name :- Vigna mungo
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Subfamily :- Papilionaceae
 Origin :- India
 Protein content :- 24 %
 C3, SDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Egigeal type of germination.
 High amount of phosphoric acid found in black gram.
Varieties:-
 Pant U – 19, Pant U – 30, Naveen, Krishna (T-9), Kulu-4, PDU-1, RBU – 38 (Barkha)
Sowing Time :- Kharif : June – July, Zaid : March – April
Seed Rate :- Kharif :- 12 – 15 kg/ha; Zaid :- 20 kg/ha
Spacing :- Kharif : 45 cm row to row; Rabi & Zaid : 30 cm row to row.
Fertilizer Management:- 15 – 20 kg/ha N; 40 – 50 kg/ha P2O5
Weed Management:- Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Yield:- 6 – 10 q/ha. Well managed crop :- 12 – 15 q/ha.
Mothbean
 Botanical Name :- Vigna aconitifolia
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- India
 Protein content :- 18 – 22.5%
 C3, SDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Egigeal type of germination.
 Drought resistant pulse crop.
Varieties:-
 IPCMO – 912 (Vikas), RMO – 225 (Maru vardan), RMO – 435 (Maru Bahar), Cazari
moth – 1, Sweet grain :- RMO – 40 & FMM – 96
 RMO – 40 :- Rajasthan Moth – 40, developed from Jwala variety by treating with gamma
rays. Released in 1994.
 Jadia and Jwala developed from Jobner ag. university.
Sowing Time :- June - July
Seed Rate :- Normal : 10 kg/ha; RMO – 40 & FMM – 96 : 15 kg/ha
Spacing :- 45 x 15 – 20 cm (R x P)
Fertilizer Management :- 10 : 30 : 30 (N: P : K)
Yield :- grain : 3 – 5 q/ha; straw : 5 – 8 q/ha.
Cowpea/Lobia
 Botanical Name :- Vigna sinensis
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Subfamily :- Papilionaceae
 Origin :- Central Africa
 Protein content :- 23.4 %
 C3, SDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Egigeal type of germination.
 Indian cowpea :- Vigna sinesis sub. sp. catjang
Climate :-
 Germination :- 12 – 15 0C
 Optimum temperature for growth :- 27 – 35 0C
Varieties:-
A. Vegetable varieties :-
 Pusa barsati, Pusa phalguni, Pusa dofasli, Pusa rituraj (Kharif & Zaid), C – 152 , FS - 68
B. Fodder varieties:- Russian Giant, Sirsa – 10, UPC – 287, FOS – 1, CO – 2.
Sowing Time:- Kharif :- middle of June to last of July; Summer/Zaid :- March – April
Seed Rate :-
 For grain and vegetable purpose :- 20 – 25 kg/ha
 Fodder purpose :- 35 – 45 kg/ha
 Green manuring purpose :- 35 – 40 kg/ha
Spacing :- Kharif :- 35 – 45 x 8 – 10 cm; Zaid : 25 – 30 x 8 – 10 cm
Fertilizer Management:- 15 – 20 kg/ha N (starter dose); 50 – 60 kg/ha P2O5
Weed Management :- Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Yield :-
 Grain :- 12 – 15 q/ha
  Vegetable :- 50 – 60 q/ha
 Fodder purpose :- 250 – 350 q/ha
French bean
 Botanical Name :- Vigna radiata
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- Mexico
 C3, LDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Egigeal type of germination.
 French bean does not fix atmospheric Nitrogen, it is called as shy nodular crop.
Varieties:-
 Contender, Pusa Parvati, Arka Komal, Arka suvidha, Amber, PDR – 14, Ooty – 1
Sowing Time :- second fortnight of October.
Seed Rate :- 100 – 120 kg/ha
Fertilizer Management :- 120 kg/ha N; 80 kg/ha P2O5
Yield :- 15 – 20 q/ha
Gram/Chickpea/Bengal gram
 Botanical Name :- Cicer arietinum
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- South – West Asia
 Protein :- 21.1 %
 C3, LDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Hypogeal type of germination. Fruit :- pod.
 Leaves contain malic (90 – 96 %) and oxalic acid (4-10 %).
 Chickpea require rough seed bed.
 Chickpea have tap root system.
 Deeper sowing of gram escape or absence of wilt disease.
 India alone has nearly 52.5 per cent of total world acreage and production of gram.
 Sprouts grain of gram contain Vit. – C.
 Intercropping of Gram and Mustard, ratio of rows 3 : 1.
 Intercropping of Gram and Safflower, ratio of rows 7 : 1.
  Frost at the time of flowering results in the failure of the flowers to develop seeds or in
the killing of the seeds inside the pods.
Classification:-
A. Desi or brown gram :- Cicer arietinum
 Most widely grown gram.
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 14, 16
B. Kabuli or White gram :- Cicer kabulicum
 Plants are generally taller than the desi gram and stand more or less erect.
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 16
Varieties :-
A. Desi or brown gram :-
 Avrodhi & ICCV – 10 :- wilt disease resistant variety.
 Gaurav :- moderately resistant to rust and blight diseases.
 C – 235 :- blight resistant variety. Suitable for Punjab and Hariyana.
 RS – 10 :- drought resistant variety.
 RS – 11 :- Mutant from RS – 10.
 Dahod yellow (for rainfed), GNG – 469, GNG – 1581, Aprna (grain are green in colour).
 Double podded variety :- RSG – 44.
 Pusa – 209, Radhey, K – 850.
B. Kabuli or White gram :-
 C – 104, L – 550, L – 144, Sadabahar
 Pusa – 1003, Pusa – 1053 :- wilt resistant variety.
Sowing Time :- second fortnight of October.
Seed Rate :-

 Desi gram :- 80 kg/ha

 Kabuli gram :- 100 kg/ha
Spacing :- Desi gram :- 30 x 10 cm; Kabuli gram :- 45 x 15 cm
Depth of Sowing :- 8 – 10 cm
 Deep sowing of gram because the shallow sown crop is more liable to be damaged by
wilt.
Seed Treatment :- Rhizobium leguminosarum
Fertilizer Management :-
 N :- 20 – 25 kg/ha as starter dose which can meet plant requirement before formation of
nodules.
 P2O5 :- 40 – 60 kg/ha; K2O :- 20 kg/ha
Water Management:- mostly sown as rainfed crop.
 One irrigation at pre-flowering stage and another at pod development stage.
Weed Management:- Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Nipping :-
 Removal of upper portion of plant at 40 – 50 DAS (20 cm height) for promoting
reproductive growth of plant.
 For nipping spray :- TIBA @ 75 PPM
Yield :- 20 – 25 q/ha
Pea
 Botanical Name :- Pisum sativum
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- Mediterranean region (field pea)
 Protein :- 22.5 %
 C3, LDP, Self-pollinated crop, 2n :- 14
 Hypogeal type of germination. Fruit :- pod.
 Optimum temperature for germination :- 22 0C, for growth :- 13 – 18 0C.
Classification :-
A. Garden/Table Pea :- Pisum sativum var. hortense
 Mendal work on this pea.
 Mostly used for canning purpose.
B. Field Pea :- Pisum sativum var. arvense
 Mostly used for Dal.
Varieties :-
 Sylvia :- whole pod is edible
 Swarn Rekha, Aparna (dwarf variety)
 Hans :- mutant variety
  Harbhajan :- extra early variety.
 Bonville :- best for dehydration
 Arka Ajeet & Rachna :- resistant against powdery mildew.
 Pusa Pragati, Pant Upkar, Sapna
Sowing Time :- 15 October to 30 October.
Seed Rate :-
 For vegetable :- early sowing :- 100 – 120 kg/ha; mid/late sowing :- 80 – 90 kg/ha
 For grain :- 60 – 80 kg/ha
Fertilizer Management :- N : 20 kg/ha; P2O5 : 60 kg/ha; K2O : 40 kg/ha
Weed Management :- Fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Yield :-
 Grain :- 20 – 25 q/ha
 Vegetable :- 100 – 125 q/ha
Lentil
 Botanical Name :- Lens esculenta
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- Asia Miner
 Protein :- 25 %
 C3, LDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Hypogeal type of germination. Fruit :- pod, inflorescence :- Raceme
 Optimum temperature for growth is 18 – 30 0C.
 Lentil seeds should be sown at a shallow depth (3 – 4 cm).
Varieties :-
 Shivalik, Malika, Sapana, Priya (DPL-15), Pusa Vabhav, Pusa – 6,
 Pant L – 406, Sihor – 74-7, C – 31, S – 256
Sowing Time :- Mid October
Seed Rate :- normal : 30 – 40 kg/ha; late sowing :- 50 – 60 kg/ha
Fertilizer Management :- 20 – 25 kg/ha N; 50 – 60 kg/ha P2O5.
Irrigation Management :- first at 45 DAS, second at pod filling stage.
Weed Management :-
 Fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha or Metribuzin/Prometryen @ 1.0 – 1.5 kg/ha (PPI)
Yield :- 20 q/ha
Berseem/ Egytian Clover
 Botanical Name :- Trifolium alexandrinum
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- Egypt (Asia Miner)
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 16
 King of fodder crop.
 Berseem is also known as milk enrichment.
 Berseem has 20 % crude protein & 70 % dry matter digestibility.
 Optimum temperature for germination :- 25 – 30 0C, for growth : 18 – 21 0C
Varieties :-
A. Diploid :- Mascavi, Khadravi, Sahidi, Fahli, BL-1, IGFRI – 99 – 1/Vardan
B. Tetraploid :- Pusa Giant (Auto tetraploid), T – 678
 Mix seeds of tetraploid and diploid at ratio of 2 : 1
Sowing Time :- first fortnight of October
Seed Rate :- 25 – 30 kg/ha; for early & late sowing :- 35 kg/ha
Seed Treatment :-
 For Kasani (Cichorium intybus) :- soaking of seed in 5 % NaCl solution for 20 minute.
 Rhizobium Culture :- Rhizobium trifolii
Weed Management :-
 Micro climatic weed :- Cichorium intybus (Kasani), for management of kasani, apply
Dainocel acetate @ 1.5 kg/ha.
 Oxyflorfen @ 0.2 kg/ha (PE) can also be used.
Fertilizer Management :- N :- 20 – 25 kg/ha; P2O5 :- 50 – 60 kg/ha
Harvesting :-
 First cutting at 55 DAS (60 cm height)
 Subsequent cuttings at 20 – 25 days interval.
Seed Production :-
 If the crop is to be left for seed, no cutting should be taken after middle of March.
 The crop left for seed production after 3 – 4 cuttings.
Yield :-
  Green fodder crop :- 1000 – 1200 q/ha
 Seed crop:- 3 – 5 q/ha; forage :- 400 – 500 q/ha
Lucern/Alfalfa
 Botanical Name :- Medicago sativa
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- South West Asia
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 32
 Lucern first time cultivated in Persia (Iran). Alfalfa is an Arabic word.
 Queen of fodder crop.
 Lucern has 15 - 20 % crude protein.
 Deep root system makes the plant drought resistant.
 Alkaloid present in lucern :- Saponin/Oxalic
 Yellowing of lucern (Lucerne Yellow):- deficiency of Boron.
Varieties :-
 Anand – 2, Anand – 3, NDRI Selection – 1, LLC – 5, Rambler, Moopa,
 Sirsa – 8, Sirsa – 9, Chetak (S – 244)
 For cold areas :- Hunter river, Ladakhi
Sowing Time :- mid October to first week of November
Seed Rate :- Broadcast method : 20 – 25 kg/ha; line sowing : 12 – 15 kg/ha
Seed Treatment :- Seeds should be treated with Rhizobium melilotii.
Fertilizer Management :- N : 20 – 25 kg/ha; P2O5 :- 60 – 75 kg/ha
Weed Management :- imp. weed :- Cuscuta/dodder (completely stem parasite)
 For cuscuta, spray paraquat or diquat after harvesting of crop.
Harvesting:- first at 55 – 60 DAS, subsequent at 25 – 35 days interval.
Yield :- forage crop :- 700 – 100 q/ha fodder; seed crop :- 2 – 3 q/ha seed.
Oat
 Botanical Name :- Avena sativa
 Family :- Graminae/Poaceae
 Origin :- Asia Miner
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 42
 Inflorescence :- loose open panicle of spikelets.
  Grain :- Caryopsis
 Green fodder contains 10 – 12 % and 30 – 35 % dry matter.
 Alkaloids present in oat :- NO3
 Optimum temperature for growth :- 15 – 25 0C.
Varieties :-
 Kent, Algerian, FOS-1/29, HFO – 114, UPO – 50, OS – 6, Flemming gold, Coachmen
Sowing Time :- 15 October – 15 December
Seed Rate :- 100 kg/ha
Spacing :- 20 – 25 cm (row to row)
Fertilizer Management :- N : 80 kg/ha; P2O5 : 40 kg/ha
Harvesting :- first cutting at 50 – 55 DAS (60 cm height of plant) & Second at dough stage.
Yield :-
 Forage crop : 500 – 600 q/ha;
 Seed crop : 30 – 35 q/ha seed, 250 q/ha green fodder, 25 – 30 q/ha straw

Napier / Elephant / Uganda grass

 Botanical Name :- Pennisetum purpureum
 Family :- Graminae/Poaceae
 Origin :- Rhodesia of South Africa
 C4 Plant, perennial grass
 Pusa Giant :- developed by cross between Pennisetum purpureum and Pennisetum
typhoideum (African bajra).
 Other varieties :- NB – 21, Gajraj, Pusa Napier – 1.
 Seed Rate :- 27,800 root slips or stem cuttings/ha
 Sowing time :- end of February to end of August. Best :- end of February
 Yield :- 1200 – 1500 q/ha green fodder
Cotton
 Botanical Name :- Gossypium sp.
 Family :- Malvaceae
 Origin :- India
 King of fibre crop, white gold
  Fruit type :- Capsule (ball have 4 locule)
 Inflorescence :- Square (square period : 18 – 24 days)
 Square consists of 3 triangular shaped leafy structure known as “Bracteoles” and the
flower bud.
 Male sterile line :- Grigg – 399
 Seed Cotton (Seeded cotton):- seed + fibre
 Cotton Seed :- only seed /Binola (without fibre)
 Cotton fibre is simply an elongation or outgrowth of an epidermal cell of the seed coat.
 Marketable cotton fibre :- Lint (long fibre)
 Unmarketable cotton fibre :- Fuzz (short fibre)
 AICRP on Cotton :- Coimbatore (1967)
 CICR :- Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, MH (1976)
 Terminator technique related to which crop :- Cotton
 Cotton committee in India :- 1921 (first committee in India)
 B.t. first isolated by S. Ishiwata.
 Area of Bt cotton in India :- 11.07 million ha (2017 – 18)
 Oil content in cotton seed :- 15 – 25 %
 Cotton seed cake contain :- N : 6 %; P : 3 %; K : 2 %
 One seed cotton have 60 – 80 thousand fibres.
 Pollination type :- Often Cross Pollination
 Insect pollinator in Cotton :- Honey bee
 Weight of one bale of cotton :- 170 kg (Jute : 180 kg & Mesta : 181 kg)
 Toxic substance present in cotton seed :- Gossypol
Classification :- Hutchindon (1947)
A. Desi / old world / Asiatic / Diploid Cotton :-
i. Gossypium arboreum :- 2n :- 26
ii. Gossypium herbaceum :- 2n :- 26
B. New world / Egyptian / Tetraploid Cotton :-
i. Gossypium hirsutum /American cotton:- 2n :- 52
ii. Gossypium barbadense / Sea island cotton:- 2n :- 52. Highest fibre length : 3.6 - 5.0 cm.
Branching type in Cotton :-
1. Monopodial/Racemose :- Vegetative branches
 Mostly present in Gossypium arboreum.
 Main stem continues grow.
2. Sympodial/Cyamose :- Reproductive branches
 Main stem growth stops after certain height.
 Zig – zag appearance of branches in plant.
 This type of branches good for production.
 Present in G. herbaceum, G. hirsutum & G. barbadense.
Climate :- Cotton is a warm season crop.
 Minimum temperature for germination :- 16 0C
 Minimum temp. for vegetative growth :- 21 – 27 0C
 Minimum temp. required during fruiting phase :- 27 – 32 0C
Soil :- Black cotton soils are ideal for crop. pH of soil :- 5.5 – 8.5
Varieties :-
1. Gossypium arboreum :- Lohit, Jyoti, Virnar, G – 27, RG – 8, G – 1, Gcot - 15
2. Gossypium herbaceum :- Digvijay, Kalyan, Laxmi, Sanjay
3. Gossypium hirsutum :- Bikaneri Nerma, Ganaganagar Ageti, MCU – 4, 5, 8, 9, Khandwa - 2.
 MCU – 5 :- Extra - long staple variety
4. Gossypium barbadense :-
 Sujata :- first Egyptian cotton variety for spinning in India.
 Suvin :- in present under cultivation.
5. Hybrid Varieties :-
i. Intraspecific Hybrid :- only single species is used for hybrid seed production.
 G. hirsutum x G. hirsutum
 H – 4 :- First variety of cotton developed by C.T. Patel in 1970 in Surat, Gujarat.
 H – 4 :- G – 67 x American Nectroless
 Other varieties :- Surya, Fateh, Savitha, Dhanlaxmi, NHH – 44, H – 6, H – 8
 Maruvikas (Raj HH – 16) :- First G. hirsutum variety of Rajasthan.
ii. Interspecific Hybrid :- two species are used for hybrid seed production.
 Mostly cross between G. hirsutum x G. barbadense
 Varalaxmi :- UAS, Dharwad by S.A. Patel in 1976
  Sruti, DCH – 32, NHB – 12, DHB – 105
Cotton grown in India :-
 Hybrid Cotton :- 40 %
 Gossypium hirsutum :- 36 %
 Gossypium arboreum :- 16 %
 Gossypium herbaceum :- 8%
 Gossypium barbadense :- 0.2 %
Sowing Time :-
 Northern region :- first fortnight of May
 Central region :- 15th – 25th May
 Tamil Nadu :- September – October
 Karnataka & AP :- Desi cotton in August – September
 Rajasthan :- Desi : first week of April – first week of May;
 Rajasthan :- American : 15th April – 15th May
Seed Rate :-
 Desi Cotton :- 12 – 15 kg/ha
 American Cotton :- 15 – 17 kg/ha
 Hybrid Cotton :- 2 – 3 kg/ha
 Bt Cotton :- 1 – 1.5 kg/ha
 For RST – 9 variety :- 20 – 25 kg/ha
Seed Treatment :-
 Delinting :- seed should be delinted before sowing with concentrated sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) at 10 : 1 ratio.
 Soaking of seeds thoroughly for 2 hours in the solution of 5 g Emisan, 1 g streptocycline,
1 g succinic acid in 10 litres of water at the rate of 6 – 8 kg delinted seed.
Spacing :-
 Desi Cotton :- 60 x 30 cm
 American Cotton :- 60 – 75 x 30 – 45 cm
 Hybrid Cotton :- 100 x 60 cm
Plant population / ha :- Normal : 50,000 – 80,000 and Bt. Cotton :- 10,000
Ultra Narrow Row :- Concept developed in USA.
  Spacing :- 19 x 19 cm2; Plant Population :- 2, 77, 000 per ha.
Fertilizer Management :-
S. No. Type of Cotton N P2O5
1. Desi Cotton 50 kg/ha 25 kg/ha
2. American Cotton 75 kg/ha 45 kg/ha
3. Hybrid Cotton 100 – 120 kg/ha 40 – 50 kg/ha
Water Management :- water requirement :- 700 – 1300 mm
 Critical stages :- i. Flowering stage, ii. Ball formation stage
 Firs irrigation at 40 – 45 DAS
Weed Management :-
 Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha
 Diuron :- 0.5 – 1.0 kg/ha (mostly used in cotton)
 Alachlor (Lasso) :- 1.5 – 3.0 kg/ha
Physiological disorders :-
1. Tirak/ Bad ball opening/ pre mature defective opening of ball :- due to early sowing,
 water deficiency, deficiency of nitrogen, alkaline soils (Udaipur region)
2. Red Leaf :- highly in American cotton.
 Highest incidence in H – 4 and Varalaxi variety of cotton
 Due to nitrogen deficiency.
3. Little leaf in Cotton :- Zinc deficiency
4. Crnckle leaf of Cotton :- Mn toxicity
5. Purple Red Leaf :- Mg deficiency
Fibre quality :-
1. Staple length :-
 Measured by Hall sledge sorter, bear sorter or fibro graph.
 Long staple fibre (> 2.50 cm); medium fibre (2 – 2.50 cm) and short fibre (< 2cm)
2. Fibre fineness :-
Fibre quality depend on fineness of fibre.
Instrument used for measuring fineness of fibre :- Micronair, measured in microgram.
3. Fibre strength :- fibre is strong if breaking point is > 95 kg/cm2.
4. Ginning % :-
  Separation of fibre from the seed of cotton.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑡
 Ginning % :- 𝑋 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑛

 Ginning % of desi cotton :- 30 – 43 %

 Ginning % of American cotton :- 30 – 35 %
 Ginning % of hybrid cotton :- 32 – 34 %
5. Lint Index :-
100 𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑥 𝐺𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 %
 Lint Index :- 100 − 𝐺𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 %

 Lint obtain from 100 seed cotton.

6. Number of counts:-
 Number of hanks present in 450 g or 1 pond lint, is called number of hanks.
 1 hanks :- 770.6 m / 840 yard long fibre
 Indian cotton, number of counts :- 22
Special Points :-
 Fibre maturity is measured by arelometer.
 Fibre thickness is measured by nepiness.
 Fibre length and fibre fineness are important genetic trait of fibre.
Topping :-
 Removal of upper portion of plant (Cotton).
 Main purpose is to promote reproductive growth of plant.
 Usually at 80 – 90 DAS (1 – 1.2 meter height)
Yield :- Seed Cotton :- 8 – 10 q/ha; from hybrid varieties : 15 q/ha
Jute
 Botanical Name :- Corchorus sp.
 Family :- Tiliaceae
 Origin :- India
 Jute is an important fibre crop next to cotton.
 CRIJAF :- Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Nilganj, Barrackpore,
WB
 National Institute of Research on Jute and Allied Fibre Technology, Kolkata.
Classification:-
1. Corchorus capsularis :- White Jute
 Hardy in naure, tolerate to waterlogging conditions.
 More popular and 70 % of area in India. Mostly found in Indo-Burma region.
 Bitter in taste due to presence of “Corchorin” , a bitter substance, known as “Tita Pat”
 Varieties :- Baldev, Joydev, Sabuj Sona, Sonali, Shymali
2. Corchorus olitorius :- Tossa/ Mitha Pat, found in Africa.
 Varieties :- Baisakhi Tossa, Chaitali Tossa, Basudev, Navin, Mahadev, Rebati, Savitri.
Sowing Time :- February to June
 Optimum time for Capsularis type (white jute) :- March – April
 Optimum time for Olitorius type (Tossa jute) :- April – May
Seed Rate :- for white jute 6 – 8 kg/ha and for tossa jute 4 – 5 kg/ha
Steeping/Soaking :-
 After 2 – 4 days of harvesting the plant are shaken for complete leaf shedding and they
are tied in bundles of about 20 – 22 cm in diameter.
Retting :-
 It is a process by which the fibres in the bark get loosened and separated from the woody
stalk.
 Optimum temperature :- 34 0C
Yield :- 13 q/ha (fibre)
Sunhemp / Bombay hemp/ Banars hemp
 Botanical Name :- Crotalaria juncea
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- India
 Recently, used for currecncy as its contains high percentage of cellulose and lignin.
 Varieties :- K – 12, Narendra Sanni, M – 19, M – 35, ST – 55.
 Sowing time :- onset of monsoon or May – June.
 Seed Rate :- 20 – 25 kg/ha
 Steeping :- the bundles are brought to the nearest ponds, ditches, pools or streams and
arranged side by side to form a platform in water for steeping.
 Optimum temperature for retting :- 21 – 27 0C.
 Extraction of fibre is difficult in sunhemp than jute.\
  Yield :- 8 – 10 q/ha (fibre).
Sugarcane
 Botanical Name :- Saccharum officinarum
 Family :- Gramineae/ Poaceae
 Origin :- New Guinea/ India
 Inflorescence :- Arrow (open branched panicle)
 Grain :- Caryopsis
 The word “Sugar” is derived from “Sanskrit” word “Sakkara or Sarkara”.
 Noble cane :- Saccharum officinarum developed by T.S. Venketraman by cross between
S. barberi x S. spontaneum.
 Area in world :- Brazil and Production in world :- India
 Bowl of sugar :- Cuba (highest productivity).
 Sugarcane is a tall perennial plant.
 Sugarcane is an intermediate day plant (require 13 hours light for flowering).
 Arrowing in sugarcane is an indicator of maturity.
 The age of sugarcane setts used for sowing :- 8 – 10 month old.
 Length of sugarcane settts used for sowing :- 30 – 45 cm
 Recovery of gur/jiggery from juice :- 10 – 12 %
 Recovery of sugar form juice :- 8 – 10 %
 IISR :- Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow (UP) 1952
 SBI :- Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore, TN
 ISI :- Indian Sugar Institute, Kanpur (UP)
 AICRP on Sugarcane started during 1970-71.
Classification :-
A. Cultivable Sugarcane :-
i. Noble Cane :- Saccharum officinarum, juicy cane; 2n : 80
ii. Indian Cane :- Saccharum barberi, fibre content more; 2n : 82 - 124
iii. Chinease Cane :- Saccharum sinense, fibre content more; 2n : 118
B. Wild Sugarcane :-
i. Saccharum spontaneum, sugar low and fibre content more; 2n : 40 - 128
ii. Saccharum robustum,
Classification :-
 Sugarcane is a tropical plant.
 Average mean temperature for growth :- 26 – 32 0C
Varieties :-
 First wonder cane :- CO – 419 (highest yield)
 Second wonder cane :- CO – 140
 Early maturing :- CO – 449, CO – 997 (best for ratoon crop)
 Medium duration varieties :- CO – 787 (best for gur), CO – 527
 Insect resistant :- CO – 1007
 Frost and drought resistant variety :- CO – 66 – 17
 Insect, red rot and smut resistant variety :- CO – 1111
Sowing Time :-
Autumn Spring Rainy/ Adsali
Sowing Time 15 Sep. – 15 Oct. 15 Feb. – 15 March June – July
Period 12 – 14 month 10 – 12 month 18 month
Area North India North India South India

Seed Selection :-
 Plant part used for sowing is known as seed cane or settts.
 The top 1/3 to 1/2 portion of a cane being comparatively immature, have high glucose
content. So this part is used for sowing.
 Due to top dominance, upper part will be germinated.
 Bottom portion of cane is rich in sugar (sucrose) and takes a long time in germination;
this should be used in jiggery making.
 To prevent fungal diseases, seed setts dipped into 0.5 % solution of Agallol (3%) or 0.25
% solution of Aretan (6 %).
Seed Rate :-
 2 - budded setts :- 60 – 70 thousand per ha.
 3 - budded setts :- 35 – 40 thousand per ha (75 – 80 q/ha)
Sowing Methods :-
1. Flat Planting :- Mostly in Northern India and some tract of Maharashtra.
  Spacing :- row to row 90 cm require.
2. Furrow Planting :- furrow 10 – 15 cm deep in Northern India and 20 cm deep in Sothern India.
 Practiced in parts of UP and in Penisular India, particularly in heavy soils.
3. Trench Planting :- in some coastal areas.
Planting of Sugarcane Setts :-
1. End to End System
2. Eye to Eye System or Bud to Bud System :- best method of sowing.
3. Double Sett System
Fertilizer Management :-
 N : 120 – 150 kg/ha; P2O5 : 60 kg/ha; K2O : 40 kg/ha
 1/3 N, full P & K at the time of sowing.
 1/3 N at tillering stage
 1/3 N at grand growth stage.
 K is required for cell structure, carbon assimilation, translocation of proteins and sugars
and normal functioning of plant.
Water Management :- water requirement : 1500 – 2500 mm
 Sugarcane growth stages :- (i) Germination :- 0 – 60 DAP, (ii) Formative stage :- 60 –
130 DAP, (iii) Grand Growth Stage :- 130 – 250 DAP, (iv) Maturity Stage : 250 – 365
DAP.
 Most critical stages for water is formative and garnd growth stages.
 The method of irrigation mostly used :- Furrow method.
Weed Management :- Simeazin @ 50 % @ 2 kg/ha (PE)
Blind Hoeing :- hoeing before germination i.e. between 0 – 45 DAP
Wrapping / Tying :- Do in August.
 Tying of sugarcane plants together to protect from strong wind.
Propping :- Covering of sugarcane plant with dry leaves.
Earthing Up :- mainly in July
Harvesting of Sugarcane :-
 Hand refrectometer reading :- 16 – 18 0B
 Brix ratio of mature cane :- 0.9
 Fehling test :- < 0.5 % glucose
Ratooning :-
 Economical to take only one ratoon.
 Nitrogen requirement of sugarcane ratoon is 20 % more as compared to planted crop.
Artificial Ripening of Sugarcane :- Use of Polaris/Glyphosate/Ethphon @ 4 – 5 kg/ha
Gasohol :- 80 % Petrol + 20 % Alcohol form the Sugarcane. Mostly used in automobiles.
By product of Sugarcane :-
i. Baggases :- used for fuel and paper making
ii. Molasses :- mostly used for alcohol.
iii. Press Mud :- acidic in nature, used for saline – alkaline soil reclamation.
Yield :-
 North India :- 80 – 100 ton/ha
 South India :- 100 – 120 ton/ha
Cluster Bean / Guar
 Botanical Name :- Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- India
 Inflorescence :- Auxiliary Raceme
 Fruit :- Pod
 From cluster bean, about 33 % guar gum is obtained from the endosperm.
 Protein :- 45 %
 Optimum temperature for germination :- 25 – 30 0C.
 Rajasthan is alone accounts for almost 53 % of total guar seed production.
Varieties :-
 For Grain & Fodder :- RGC – 936, Durgapur Safed, FS – 277,
 For Vegetable :- Pusa Mosami, Pusa Sadabhar, Pusa Navbahar, Durga Bahar , Suvidha.
Sowing Time :- Kharif : June – July; Zaid/Summer : March
Seed Rate :-
 Grain crop :- 15 - 20 kg/ha
 For fodder crop :- 40 – 45 kg/ha
Fertilizer Management :- N : 20 kg/ha; P2O5 : 40 – 60 kg/ha
Weed Management :-
  Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
 Pendimethalin @ 1 kg/ha (PE)
 Imezathypyr @ 75 – 100 gm/ha (POE)
Yield :- 10 – 15 q/ha grain. Green fodder :- 250 – 300 q/ha
Tobacco
 Botanical Name :- Nicotiana sp.
 Family :- Solanaceae
 Origin :- Mexico & Central America
 Temperature for germination :- 21 0C
 Temperature for growth :- 25 0C
 Seed Rate :- 2 – 3 kg/ha
Classification :-
1. Nicotiana tabacum :-
 derived from as an amphidiploid of a cross between N. sylvestris and a member of the
section Tomentosae.
 It is used in manufacture of Cigarettes, Cigars, Bidi, Chewing and Snuff purpose.
 Nicotine content in leaves :- 0.5 – 5.5 %
ii. Nicotiana rustica ;- used for hookah, chewing and snuff purposes.
 Derived from as an amphidiploid from a cross between N. undulata and U. paniculata.
 Nicotine content in leaves :- 3.5 – 8.0 %.
Varieties :-
 Flue – Cured :- Virginia Tobacco – 1158, Gauthami, Bhavya, Hema, Swarna,
 Bidi Tobacco :- GTH – 1,
 Cigar :- S – 5
Priming :- lower leaves mature first, harvesting of mature leaves.
Curing :- Tobacco leaves are cured after harvest.
 A drying process whereby most of the moisture of the leaf is removed.
 Four common type of curing:-
i. Flue curing :-
ii. Air curing
iii. Firing curing :- used in chewing type of tobacco.
Stalk – cut method :- Hookah, bidi, cigar, cheroot and chewing tobaccos are harvested by this
method.
Topping :-
 When flower heads begin to show, the plants are topped by removing off the top of the
plants.
De-suckering :-
 After the tops have been removed the buds in the axils of the leaves which otherwise
remain dormant become active and suckers soon develop in the axis of the leaves.
Removal of such suckers is known as de- suckering.
Seed Spices
 India is known as land of spices.
 Rajasthan stood first position in area and production of seed spices.
 AICRP on spices was initiated in 1971 but in 1986 its headquarter shifted to NRC on
Spices at Calicut.
 IISR :- Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut (1988)
 NRCSS :- National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Tabije, Ajmer (Raj.), 2000
Cumin Coriander
Botanical Name Cuminum cyminum Coriandrum sativum
Family Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae
Origin Mediterranean region Mediterranean region
Chromosome no. (2n) 14 22
Inflorescence Umbel Umbel
Pollination type Self - pollinated crop Cross – pollinated crop
Part used and substance Seed contain Cuminol & Cumin Seed contain Linalool &
contain aldehyde (2.5 %) Condriol (1 %)
Varieties RZ – 19 (Jobner) Swathi, Sadhana,
RS – 1 (Durgapura) Rajendra Swathi, CM – 2,
RZ – 209 (Jodhpur) :- blight and RCR – 20, 41 (Jobner)
wilt resistant variety Pusa Selection – 360
MC – 43 CO – 1, 2, Pant haritima,
GZ -1 (Gujarat Zeera) Hisar Anand, Hisar Sugandh,
 Hisar Surbhi, Sindhu
Sowing Time Mid Nov. – first week of Dec. Last week of October
Seed Rate 12 – 15 kg/ha 15 – 20 kg/ha
Spacing 25 x 10 cm 30 x 10-20 cm
Bed Size 2 x 3.5 m 2x3m
Fertilizer (N: P : K) 30 : 20 : 20 60 : 30 : 20
Weed Management Zeeri : Plantago pumill and Pendamethalin @ 1 kg/ha
Parrian (PE)
Fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Leading district of Raj. Jalore Baran
Yield 8 – 10 q/ha Irrigated : 15 – 20 q/ha
Unirrigated : 6 – 8 q/ha
Other important points Seeds are rich in “Thymol”. It is a andromonoecious.
Iran is main cumin exporter. Rajasthan is leading state.
0.7 % essential oil, rich in
Linalol.

Fennel Fenugreek/ Methi

Botanical Name Foeniculum vulgare Common Methi:
Trigonella foenum graecum
Kasuri Methi: T. corniculata
Family Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae Fabaceae/ Leguminosae
Origin Mediterranean region Europe
Chromosome no. (2n) 22 16
Inflorescence Umbel Raceme
Pollination type Cross - Pollinated Crop Self - Pollinated Crop
Part used and substance Seed contain Anethole (80 %), Seed contain Diosgenin.
contain Estragole (10 %), Fenchone (7.5 Bitterness due to Oleoresin.
%), Limonene
Varieties S – 7 – 9 (long duration) RMT – 1, RMT – 16
PF – 35, Gujrat Fennel – 1, (Rajendra Kranti) :- SKRAU
CO – 1, UF – 32 Pusa Early Bunch,
RF – 101, RF - 125 Vallabh Chikni
Sowing Time 15 September – 15 October Last week of Oct. – first week
of Nov.
Seed Rate Direct sowing :- 8 – 10 kg/ha 20 – 25 kg/ha
Nursery :- 3 – 4 kg/ha
Nursery area : 100 m2 Seed treatment with
Time of nursery :- July – August Rhizobium meliloti
Plant ready for transplanting: 45-60
DAS
Spacing 80 – 100 x 45 – 60 cm (R x P) 30 x 10 cm (R x P)
Bed Size 2x3m 1.25 x 3.5 m
Fertilizer (N: P : K) 90 : 40 : 0 20 : 40 : 20
Weed Management Fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha (PPI) Pendimethalin @ 1 kg/ha (PE)
Leading district of Raj. Sirohi Common Methi :- Sikar
Kasuri Methi :- Nagore
Yield 18 – 20 q/ha 10 – 15 q/ha
Green grain :- 8 – 10 q/ha
Other important points Protoandrous crop. Fenugreek is 3rd important
Varieties M – 1 & M – 3 developed seed spice in India after
by mutation breeding. coriander and cumin.
Sugary is a viral disease.
 Important Insect Pest of Crops )
S.
Name of Pest Nature of damage Special points
No.

Pest of WheatV
Armyworm,
1.  Damage leaves of plant.  Damage during night.
Mythimna separate
 Seed treatment with
 Social pest
Chlorpyriphos 20 EC
 Nuptial flight
Termite/White Ant @ 4 ml/kg seed
2.  Nymph & adult of worker
Odontotermes obesus  In standing crop, apply
damage crop
Chloropyriphos 20 EC
 Mutualism present.
@ 4 litre/ha.
 Adult stage cut the plant near
Ghujia Weevil  Important pest of
3. soil surface.
Tanymecus indicus wheat nursery.

Pest of RiceV
 Monophagous pest of
Yellow Stem Borer of  Dead heart symptom Rice.
Rice cause in young plant.  For biological control,
1.
Scirpophaga incertulas  White ear symptom cause release egg parasitoid,
in old plant. Trichogramma
japonicum.
Brown Plant Hopper
 Cause Hopper burn  Vector of “Grassy
2. (BPH)
symptom Stunt disease” of rice.
Nilaparvata lugens
Green Leaf Hopper  Yellowing of leaves form
 vector of Tungro
3. (GLH) tip to downward.
disease of rice (viral)
Nephotettix sp.  Plant stunted.
4. Gundhi Bug  bad smell form rice field
 Highly damage at
Leptocorisa acuta  Infected panicle colour
milking stage of crop.
changed.
Gall Midge  Silver shoot or onion leaf
5.  Secreate cecidogen.
Orseolia oryzae symptoms
Thrips
 Main pest of Rice
6. Stenchaetothrips  Sucking pest
nursery
biformis
Rice Hispa  Nymph & adult feed on  White lines parallel to
7.
Dicladispa armigera leaves leaves
 Used for rearing of
Rice moth  Storage pest of Rice.
8. Trichogrmma sp. in
Corcyra cephalonica  Laval stage cause damage
laboratory.

Pest of MaizeV
 Release,
Stem borer  Cause “dead heart Trichogramma sp.
1.
Chillo partellus symptom” (egg parasitoid) @
1.5 lakh/ha.
Pink Stem borer  Larvae cause “dead heart
2.  Stem easily broken
Sesamia inference symptom”
Shoot fly  Cause damage in
3.  Maggot cause dead heart.
Atherigona sp. initial stage of crop.
 Damage on leaves,
Kharif grasshooper  Damage at full leaf
4. sometime only remain
Hieroglyphus banian stage
midrib

 Grub feed on roots

5. White gurb  Adult feed on leaves of  White grub is an
Holotrichia host tree. National Pest
consanguinea,  Favorite host tree for  Bacillus papillae
H. serrata adult is Ber. (bacteria) used for
Family : Melolonthidae management
 At the time of
sowing, apply Phorate
10 G @ 25 kg/ha
Corn worm  Caterpillar feed inside the cob.
6. Helicoverpa armigera

Pest of Pearl millett

 Trenching around
1. Red Hairy Caterpillar  Feed on leaves field
Amsacta moorei,  Major pest of Kharif  Trichogramma sp and
A. albistriga crops Telenomus sp. (egg
parasitoid)
 Damage root of crop  Apply Chlorpyriphos
Termite
2.  Nymph and adult stage of 20 EC @ 4 litre/ha
Odontotermes obesus
worker cause damage with irrigation.
Shoot fly  Pest of initial stage of
 Maggot cause dead heart
3. Atherigona approximate crop.

Pest of SorghumV
 Damage mostly from
 Maggot cause dead heart
1. Shoot fly germination to 28
symptom
Atherigona soccata DAS
 Infected plant have more
 Early sowing, high
side tillers
seed rate, use of fish
meal trap.
  Caterpillar cause dead
2. Stem Borer heart
 Damage of this pest
Chillo partellus  Small holes on leaves and
after 1 month of crop
stem.
 Insect infested midrib
completely turns into red.
 Biological control,
3. Pink stem borer  Cause dead heart in stem release of
Sesamia inferens Trichogramma sp.

 Nymph and adult suck sap from grains.

4. Earhead bug  Chaffyness of grains
Calocoris angustatus  Grains are small in size & black in colour.
 Reduviid bug, Reduviolus sp. is predaceous on it.
 Pupal case observed
 Maggots feed on the
5. Sorghum Midge between infected
developing grains.
Contarinia sorghicola grains.

Pest of SesameV
 Maggot cause damage
1. Gall fly  Maggot feed inside the  Gall like of swelling
Asphondylia sesame capsule, so malformation on capsule due to
of pod without proper attack of this pest.
setting of seeds.
 Egg larvae roll top
2. Death Hawk Moth  Larvae is leaf feeder
leaves and later
Acherontia styx (defoliator)
damage to capsule
 Pest of GroundnutV
White grub
 Quinolphos @ 1 –
1. Holotrichia  Larvae/grub feed on roots
1.25 litre/ha spray or
consanguinea, of crop.
25 kg/ha dusting.
H. serrate
2. Termite  Nymph and adult of worker cause damage to roots.
Aphid, Aphis  Sucking pest (nymph and adult both)
3.
craccivora  Secrete honeydew.
4. Thrips, Caliothrips indicus, Retithrips syriacus, Scirtothrips dorsalis
RHC  Among oilseeds,
 Caterpillar feed on leaves
5. Amsacta moorei, severe damage to
of Kharif crops
A. albistriga groundnut

Pest of SoybeanV
 Early sowing and
 Female prefer feed on
1. Girdle Beetle high seed rate.
xylem part of plant.
Oberia brevis  Biological, Predator
 Female make two holes
Chrysoperla carnea
on stem at 3 – 7 cm
Family : Cerabycidae  Chemical:-
distance, in between
Order :- Coleoptera Quinolphos 25 EC @
holes make 3 holes and
litre or Trizophos 40
lay eggs in middle hole.
EC @ 1.25 – 1.50
 Grub feed inside the hole.
litre/ha
Tobacco caterpillar  Caterpillar damage to leaves of plant
2.
Spodoptera litura  Trap crop for tobacco caterpillar :- Castor

Pest of MustardV
 Sucking pest, secrete  ETL :- 40 – 50 %
1. Mustard Aphid honeydew, development plant show honeydew
Lipaphis erysimi of sooty mould on leaves. appearance.
  One of
 Feed on leaves, from
Mustard Sawfly Hymenopteran insect
2. margin of leaf to centre
Athalia lugens proxima that cause damage to
of leaf (midrib)
crop.
Painted bug  Sucking pest. Audlt secrete sticky substance.
3.
Bagrada cruciferarum  Insect infested plant show wilty appearance.

Pest of PigeonpeaV
 Maggot feed on the seeds
1. Red gram pod fly inside the pods.
Melanagromyza obtusa  Also infest lady’s finger  This pest completely
and safflower in which hide inside the pod of
the maggots mine into pigeon pea.
stem and cause wilting of
plants.

 Infest flower, leaves and  Caterpillar cause

2. Pod Borer
pods of red gram. damage to crop.
Helicoverpa armingera

3. Pod / Blue Butterfly  Feeds on flower buds and  Larvae is pale green
Lampides boeticus seeds of red gram, with a roughened skin
cowpea and Lab-lab and pupate on leaf,
niger. twig or pod.
 Caterpillar roll upper
 Female moth lay eggs
4. Leaf folder leaves and make web,
on leaves.
feed inside the web.
 Inside the pod, adult suck
 Insect infested seeds
5. Pod Bug sap from the grains.
not used for seed
 Infected grains smaller in
purpose and for
Clavigralla gibbosa size and turns black in
human consumption.
colour.
6. Pulse Beetle  Important storage pest of
Callosobruchus pulses.
chinensis  Grub feed on the seeds in
pods.
Pest of GramV
 Caterpillar firstly feed on
1. Gram pod borer young leaves, then enter
Helicoverpa armigera inside the pod, the half
body inside the pod and
remaining half outside
the pod, feed on the seeds
of pod.
 major pest of gram.
 Caterpillar cut the plant
2. Cutworm near soil surface.
Agrotis ipsilon  Minor pest of gram.
Pest of SugarcaneV
 Cause dead heart.
Root borer  Rarely bore into the root.
1.
Emmalocera depressella  Attack on stem which is
below the ground level.
 Cause reddish brown
charred “dead heart” and
Top borer
2. shot holes in the leaves
Scirpophaga excerptalis
and galleries in the
midribs.
 Larvae tunnels into the
Sugarcane Shoot Borer
3. stem causing “dead
Chilo infuscatellus
heart”.
 Cause damage from
field to storage.
 HaNPV @ 250 LE/ha
 Trichogramma sp.
(egg parasitoid), not
used in gram, because
gram leaves have
malic and oxalic acid
that is harmful for
Trichogramma sp.
 Nocturnal pest.
 Cannibalism present.
 Only species of borer
infesting the
underground portion
of sugarcane.
 Formation of side
shoots which give rise
to a “bunchy top” is
another symptom of
top borer infestation.
 Attacks 1 to 3 month
old crop of sugarcane.
 Multiplication is
favoured by high
temp. & low humidity
  Larva bores at the nodal
region and enters into the  Attack 1 to 3
Internode borer stem. internodes damags
4. Chilo sacchariphagus  Its feeding cause the and mostly attack is
indicus tissues turn red and the seen in the top 5
hole is usually plugged internodes.
with excreta.
 Biological control,
 Sucking pest.
5. Sugarcane leaf hopper/ release ectoparasitoid,
 Secrete honeydew, on
Pyrilla Epiricarnia
which sooty mold
Pyrilla perpusilla melanoleuca
develop.
(Lepidoptera) at
 Reduce quality of juice
Family : Lophopidae, 4000 – 5000 cocoons
and yield of crop.
Order : Hemiptera or 4 to 5 lakh eggs/ha.
Pest of CottonV
 Damage in standing
American bollworm  Caterpillar make large &
crop as well as in
Helicoverpa armigera irregular hole.
1. storage.
 Caterpillar feed inside the
 HaNPV @ 500
Family : Noctuidae boll.
LE/ha
 Flared square
 Make small and circular
2. Spotted bollworm symptoms produce.
hole on pod.
 Causes drooping and
 Enter inside the pod, the
Earias insulana drying of the shoot.
hole is surrounded by
 Lint from attacked
excreta of caterpillar.
bolls will not be
 Important pest of Okra
clean.
also.
 Lure : Gossyplure
Red bollworm  Pinkish stout larva scoops  Pupates in the soil in
3.
Rabila frontalis out the contents of bolls. an earthen cocoon.
  Larva enters the
4. Cotton Pink Bollworm developing boll through
 Serious pest of cotton
Pectinophora the tip portion and the
& Produce Double
gossypiella entrance hole gets closed
seed.
up as the boll matures.
 Make pin size bore
Family : Gelechiidae  It feed on the seeds and
hole.
move to adjacent locule by
 Rosette shaped bloom
making a hole through the
septum.
 Nymph & adult suck sap
Cotton leaf hopper  Yellowing, curling
from plant.
5. Amrasca biguttula and bronzing of
 Leaves shows “hopper
biguttula leaves.
burn” symptoms
Cotton Whitefly,  Secrete honeydew on
Bemisia tabaci and leaves, which leads to
6.  Nymph & adult suck sap
Cotton Aphid, Aphis development of sooty
gossypii mould.
 Cause staining of the
 Medium – sized reddish lint and make seeds
bug having white bands unfit for sowing.
Red cotton bug on the abdomen & black  Bacterium,
7.
Dysdercus cingulatus markings on wing. Nematospora gossypii
 Nymph & adult suck sap. enters at the site of
 Also infest lady’s finger. injury and stains the
cotton fibre.
 Grub attack the roots of  Weevil is small and
Ash Weevil,
8. cotton plants and adult has greyish white
Myllocerus sp.
feed on leaves. elytra with dark lines.
 Leaves are rolled by the
Cotton leaf roller,  Only one larva is seen
9. larvae which feed on
Syllepta derogata in each leaf roll.
green matter by scraping.
 Diseases of cropss
S. Symptoms of
Name of Disease Causal organism Other points
No. disease

Diseases of Wheatx
 Heteroecious
rust.
 Brown or
 Uredial & Telial
orange colour
Leaf/Brown/Orange :- Wheat &
Puccinia recondita spots on
1. Rust Grasses
leaves.
 Aecial &
 Firstly seen on
Pycnial :
wheat.
Thalictrum
(alternate host)
 Stripes of
Puccinia striiformis  Sonaro – 64
2. Yellow/Stripe Rust yellowish spots
susceptible
on leaves.
 Heteroecious
3. Black/Stem Rust Rust
 Black spots on  Uredial & Telial
stem. :- Wheat, Barley
Puccinia graminis  Also known as & Grasses
var. tritici “Killer  Pycnial &
disease” Aecial :-
 Management: Berberis,
Plantavax Mahonia
(oxycarboxin) (Alternate host/
Primary
infection)
 Hot water
4. Loose smut treatment
 Formation of
(Jensen, 1908)
black powder
Ustilago nuda  Solar heat
instead of
tritici treatment
grain.
(Luthra &
 Internally seed
Suttar, 1934)
borne disease
 Vitavax
(carboxin)
5. Karnal Bunt  First discovered
Neovossia indica  Grains turn
by Mitra (1931)
into black
from Karnal,
Severe at flowering powder.
Hariyana.
stage of crop.  Smell from
 Also known as
karnal bunt
“Cancer
Reduce export infested field
disease”
quality of wheat. due to
 Seed treatment
“Trimethyl
with Agrosan
amine”.
GN

 Secretion of gum like yellowish

6. Tundu disease of Anguina tritici substance from the infested flower of
Wheat (nematode) + the plant.
Corynebacterium
tritici (bacteria)

Diseases of Barleyx
 In India, first
1. Molya disease of Heterodera avenae time discovered
 Adult cysts
Barley or Wheat (Nematode) by Vasudev
observe at
(1958) from
maturity of
Neem Ka
crop.
Thana, Sikar
 This nematode
(Raj.)
causes molya
 Resistant
disease in
variety :
barley.
Rajkiran
(RD - 387)
 Formation of
 Externally seed
2. Covered smut Ustilago hordei black power
borne disease.
instead of grain
 Diseases of Ricex
 i. Leaf blast :
Pyricularia oryzae  Blighting of
1. Rice Blast spindle shaped
(fungi) leaves.
spot - burnt
 Neck and node
appearance,
Forecasting : Epi – blast also
 ii. Node blast,
Bla observe
 iii. Neck blast
 Bengal famine
Helminthosporium
2. Brown leaf Spot  Brown spots in 1943
oryzae
on leaves.  Seed borne
(fungi)
disease
Ditylenchus
3. Ufra disease agnustus  Infection is leaf chlorosis.
(Nematode)
Virus,  RTSV (Rice Tungro Spherical Virus)
4. Tungro disease Vector :- GLH,  RTBV (Rice Tungro Bacilliform
Nephotettix sp. Virus)

 3 important  TN-1 highly

5. Bacterial Blight of symptoms of susceptible
Rice disease :-  Management :-
Xanthomonas
1.Wilting/ spray
oryzae pv. oryzae
Kresek Streptocycline
(Bacteria)
2. Blighting, @ 25 gm in 500
3. Yellowing litre of water
Bacterial ooze.  Either wither per ha.
of plants or  Clipping of
leaf blight, seedling tip
Vascular or
systemic

Diseases of Maizex
 Fugus growth
RDM (Rajasthan Perenosclerospora on lower  Ridomil / Apron
1.
Downey Mildew) heteropogoni surface of 35 SD
leaves
PFSR  Cobs hanging from plant due to stalk rot.
2. (Post Flowering  More hybrid seed production of private institute without
stalk rot) proper technique.
 Diseases of Pearl milletx
Downy Mildew/
Sclerospora  Green ear
1. Green Ear disease
graminicola stage:
 Seed treatment
(Fungi) infloresence
Also known as with metaxyl or
remain green in
“Jogiya” disease. mencozeb.
 Seed and soil colour or turn
 Use of
borne disease, into leafy
First time Pseudomonas
sexual spore in structure.
discovered by E.J. fluorescens
the form of  DM Stage :-
Butler in 1907.  Resistant
Oospore) downy growth
variety: Pusa
 Cl reduces the on lower
E.J. Butler :- Father Moti, WCC-75
severity of surface of
of Indian plant
diseae. leaves.
pathology
 Formation of  Hot water
Tolyposporium
black spores treatment
2. Smut disease penicillariae
instead of  Seed treatment
(fungi)
grain. with fungicide

 Cream to pink
 Sclerotia take
3. Ergot Claviceps mucilaginous
about 30 – 45
fusiformis droplets of
days to
honeydew
germinate &
 Cu reduces ooze out of
severity of produce air
infected florets
disease. borne spores
on pearl millet
 Disease more which spread
panicles and
severe at primary
form sclerotia.
flowering stage. infection of
 Within 10 – 15
bajra crop.
days, droplets
 Secondary
dry and harden
spread through
and dark
conidia.
brown to black
 Causal
sclerotia
organism
develop in
survives on
place of seeds
anjan grass.
on the panicle.
 Diseases of Sorghumx
 CK 60 A line
1. Ergot Claviceps sorghi of sorghum is
 Secretion of
more
honeydew from
Individual spikelets susceptible to
the infected
infected in this this disease.
floret.
disease.  More damage
at flowering
stage.
 Formation of  Seed treatment
Grain Smut Spacelotheca black powder with Thiram
2.
sorghi instead of @ 4 gm/kg
grain. seed
 Discoloration of grains due to
Fusarium sp.,
Grain mould/ Head infection.
3. Aspergillus sp.
mould/ Head blight  Occur during flowering & grain
Alternaria sp. etc.
filling stages.

Diseases of Sesamex
 all floral parts are transformed into
1. Phyllody of Til MLO's (PLO'S) green leafy structure.
Mycoplasma/  Severe infestation, entire
Vector :- Leaf Phytoplasma inflorescences is replaced by short
hopper, twisted leaves closely arranged on a
Orosius albicinctus  stem with short internodes, abundant
abnormal branches bend down.
 Finally, plants looks like witches
broom.
 Diseases of Groundnutx

 Formation of  Spots form

1. Early Tikka or Leaf Cercospora
Yellow halo earlier.
Spot arachidicola
around spots.
(Fungi)
 1 month after
2. Late Tikka or Leaf Cercospora personeta early leaf spot  Seed treatment
Spot  Spots are large with Thiram @
in size. 4 gm/kg seed
 Lower surface  In standing
of leaves crop, spray
looks like Carbendazim @
carbon paper. 0.1 % or
 More loss in Mencozeb @
crop than 1.5 kg/ha
early leaf spot

Aspergillus niger
3. Collar Rot (Fungi)  Rotting of plant near soil surface.

Virus,
4. Rosette disease Vector: Aphid, Aphis  Rosette flower.
craccivora
Virus,
5. Bud Necrosis  Necrosis of buds.
Vector : Thrips
6. Wilt disease Fusarium sp. (Fungi)  Yellowing of plant and dry.

Diseases of Soybeanx
 Symptoms after floweing.
 Patches of stunted or wilted plants.
Macrophomina  Lower stem and tap roots disclored
phaseolina (light grey or silver).
 When, stems are split, black streak
1. Charcoal Rot Fungus is more are evident in the woody portion of
abundant in soil when stem.
pH is very acidic or  Black fungal structures
alkaline. “microsclerotia” that are scattered
throughout the pith and on the surface
of tap roots and lower stems.
  Mungbean Yellow Mosaic Virus,
2. Yellow Mosaic  Vector : Bemisia tabaci
 Mottled and deformed leaves.
 Development of tiny pale green spots
on the new leaves. These spots have
raised centers that may develop on
either surface of the leaf but are more
3. Bacterial Pustule Xanthomonas common on the lower leaf surface.
axonopodis pv. glycines  As the disease progresses, small light
colored pustules will form in the
center of the spots. These spots may
merge together to form irregular areas
that appear as lesions.
 Small, dark spots on the leaves.
 Spots eventually enlarge to a
diameter of about ¼ inch and the
centers of the lesions become gray to
4. Frogeye leaf spot Cercospora sojina brown and have a reddish purple
margin.
 Individual leaf spots can coalesce to
create irregular patterns of blighting
on the leaf.
 Diseases of Mustardx
 Both local and systemic infections are
1. White Rust/ White Albugo candida
observed.
Blister
 In case of local infection, white creamy
(Fungi)
 Resistant yellow raised pustules appear on the
variety : Kranti leaves which later coalesce to form
patches.
 In systemic infection, mixed infection of
white rust and downy mildew cause
swelling and distortion of the stem and
floral parts due to hypertrophy and
hyperplasia and develop “stag head”
structure.
Peronospora
2. Downey Mildew parasitica  Downy growth on lower leaves

3.  Growth of
Erysiphe fungus on  Use of Kerathane or
Mustard PM
cruciferarum upper surface sulphur dust
of leaf

Diseases of Gramx

1.  Infection at
Wilt of Gram
seedling stage.
Fusarium
 Leaves turns  Deep sowing.
oxysporum
into yellow  Roots turn into
 From upper black in colour.
Resistant Variety :-
part to lower
ICCV – 10,
part of plant
Avrodhi
2. Blight Ascochyta rabi  Resistant Variety :– C – 235] xkSjo

Diseases of Sugarcanex

1. Red Rot disease Colletotrichum  The 3rd and 4th leaves (from the top) of
falcatum the infected plants display yellowing and
Resistant varieties (Fungi) drying. At a later stage, show discoloured
:- CO – 419, CO –  Cross – wise
 449, CO - 1111 white patches. lesion on the rind
Split open stem
 If the diseased stalk split open, reddened
emit acidic-sour
odour internal tissues with intermingled white
spots may be seen. The internal colour
becomes brown, pith cavity become
larger, greyish hyphae inside pith become
visible.
 Growing point of the shoot shows many
Pseudomonas
2. Red Stripe disease dark red stripes with water – soaked
rubrilineans
appearance and undergoes rotting.

 Plant appear bushy & grass like

3. Grassy shoot MLOS/PLOS
 Sorghum as natural collateral
host
Vector : Aphids, Aphis maidis,
 numerous lanky fillers
Rhopalosiphum maidis
Sugarcane whip  Formation of black leaf on upper
4. Ustilago scitaminea
smut portion of plant.

Diseases of Cottonx
i. seedling blight,
1. Angular leaf ii. angular leaf spot ,
spot/ black arm
iii. vein blight or vein necrosis or
disease
black
Seed borne vein
disease
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. iv. Black arm,
malvacearum v. square rot / boll rot
 Standing crop, spray of
Streptocyclin @ 25 gm or
Copper Oxychloride (COC) @ 2
kg/ha Leaf lesions - minute,
water soaked spots on the under
surface of young leaves
  Seedling is the yellowing and
2. Cotton Wilt Fusarium
browning of the cotyledons.
oxysporum f.sp. Vasinfevtum
 Leaves lose their turgidity first
turn yellow and then brown and
Soil and seed borne disease. finally drop off.
 The tap root stunted and laterals
are less abundant.
 Browning and blackening of
vascular tissues.
 Discolorations of leaves starts
from the margins and spread
towards midribs.
 Wilting may be complete or
partial.
Virus (Cotton leaf curl virus)
3. Cotton leaf curl Vector :- Whitefly, Bemisia  Curling of leaves.
tabaci
4. Root Rot Rhizoctonia sp.  Rotting of roots.
 Important Nematode of Crops )
1. Ear Cockle or Seed gall nematode :-
 Nametode :- Anguina tritici
 First discovered by Needham in 1743. In India, discovered by Milne from Punjab in
1919.
 It is first plant parasitic nematode.
 Grains are small in size, formation of galls on grains.
 Management :- Seed soaking in 20 % salt solution.
2. Tundu or Yellow slime disease :-
 Causal organism :- Anguina tritici (Nematode) + Corynebacterium tritici (Bacteria)
 In infected plant, no grain formation.
 Spike is irregular in shape.
 Secretion of yellow sticky substance form infected spike, is an important symptom of this
disease.
 Management :- seed soaking in 20 % salt solution.
3. Molya disease of Barley :- Causal organism :- Heterodera avenae (Nematode)
 Resistant variety of barley :- Rajkiran (RD - 387)
 Cyst of nematode seen between grains at maturity of wheat or barley.
 In India, first discovered by Vasudev (1958) from Neem Ka Thana, Sikar, Rajasthan.
 Management :- Seed soaking in salt solution.
3. Golden Nematode of Potato: Globodera rostrochinensis
 First time discovered by Jones (1961) from Nilgiri, TN.
 This nematode suck sap from roots and damage roots of crop.
 Resistant variety :- Kufri Swarna
4. Root-knot Nematode :- Meloidogyne incognita
 In World first time reported by Barkley in cucumber field.
 In India, first time reported by Barber in Tea crop from Kerala (1901).
 Presence of galls on the roots.
 Plants wilt rapidly especially under dry growing conditions and are often stunted.
 Growth may be retarded and leaves may be chlorotic.
  In cases where seedlings infection has taken place, numerous plants die in the seed bed
and seedlings do not survive transplanting.
 In those plants that do survive, flowering and fruit production is strongly reduced.
 The losses caused by Meloidogyne on root and tuber crops like carrot both quantitative
and qualitatively, because nematode galling affects marketability.
 Nematode cause hypertrophy in giant cells, so knots or galls are formed on roots.
 Resistant varities :- Chilli : Pusa Jwala; Tomato : Hisar Lalit, SL - 120
5. Citrus Nematode:- Tylenchulus semipenetrans
 Twig dieback, decline in growth and reduced fruit size and yield.
 Intercropping of marigold has repellent action and reduces the population of nematodes in
citrus.
6. Ufra disease of Rice:- Ditylenchus angustus
 First discovered by Butler in 1913.
 During vegetative growth form seedling to flag leaf, the principle symptom of infection is
leaf chlorosis.