General Biology 2 q3 Updated

11
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Third Quarter
LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET
i
Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
REGION II – CAGAYAN VALLEY
COPYRIGHT PAGE
Learning Activity Sheet in GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
(Grade 11)
Copyright © 2020
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Doc Code: FM-ORD-009 Rev: 00
As of: 07-02-2018 Page: ii
ii
Table of Contents
Compentency Page number

• Outline the processes involved in genetic Engineering
..................... 1-11
STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-6
• Discuss the applications of recombinant DNA

..................... 12-21
STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-7
• Describe general features of the history of life on

Earth, including generally accepted dates and
sequence of the geologic time scale and ..................... 22-36
characteristics of major groups of organisms present
during these time periods (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-8)
• Explain the mechanisms that produce change in

populations from generation to generation (e.g.,
..................... 37-47
artificial selection, natural selection, genetic drift,
mutation, recombination) (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-9)
• Show patterns of descent with modification from

common ancestors to produce the organismal ..................... 48-60
diversity observed today (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-10)
• Trace the development of evolutionary thought

..................... 61-69
(STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-11)
• Explain evidences of evolution (e.g., biogeography,

fossil record, DNA/protein sequences, homology, and ..................... 70-85
embryology) (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-12)
• Infer evolutionary relationships among organisms

using the evidence of evolution (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc- ..................... 86-97
g-13)
• Explain how the structural and developmental

characteristics and relatedness of DNA sequences are
..................... 98-106
used in classifying living things (STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-
14)
• Identify the unique/ distinctive characteristics of a

specific taxon relative to other taxa ..................... 107-117
(STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-15)
• Describe species diversity and cladistics, including the

types of evidence and procedures that can be used to
..................... 118-126
establish evolutionary relationships
(STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-16)
NOTE: Practice Personal Hygiene Protocols always

iii
11
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Quarter 3-Week 1
Genetic Engineering
Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 1

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
NAME GRADE LEVEL
SECTION DATE

Genetic Engineering
BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR LEARNERS
Hi guys! Do you believe that organismal trait can be changed or altered? How can this
be possible? Can traits be transferred to other organisms? If you are that curious, why don’t
you come and join me! Let’s dive into the world where the naked eyes cannot see and be a part
of this invisible world that affects the visible environment. Let’s begin!
The central dogma of molecular biology explains the flow of genetic information from
genes to protein. It provides a molecular mechanism in understanding how genotype translates
to phenotype. It became apparent then that changing an organismal trait is possible by altering
its genetic makeup. Let’s define the following:
WHAT IS GENETICS?
Genetics is a field of biology that studies how traits are passed from parents to their
offspring. It is the study of how living things receive common traits from previous generations.
These traits are described by the genetic information carried by a molecule called DNA. The
instructions for constructing and operating an organism are contained in the organism’s DNA.
WHAT IS DNA?
Every living organism on earth has DNA in its cells. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is
a molecule that contains the biological instructions that make each species unique. DNA, along
with the instructions it contains, is passed from adult organisms to their offspring during
reproduction.
WHAT IS GENETIC ENGINEERING?
Genetic engineering is artificially copying a piece of

DNA from one organism and joining this copy of DNA into
the DNA of another organism. It is defined as the direct
manipulation of an organism’s genes including heritable and
nonheritable recombinant DNA constructs. Genetic
engineering involves the use of molecular techniques to
modify the traits of a target organism.
The modification of traits may involve:
1. introduction of new traits into an organism;
2. enhancement of a present trait by increasing the expression of the desired gene; or
3. enhancement of a present trait by disrupting the inhibition of the desired genes’ expression.

WHAT IS RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY?
Recombinant DNA Technology is one technique wherein a gene of interest from one
organism is inserted into the genome of another. This involves gene cloning using a bacterial
plasmid as a vector. It is widely used in improving crop varieties.
Recombinant DNA technologies, developed in the latter half of the twentieth century,
include the chemical splicing (recombination) of different strands of DNA generally using
either bacteria (such as Escherichia coli) or bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria), or by
direct microinjection.
WHAT IS RECOMBINANT DNA?
The altered DNA is called recombinant DNA.
GENERAL OUTLINE ON THE FORMATION OF RECOMBINANT DNA
1. Isolation of a specific gene from donor

The first step involves breaking open the cells of the donor to release the DNA and
isolate the gene of interest.
a. Cells are broken open using chemicals and enzymes. Donor DNA is extracted
b. Genetic probe is added. A DNA probe consists of a small fragment of DNA labelled
with an enzyme, a radioactive tag or a fluorescent dye tag. The probe will bind to a
complementary DNA sequence by base pairing.
c. Reveal position of the gene of interest.
THIS WORKS THIS WAY!

• The DNA from the bacterial cell is
released.
• A bacterial cell contains a circular loop of
DNA called a plasmid.
• The plasmid is isolated from the bacterial
cell.
• The plasmid will act as a vector for
carrying a new gene i.e. the gene from the
donor will be inserted into the plasmid
DNA.
www.sci.sdsu.edu

2. Cutting or cleavage of DNA by restriction enzymes (REs)
IT IS PUT THIS WAY!
• The donor DNA and plasmid DNA are cut
using enzymes called restriction enzymes.
• Restriction enzymes recognise specific
sequence of bases
• It acts as a molecular scissor to cut the
DNA strand within the recognition
sequence.
• The donor DNA and plasmid DNA are cut
using the same restriction enzymes.
Clipartguide.com
• Restriction enzymes cut the DNA

from the donor at specific points
• The cut ends have sticky ends
• The same restriction enzymes cut the
DNA from the plasmid also revealing
sticky ends.
• As a result of cutting by the
restriction enzymes the donor DNA
and the plasmid are left with unpaired
bases known as sticky ends.
© Biology Support Service 2007
3. Ligation is re-joining cut fragments of DNA and

forming artificial recombinant molecules
Joining together of the gene of interest (eg. from
animal) with the vector (cut bacterial plasmid)
http://www.slic2.wsu.edu:82/hurlbert/micro101/pages/Chap10.html#Sticky_ended_cut
4. Transformation- the transfer of the recombinant plasmid into a host cell that would carry
out replication to make huge copies of the recombined plasmid Recombinant DNA introduced
into bacterial cell.

WAYS IN WHICH THESE PLASMIDS MAY BE INTRODUCED INTO HOST
ORGANISMS
1. Biolistics. In this technique, a “gene gun” is used to fire DNA-coated pellets on plant
tissues. Cells that survive the bombardment and are able to take up the expression plasmid
coated pellets and acquire the ability to express the designed protein.
2. Plasmid insertion by Heat Shock Treatment. Heat Shock Treatment is a process used to
transfer plasmid DNA into bacteria. The target cells are pre-treated before the procedure to
increase the pore sizes of their plasma membranes. This pretreatment (usually with CaCl2)
is said to make the cells “competent” for accepting the plasmid DNA. After the cells are
made competent, they are incubated with the desired plasmid at about 4°C for about 30
minutes. The plasmids concentrate near the cells during this time. Afterwards, a “Heat
Shock” is done on the plasmid-cell solution by incubating it at 42°C for 1 minute then back
to 4°C for 2 minutes. The rapid rise and drop of temperature is believed to increase and
decrease the pore sizes in the membrane. The plasmid DNA near the membrane surface is
taken into the cells by this process. The cells that took up the plasmids acquire new traits
and are said to be “transformed”.
3. Electroporation. This technique follows a similar methodology as Heat Shock Treatment,
but the expansion of the membrane pores is done through an electric “shock”. This method
is commonly used for insertion of genes into mammalian cells.
SOME METHODS TO SCREEN RECOMBINANT CELLS

1. Selection of plasmid DNA containing cells. A selection marker within the inserted
plasmid DNA sequence allows the selection of “transformants”. Usually, an antibiotic
resistance gene (e.g., AMP ampicillin resistance gene) is included in the plasmid DNA.
This allows only “transformed” cells to survive in the presence of the antibiotic (e.g.,
ampicillin). Plating the plasmid-cell solution on antibiotic-containing media will select for
these “transformants” and only allow plasmid-containing cells to grow and propagate into
colonies.
2. Selection of transformed cells with the desired gene. Certain inserted genes within the
plasmids provide visible proof of their presence. These include the antibiotic resistant genes
that allow for the selection of the transformed cells within the solution. Some inserted genes
also produce colored (e.g., chromogenic proteins) or fluorescent products (e.g., GFP) that
label the colonies/cells with the inserted gene. In some cases, the location of the cloning
site within the plasmid is in the middle of a gene (i.e., β-galactosidase, lacZ) that generates
a (blue) colored product in the presence of a substrate (i.e., isopropyl β-D-1
thiogalactopyranoside, or IPTG). Cells transformed with these “empty” plasmids will turn
blue in the presence of IPTG. Insertion of a gene in the cloning site disrupts the sequence
of the β-galactosidase gene and prevents the generation of the colored product in the
presence of the substrate. Cells transformed with the disrupted β-galactosidase gene will
remain “white” in the presence of IPTG. This “blue-white screening” protocol is thus able
to screen for cells that were transformed with the desired gene in the cloning site.
3. PCR detection of plasmid DNA Alternatively, the presence of the desired gene in the
inserted plasmids may be confirmed using PCR amplification. PCR reactions specific for
the desired gene may be done using DNA from cells. Amplification of the expected product
would confirm the presence of the gene within the samples. PCR reactions specific for
plasmid sequences will also confirm/identify the type of plasmid used for the
transformation.

5. Expression. Plasmid will produce the polypeptide coded for by the donor DNA.
• Bacterial cell reproduces by Binary

Fission
• Bacterial cell produces the polypeptide
coded for by the donor DNA
LEARNING COMPETENCY
Outline the processes involved in genetic engineering (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-6).

Specifically, students will be able to:
 define genetic engineering;
 explain the principle of recombinant DNA technology; and
 enumerate and explain the processes involved in genetic engineering,
DIRECTIONS/INSTRUCTIONS
HOW TO USE THIS MATERIAL?

1. Read every part of the material very well. Use the suggested references or other
related references as guides in answering the activities.
2. Follow the instructions carefully. Ask the help or assistance of your parents or
siblings as much as possible.
3. There are three (3) learning activities in this material. Accomplish the activity
within the given timeline.
4. If you have good internet connection, you may use the digital version of this
material. Ask your subject teacher how.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
“I AM… GENETIC ENGINEERING!”
Make two concept maps with the word “GENETIC” and “ENGINEERING”
showing how you understand each term then finally giving your own definition of
Genetic Engineering based on what you have written in your concept map. Use separate
sheet of paper in doing this activity.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
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LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
“PAIR ME UP”
Choose from the box the corresponding steps or processes involved in the
formation of recombinant DNA as shown in the pictures. Write your answer on the space below
each picture. After which arrange the steps in sequential order.
Outline of recombinant DNA
GUIDE QUESTION
1. Using your answer in the figure above, explain steps or processes involved in the
formation of recombinant DNA.
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LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
“Let’s Evaluate”
Now let us see if you remember what we have encountered in our journey. Read each
question carefully. Write the letter that corresponds to your answer. Use another sheet of
paper.
1. The ability to combine the DNA of one organism with the DNA of another organism.
A. Recombinant DNA B. GMO C. GEO D. Ligation and Insertion
2. What is used to cut donor DNA and plasmid DNA?
A. Restriction site B. Restriction enzymes C. Splicing D. Electrophoresis
3. In genetic engineering human genes can be inserted into a bacterium. A. True B. False
4. Tiny segments of a gene are taken out and replaced by different genes.
A. Restriction enzyme B. Recombinant DNA C. Altered DNA D. Gene
splicing
5. Arrange the following in correspond to the correct sequence of genetic engineering.
1. Ligation and Insertion 2. Isolation 3. Transformation 4. Expression 5. Cutting
A. 1,2,3,4,5 B. 5,4,3,2,1 C. 2,1,5,4,3 D. 2,5,1,3,4
6. What stage in the formation of recombinant DNA is involved when cloning cells are
opened using chemicals and enzymes, donor DNA is extracted, and genetic probe is
added?
A. Isolation B. Cutting C. Insertion and Ligation D. Expression
7. _______________ is the rejoining of cut fragments of DNA and forming artificial
recombinant molecules.
A. Ligation and Insertion B. Isolation C. Transformation D. Expression
8. Genetic engineering means that DNA from different organisms can be combined.
A. True B. False
9. Expression can be seen in which of the following? Select all that apply.
A. When the protein is produced in large amounts and it is isolated and purified.
B. When the organism with the recombinant DNA to produce the desired protein.
C. When the bacterial cell reproduces by binary fission.
D. When the plasmid will produce the polypeptide coded for by the donor DNA.
10. What is the different between transformation and expression?
A. Transformation is when recombinant DNA introduced into bacterial cell while
expression is when bacterial cell produces the polypeptide.
B. Transformation is when there is a rejoining of cut fragments and expression is when
there is a formation of artificial recombinant molecule.
C. Transformation is when the donor DNA is cut, and expression is when it is
connected to the host DNA.
D. All of the above

CLOSURE/REFLECTION
1. I learned that
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2. I enjoyed most on
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3. I want to learn more on

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REFERENCES FOR LEARNERS
Basco-Tiamzon,M.Z, Avissar, Y.,Choi, J.,et.al. (2016) General Biology 2 Textbook for Senior
High School. Vibal Group, Inc. Quezon City
Commission on Higher Education (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School in General
Biology 2. CHED, Diliman Quezon City.
J.S. Robert, F. Baylis, (2008) Genetic Engineering. International Encyclopedia of Public

Health http:/www.sciencedirect.com
http:/www.britannica.com May 22, 2020
www.sci.sdsu.edu
https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/uoh_genetic_lesson01
https://www.wappingersschools.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=1561
1&dataid=18453&FileName=topic%2014%20-%20genetic%20technology.ppt

11
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Quarter 3-Week 1
Applications of Recombinant DNA

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
NAME GRADE LEVEL
SECTION DATE

Applications of Recombinant DNA
Great job in finishing your first learning activity sheet! Let’s apply now what we have
learned from the first discussion that we have. Are you ready! It’s application time!
When you hear the word Genetically Modified Organisms, what comes into your mind?
Is it scary?
But what is scarier is not knowing the facts!
LET’S CHECK YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE!
Now Read each question carefully. Write the letter FACT if the statement is correct and BLUFF
if the statement is incorrect.
1. DNA is molecule of life.
2. Genetic engineering is also called recombinant DNA technology and molecular
cloning.
3. The altered DNA is called recombinant DNA.
4. Organisms altered by genetic engineering are called transgenic organisms.
5. Genetic engineering result from a change in the stored chemical information in the
DNA, collectively referred to as an organism’s genotype.
LET’S DISCUSS!
WHAT IS TRANSGENIC ORGANISM?
These are organisms altered by genetic engineering. The genetic material can be
changed by other than random natural breeding or by gene transfer which is the moving of a
gene from one organism to another.
WHAT IS GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM?

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are living organisms whose genetic material
has been artificially manipulated in a laboratory through genetic engineering. This creates
combinations of plant, animal, bacteria, and virus genes that do not occur in nature or through
traditional crossbreeding methods.
WHAT IS RECOMBINANT DNA?

The altered DNA is called recombinant DNA.

WHAT ARE THE APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA?
1. Medicine Application
Genetic engineering has been used to mass-produce insulin, human growth hormones,
follistim (for treating infertility), human albumin, monoclonal antibodies, antihemophilic
factors, vaccines, and many other drugs.
2. Industrial Applications
Genetically designed bacteria are put into use for generating industrial chemicals. A
variety of organic chemicals can be synthesized at large scale with the help of genetically
engineered microorganisms. Glucose can be synthesized from sucrose with the help of enzymes
obtained from genetically modified organisms.
• Bacteria that metabolize petroleum and other toxic materials have been developed.
• Scorpion toxin gene has been inserted into autographa California multicapsid nuclear
polyhedrosis virus (AcMNPV) which kills cabbage looper and reduce crop damages.
• Development of new strains for additional bioprocesses
3. Agricultural Applications
An important application of recombinant DNA technology is to alter the genotype of
crop plants to make them more productive, nutritious, rich in proteins, disease resistant, and
less fertilizer consuming. Recombinant DNA technology and tissue culture techniques can
produce high yielding cereals, pulses and vegetable crops.
Some plants have been genetically programmed to yield high protein grains that could
show resistance to heat, moisture and diseases.
Scientists have developed transgenic potato, tobacco, cotton, corn, strawberry, rape
seeds that are resistant to insect pests and certain weedicides.
• Genes of interest is inserted into plant with Ti plasmid obtained from Agrobacterium
tumefaciens.
• Pseudomonas syringae that protects plants from frost damage is used against plant frost
damage because they lack the protein that induce the formation of ice-crystals.
• Insertion of Bacillus thuringiensis that produces a protein which is toxic to insects but
not to humans.

4. Energy Production
Recombinant DNA technology has tremendous scope in energy production. Through
this technology Ii is now possible to bioengineer energy crops or biofuels that grow rapidly to
yield huge biomass that used as fuel or can be processed into oils, alcohols, diesels, or other
energy products.
The waste from these can be converted into methane. Genetic engineers are trying to
transfer gene for cellulase to proper organisms which can be used to convert wastes like
sawdust and cornstalks first to sugar and then to alcohol.
BENEFITS AND RISKS OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS
Medicine Industry/ Agriculture
LEARNING COMPETENCY
Discuss the applications of recombinant DNA (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-7).

Specifically, students will be able to:
 Enumerate and explain the applications of Recombinant DNA
 Identify the benefits and risks of Genetically Modified Organisms
 Formulate an informed opinion regarding Genetically Modified Organisms

1. Read every part of the material very well. Use the suggested references or other related
references as guides in answering the activities.
2. Follow the instructions carefully. Ask the help or assistance of your parents or siblings
as much as possible.
3. There are three (3) learning activities in this material. Strictly follow what is/are asked
in every activity and accomplish the activity within the given timeline.
4. In case the materials in the activity are not available in your place, you may improvise
or use related materials.
5. If you have good internet connection, you may use the digital version of this material.
Ask your subject teacher how.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
“COMPLETE THE FLOW CHART”
Below is a flow chart for you to complete. It is an application of what you have
learned from the concept of genetic engineering and its application. Use separate sheet
of paper in doing this activity.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
“MAKE YOUR OWN GMO”
Of the different applications of recombinant DNA, think of something that you

can create that can address present problems. Choose organisms who will become the
donor and recipient of DNA. Make sure to follow the steps/ processes involved in
Genetic Engineering. Present it in either drawing or making a 3D model.
Guide Questions:
1. On what organism/s did you get your DNA? What specific trait/s did you get? Why?
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2. How this Genetically Modified Organism that you have created will help in addressing
present problems?
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3. If you will give a name to your GMO, what is it? Why?

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LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
“EXPRESS YOURSELF”
In 300-500 words, make a reaction paper that will persuade the reader on your
side. Make sure you have an introduction, body and conclusion. (See attached
rubric)
TOPIC: “Scientists be allowed to develop organisms that express a novel trait

not normally found in humans”
PROCEDURE
1. Your activity 3 will be graded based on the given rubric.

2. Include in your output the essence of promoting environmental awareness.
3. Use the rubric as a guide when working on your activity.
4. Prepare two copies of your reaction paper. (One for you and the other to your
subject teacher).
5. Check it again before submitting.
RUBRICS FOR SCORING
Activity 2. The following criteria should be followed in the presentation:
Criteria Meaning Very Evident Less Not

evident evident evident
Content Student should include 10 8 6 4
the important details
about the topic
Creativity The output must be 10 8 6 4
engaging and interesting
Concise The output/ presentation 5 3 2 1

must be brief and
focused
Total score

Activity 3. Persuasion Rubric
Traits 4 3 2 1
Organization The introduction is The introduction The introduction There is no
inviting, states the goal includes the goal includes the clear
and provides an and provides an main goal. Most introduction,
overview of the topic. overview of the information is structure, or
Information is presented topic. Information presented in a conclusion.
in a logical order and is presented in a logical order. A
maintain the interest of logical order but conclusion is
the audience. The does not always included, but
conclusion strongly maintain the interest does not clearly
states a personal of the audience. A state a personal
opinion. conclusion states a opinion.
personal opinion.
Goal There is one goal that There is one goal A personal The
strongly and clearly that states a opinion is not personal
states a personal opinion personal opinion clearly stated. opinion is
and identifies issue. and identifies issue. There is little not easily
reference to the understood.
issue. There is
little or no
reference to
the issue.
Reason and Three or more excellent Three or more Two reasons are Arguments
support reasons are states with reasons are stated., made but with are weak or
good support. It is but the argument weak argument. missing.
evident that a lot of are somewhat weak Less than
thought and research in places. two reasons
was put into this are made.
activity.
Attention to Argument demonstrates Argument Argument Argument
audience a clear understanding of demonstrates a clear demonstrates a does not
the potential audience understanding of some seem to
and anticipates the potential understanding of target any
counterarguments. audience. the potential particular
audience. audience.
Word choice Word choice is creative Word choice There is Word choice
and enhances the enhances the evidence of is limited
argument. argument. attention to word
choice
Delivery Delivery is fluent, with Delivery is fluent. Delivery lacks Delivery is
an engaging flow of some fluency. not fluent.
speech.

Grammar, There are no errors in There are few, There are several There are
mechanics grammar, mechanics errors in grammar, errors in numerous
and spelling and/or spelling mechanics and/or grammar, errors in
spelling but they do mechanics, grammar,
not interfere with and/or spelling. mechanics
understanding and/or
spelling.
Comments:
Adopted from ReadWriteThink international reading association NCTE copy write 2013
REFLECTION
1. I realized that
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Basco-Tiamzon,M.Z, Avissar, Y.,Choi, J.,et.al. (2016)General Biology 2 Textbook for Senior

High School. Vibal Group, Inc. Quezon City
Commission on Higher Education (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School in General
Biology 2. CHED, Diliman Quezon City.
debate.html&psig=AOvVaw0hwCZ5JbZjkyICwOoz3JSv&ust=1604995913390000&source=
images&cd=vfe&ved=2ahUKEwjc88TrgfXsAhVPxWEKHY5BDyIQr4kDegUIARD
cAQ
https://www.britannica.com/science/genetically-modified-organism
https://www.nongmoproject.org/gmo-facts/
https://www.slideshare.net/thesmi6goa/applications-of-genetic-engineering-32095620
https://www.biologydiscussion.com/genetic-engineering/applications-genetic-
engineering/top-4-applications-of-genetic-engineering/37350
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=http%3A%2F%2Fib.bioninja.com.au%2Fstandard-
level%2Ftopic-3-genetics%2F35-genetic-modification-and%2Fgmo-

11
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Quarter 3-Week 2
History of Life on Earth

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
NAME GRADE LEVEL
SECTION DATE

HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH
Background Information for Learners
The Earth was born approximately 4.6 billion years ago, and life first appeared about 4
billion years ago. With this duration of time, it’s really hard to understand how Earth was
formed and life first appeared on its surface. If we think of Earth’s history as a 24-hour day,
humans would have appeared only during the last minute of that day. If we are such newcomers
on planet Earth, how do we know about the vast period of time that went before us? How have
we learned about the distant past?
To know about the past, we study the remains of things that existed during that time.
One way of studying the Earth history and its life is by studying the fossils. Fossils are the
preserved remains or traces of organisms that lived in the past. How could these fossils tell us
about the past? These remains are dated in two ways: relative and absolute dating.
Relative dating determines which of two fossils is older or younger than the other, but
not their age in years. This is based on the positions of fossils in rock layers. Lower layers were
laid down earlier, so they are assumed to contain older fossils (CK-12 2016).
Absolute dating determines about how long ago a fossil organism lived. This gives the
fossil an approximate age in years. Absolute dating is often based on the amount of carbon-14
or other radioactive element that remains in a fossil (CK-12 2016).
Another tool for understanding the history of Earth and its life is the geologic time
scale. By studying the Earth’s geological timeline, we will be able to trace the processes by
which fossils were formed and how living organisms have evolved since the time that life
started until the present day.

The geologic time
scale, shown in Figure 1,
divides Earth’s history into
divisions (such as eons, eras,
and periods and epochs) that
are based on major changes in
geology, climate, and the
evolution of life. It organizes
Earth’s history and the
evolution of life on the basis of
important events instead of
time alone. It also allows more
focus to be placed on recent
events, about which we know
the most (Basco-Tiamzon
2016).
Figure 1. The Geologic Time Scale.
Learning Competency
Describe general features of the history of life on Earth, including generally accepted
dates and sequence of the geologic time scale and characteristics of major groups of organisms
present during these time periods (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-8).
Directions / Instructions
Follow the procedure for each task well because the success of your learning will
greatly depend on your indulgence. If you need guidance on what to do and clarification of
vague concepts, consult your teacher or ask for adult supervision. Document your progress
using a camera and organize them creatively for final presentation. Good luck and have fun!
Note: The teacher must provide a hard copy of the materials indicated in the links to students
who have no means for internet connectivity. S/he must also explain all directions for
the different exercises.
READ ME

THE GEOLOLICAL TIME SCALE
Scientists develop the time scale by studying rock layers and fossils worldwide.
Radioactive dating is used to determine the absolute divisions in the time scale. The geologic
time scale divides Earth’s geologic history into intervals of time defined by major events or
changes on Earth. The largest unit of geologic time is an eon. The Earth’s 4.6-billion-year
history is divided into four eons: The Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. These
eons together are called Precambrian time. Precambrian time makes up almost 90 percent of
Earth’s history. Eons may be divided into smaller units of time called eras. The Phanerozoic
Eon, the present eon, is divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. Each
era is subdivided into a number of periods. The periods of the Cenozoic, the present era, are
further divided into epochs.
What were some defining events of Precambrian time?
1. Precambrian time began with the formation of Earth about 4.6 billion years ago.
2. Massive supercontinents, the first oceans, and the early atmosphere formed during this
time.
3. Toward the end of Precambrian time, much of Earth’s land surfaces were located near
the poles and covered in ice.
What were some defining events of the Paleozoic Era?
1. The Paleozoic Era began about 540 million years ago. The supercontinent Pannotia was
breaking up and the supercontinent Pangaea began forming.
2. Life diversified quickly and dramatically during the Cambrian Explosion, during which
most major groups of organisms first evolved.
3. The era ended about 250 million years ago with a huge mass extinction event.
4. During the Cambrian Explosion, new species evolved rapidly in Earth’s shallow seas.
What were some defining events of the Mesozoic Era?
1. During the Mesozoic Era, which began about 250 million years ago, Pangaea began
breaking up.
2. The Atlantic Ocean began to open up, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge formed, sea levels rose,
and shallow seas covered much of the land.
3. Along the western edge of North America, tectonic activity began to fold Earth’s crust,
forming mountains. The climate was likely warm, as periods of heavy volcanism added
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
4. Life during the Mesozoic was dominated by dinosaurs. The few mammals were very
small.
5. A mass extinction event about 65 million years ago marked the end of the era, and the
end of dinosaurs.
What were some defining events of the Cenozoic Era?
1. The Cenozoic Era began about 65 million years ago with the Cretaceous mass extinction
and continues to the present.

2. Greenland split apart from North America and Europe, and the continents assumed their
current positions.
3. The Indian subcontinent collided with Eurasia to form the Himalayas. The collision of
Africa and Europe resulted in the Alps.
4. The Cenozoic Era is divided into two periods: the Tertiary and the Quaternary. The latter
stretches from about 2.6 million years ago to the present.
5. The Quaternary has been characterized by an ice age, with much of Europe, North
America, and Asia having been covered in thick sheets of ice.
6. The evolution of modern humans occurred during the late Quaternary.
How did life develop through time?

The table below shows the summary of events on how life on earth changed through time.
Table 1
Millions of years EVENT
before present
Precambrian
4600 Beginning of Earth
3900 Inferred origin of life (first cells)
3800 Oldest age-dated rocks on Earth
3600 Fossil blue-green algae and stromatolites (prokaryots)
3250 First fossil evidence of bacteria
2100 First fossil evidence of single-celled life with a cell nucleus
(eukaryots)
1500 First multicelled organisms (seaweed and algae)
670 Oldest marine worms and jellyfish
600 Vendian period begins: Edicarian fossils
Paleozoic Era
544 Cambrian system begins
515 Burgess Shale organisms (Canada): first animals with a notochord
505 Ordovician system begins, First fish
488 Fungi, plants and animals, colonize land
470 First fossil evidence of land plants
438 Silurian system begins
430 First vascular land plants
414 Oldest lung fish fossils
408 Devonian system begins
Oldest fossil evidence of mosses
385 First insects (beetles), scorpions, and centipedes
380 First lobe-finned fish
375 First land animals (amphibians)
370 First sharks
365 First seed plants (ferns)
360 Mississippian system begins
330 First possible reptiles
320 Pennsylvanian system begins, Kentucky coal formed

Millions of years EVENT
before present
Permian, first seed plants appear, origin of reptiles, amphibians
286
dominate
260 Sail-backed reptiles (Dimetrodon)
245 End of Paleozoic: 96% of all life on Earth perishes
Mesozoic Era, the "Age of Reptiles"
245 Triassic system begin
240 First crocodiles
First dinosaurs (about the size of a cat), such as Eoraptor and
228
Saltoposuchus
221 First mammals (shrew-like)
210 First turtles
208 Jurassic system begins
195 Dilophosaurus, an Early Jurassic dinosaur
155 First bird, Archeopteryx
Apatosaurus and Brachiosaurus, Late Jurassic longnecked
152
dinosaurs
150 Allosaurus, a Late Jurassic meat-eating dinosaur
148 Stegosaurus, a Late Jurassic plate-backed dinosaur
144 Cretaceous system begins
115 First flowering plants
80 Protoceratops (first dinosaur eggs ever discovered)
75 Triceratops
70 Tyrannosaurus rex and Velociraptor
65 End of Mesozoic Era, probably meteor or comet impact
Cenozoic Era, the "Age of Mammals"
65 Tertiary system begins
64 First ancestors of dogs and cats
60 Grasses become widespread
57 First ancestors of pigs and deer
55 First horses (Eohippus)
45 First ancestors of rabbits
39 First monkeys
4 Oldest human-like ancestors (hominids)
2 Quaternary system begins
1 First of four ice ages
Oldest direct human-ancestor fossil, Homo habilis
0.1 First modern man, Homo sapiens
0.05 Approximate age of fossil mammoth and mastodon bones from
Big Bone Lick, Ky.
Source: Kentucky Geological Survey, www.uky.edu/KGS 2000

Activity 1: Constructing a Geological Time Scale (Day 1)
Draw a 46-cm bar on a bond paper. Divide the bar into 46 one-centimeter sections.
Each section represents 100 million years of Earth history. Label the top “Today”, and the
bottom “4,600 ma”. (“ma” stands for mega annum or million years).
Construct a Geological Time Scale by writing the corresponding date of each eon, era,
period and epoch based on Figure 1. Make your event cards from the list below with its
designated color and place them in the appropriate location on your timescale. Answer the
guide questions.
Event:
YELLOW
First evidence of life (3,850 million years ago [ma])
Oldest fossils (3,500 ma)
First evidence of soft-bodied animals (900 ma)
First land plants and fish (480 ma)
First reptiles (350 ma)
First mammals and dinosaurs (220 ma)
First birds (150 ma)
Modern humans (0.1 ma)
RED
Some single-celled animals and soft-bodied animals died (Vendian 543 ma)
Ninety percent of all species (End Permian 250 ma)
Dinosaurs and 60 to 80 percent of all species (End Cretaceous 65 ma)
Nearly all mammals and birds over 45 lbs. disappeared (Late Pleistocene 0.1 ma)
BLUE
Formation of the great oceans (4,200 ma)
Continents begin shifting (3,100 ma)
Rodinia supercontinent breaks up (700 ma)
Gondwana forms (500 ma)
Formation of Pangaea supercontinent (280 ma)
Pangaea supercontinent breaks up (200 ma)
Inland seas dry up (20 ma)
Global ice ages begin (2 Ma)
Guide questions for the inferences:
1. What patterns do you notice about the events of similar color? Give each group a name
based upon the patterns you observed.
a. yellow
b. red
c. blue
2. How might extinctions affect the evolution of organisms that survive the event?

3. In what ways have geologic changes influenced evolutionary events or extinctions?
Activity 2: Major Events in Earth’s History (Day 1)

Complete the table by filling in columns 3 and 4.
TIME SCALE GENERAL FEATURES LIFE FORMS
ERA PERIOD
PRECAMBRIAN
Cambrian
Ordovician
Silurian
Paleozoic
Devonian
Carboniferous
Permian
Triassic
Mesozoic
Jurassic
Cretaceous
Tertiary
Cenozoic
Quaternary

Guide question:
How would you describe the organisms formed during the following time?
a. Precambrian
b. Paleozoic
c. Mesozoic
d. Cenozoic
Activity 3: Putting Things In-Order (Day 1)
The following are the top major events of the Earth’s History. Arrange them
according to the sequence of their time existence and answer the guide questions. Use numbers
1 (first event) to 12 (last event).
The first life appeared on Earth The dinosaurs went extinct.
The first dinosaurs evolved. The first land animals with backbones
evolved.
Oxygen began to accumulate in the Earth’s Modern humans evolved.

atmosphere
The first land plants evolved. Earth’s core and crust formed.
The first animals evolved. The first animals with backbones (fish)
evolved.
The Earth’s first oceans formed. Planet Earth formed.

1. Which evolved first, autotrophs or heterotrophs? Why?
2. How does the length of the history of life help explain the evolution of single-celled
organisms to complex organisms?
Rubric for Scoring

1. The performance task in Activity 1 will be given score following the rubric below.
Score
Criterion
4 3 2 1
• Measurement • Measurement • Measurement • Measurement
of the bar is of the bar is of the bar is of the bar is
100% accurate 100% 100% 90% accurate
and scaling is accurate but accurate but but there’s a
accurate and there’s a little there’s a more more than
precise. error (less than 25% 25% error in
• All events are than 25%) in error in the the scaling.
Accuracy
placed the scaling. scaling. • More than one
appropriate • All events are • One event is event is not
dates. placed in not placed in placed in
• Color coding appropriate appropriate appropriate
is followed. dates. date. dates.
• Color coding • Color coding • Color coding
is followed. is followed is followed
2. Each correct answer, in the table of Activity 2, will be scored one (1) point.
3. Same scoring shall be applied in every correct answer in Activity 3.
4. The simple essay constructions in the guide questions will be scored following the rubric
that follows.

Score
Criteria
4 3 2 1
All sentences Most sentences Most sentences Sentences sound
are well are well are well awkward, are
constructed and constructed and constructed, but distractingly
have varied have varied they have a repetitive, or are
structure and structure and similar structure difficult to
length. The length. The and/or length. understand. The
author makes author makes a The author author makes
Structure no errors in few errors in makes several numerous errors
grammar, grammar, errors in in grammar,
mechanics, mechanics, grammar, mechanics,
and/or spelling. and/or spelling, mechanics, and/or spelling
but they do not and/or spelling that interfere
interfere with that interfere with
understanding. with understanding.
understanding.
There is one There is one There is one The topic and
clear, well clear, well topic. main ideas are
focused topic. focused topic. Main ideas are not clear.
Main ideas are Main ideas are somewhat clear.
Content clear and are clear but are not
well supported well supported
by detailed and by detailed
accurate information.
information.
TOTAL SCORE:
Evaluator’s Name and
Signature
Reflection
1. I learned that

References
Basco_Tiamzon, M. Z. (2016). General Biology 2 Textbook for Senior High School. Quezon
City: VibalGroup, Inc.
CK-12 (n.d.) Biology Concepts flexbook, https://www.ck12.org/reader/reader-
index.html#section/4657118/5.1/6642219
CK-12 (n.d.) Biology. https://www.ck12.org/reader/reader-

index.html#section/5378523/9.1/6462082
Geologic Time Scale | Earth Science. (2021). Retrieved 1 April 2021, from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/earthscience/chapter/geologic-time-scale/
Survey, K. (2021). Earth Science Classroom Activities, Kentucky Geological Survey,

University of Kentucky. Retrieved 1 April 2021, from
https://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/classroom-activity.php
Anon (2021). Retrieved 1 April 2021, from

https://www.dynamicearth.co.uk/media/1514/geological-timeline-pack.pdf

11
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Quarter 3-Week 2
Mechanisms that Produce Change
in Populations

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
NAME GRADE LEVEL
SECTION DATE

MECHANISMS THAT PRODUCE CHANGE IN POPULATIONS
Background Information for Learners
You learned in the previous lesson that life on earth changes through time. Remember
that without change, there will be no variations in the species, thus no evolution to occur.
According to Charles Darwin, heritable variations are needed for evolution to occur.
However, this principle could not be fully understood until such time that Mendel’s laws of
genetics were rediscovered in the early 1900s. We now know that variations of traits are
heritable. These variations are determined by different alleles. The changes in alleles within a
population over time is now called evolution. Does this mean individual do evolve?
Individuals do not evolve. Their genes do not change over time. The unit of evolution
is the population. A population consists of organisms of the same species that live in the same
area. In terms of evolution, the population is assumed to be a relatively closed group. This
means that most mating takes place within the population. The science that focuses on
evolution within populations is population genetics. It is a combination of evolutionary theory
and Mendelian genetics. According to the founding principle of “population genetics” called
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, if a population meets certain conditions, it will be in
equilibrium. These conditions are no mutation, no migration, very large population size,
random mating, and no natural selection. (CK12.ORG 2014) When one of these conditions is
not met, equilibrium is disturbed, and a change may occur.
Indeed, those conditions that cause equilibrium disruption are the driving forces of
evolution. There are four forces or mechanisms of evolution. These are natural selection,
mutation, genetic drift and gene flow (migration). (Maria Elena Z. Basco-Tiamzon 2015)
Learning Competency
Explain the mechanisms that produce change in populations from generation to
generation: artificial selection, natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, recombination
(STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-9).

Directions / Instructions
Follow the procedure for each task well because the success of your learning will
greatly depend on your indulgence. If you need guidance on what to do and clarification of
vague concepts, consult your teacher or ask for adult supervision. Document your progress
using a camera and organize them creatively for final presentation. Good luck and have fun!
Note: The teacher must provide a hard copy of the materials indicated in the links to students
who have no means for internet connectivity. S/he must also explain all directions for
the different exercises.
READ ME
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
Natural Selection
According to Darwin, nature (the environment) selects organisms with traits that allow them
to survive in that particular environment.
1) There are more individuals that are produced than be sustained by a particular environment.
This leads to competition for limited resources.
2) There is variation within a population. Genetic mutation provides variation of traits.
3) Individuals with favorable traits that provide an advantage for survival will have an edge in
this competition
4) These individuals as a result are more likely to reproduce than those that do not possess these
traits.
For example: birds in different habitats such as penguins living in extremely cold conditions
or bats that use large ears for echolocation or hummingbirds with long tongues to reach the
nectar at the base of blooms and their ability to hover while sipping the nectar.
Alleles are expressed in a phenotype. Depending on the environmental conditions, the

phenotype confers an advantage or disadvantage to the individual with the phenotype relative
to the other phenotypes in the population. If it is an advantage, then that individual will likely
have more offspring than individuals with the other phenotypes, and this will mean that the
allele behind the phenotype will have greater representation in the next generation. If
conditions remain the same, those offspring, which are carrying the same allele, will also
benefit. Over time, the allele will increase in frequency in the population.
Mutation
Mutation is a source of new alleles in a population. Mutation is a change in the DNA

sequence of the gene. A mutation can change one allele into another, but the net effect is a
change in frequency. The change in frequency resulting from mutation is small, so its effect on
evolution is small unless it interacts with one of the other factors, such as selection. A mutation
may produce an allele that is selected against, selected for, or selectively neutral. Harmful
mutations are removed from the population by selection and will generally only be found in
very low frequencies equal to the mutation rate. Beneficial mutations will spread through the
population through selection, although that initial spread is slow. Whether or not a mutation is
beneficial or harmful is determined by whether it helps an organism survive to sexual maturity
and reproduce. It should be noted that mutation is the ultimate source of genetic variation in all
populations—new alleles, and, therefore, new genetic variations arise through mutation.
Genetic Drift
Another way a population’s allele frequencies can change is genetic drift (Figure 1),
which is simply the effect of chance. Genetic drift is most important in small populations. Drift
would be completely absent in a population with infinite individuals, but, of course, no
population is this large. Genetic drift occurs because the alleles in an offspring generation are
a random sample of the alleles in the parent generation. Alleles may or may not make it into
the next generation due to chance events including mortality of an individual, events affecting
finding a mate, and even the events affecting which gametes end up in fertilizations. If one
individual in a population of ten individuals happens to die before it leaves any offspring to the
next generation, all of its genes—a tenth of the population’s gene pool—will be suddenly lost.
In a population of 100, that 1 individual represents only 1 percent of the overall gene pool;
therefore, it has much less impact on the population’s genetic structure and is unlikely to
remove all copies of even a relatively rare allele.
Imagine a population of ten individuals, half with allele A and half with allele a (the
individuals are haploid). In a stable population, the next generation will also have ten
individuals. Choose that generation randomly by flipping a coin ten times and let heads
be A and tails be a. It is unlikely that the next generation will have exactly half of each allele.
There might be six of one and four of the other, or some different set of frequencies. Thus, the
allele frequencies have changed and evolution has occurred. A coin will no longer work to
choose the next generation (because the odds are no longer one half for each allele). The
frequency in each generation will drift up and down on what is known as a random walk until
at one point either all A or all a are chosen and that allele is fixed from that point on. This could
take a very long time for a large population. This simplification is not very biological, but it
can be shown that real populations behave this way. The effect of drift on frequencies is greater
the smaller a population is. Its effect is also greater on an allele with a frequency far from one
half. Drift will influence every allele, even those that are being naturally selected.

Figure 1: Genetic drift in a population can lead to the elimination of an allele from a
population by chance. In each generation, a random set of individuals reproduces to produce
the next generation. The frequency of alleles in the next generation is equal to the frequency of
alleles among the individuals reproducing.
Genetic drift can also be magnified by natural or human-caused events, such as a

disaster that randomly kills a large portion of the population, which is known as the
bottleneck effect that results in a large portion of the genome suddenly being wiped out (Figure
2). In one fell swoop, the genetic structure of the survivors becomes the genetic structure of the
entire population, which may be very different from the pre-disaster population. The disaster
must be one that kills for reasons unrelated to the organism’s traits, such as a hurricane or lava
flow. A mass killing caused by unusually cold temperatures at night, is likely to affect
individuals differently depending on the alleles they possess that confer cold hardiness.
Figure 2. A chance event or catastrophe

can reduce the genetic variability within a
population.
Another scenario in which populations might experience a strong influence of genetic

drift is if some portion of the population leaves to start a new population in a new location, or
if a population gets divided by a physical barrier of some kind. In this situation, those

individuals are unlikely to be representative of the entire population which results in the
founder effect. The founder effect occurs when the genetic structure matches that of the new
population’s founding fathers and mothers.
Gene Flow
Another important evolutionary force is gene flow, or the flow of alleles in and out of
a population resulting from the migration of individuals or gametes (Figure 11.2.3). While
some populations are fairly stable, others experience more flux. Many plants, for example, send
their seeds far and wide, by wind or in the guts of animals; these seeds may introduce alleles
common in the source population to a new population in which they are rare.
Figure 3: Gene flow can occur when an individual travels from one geographic location to
another and joins a different population of the species. In the example shown here, the brown
allele is introduced into the green population.
Summary
There are four factors that can change the allele frequencies of a population. Natural
selection works by selecting for alleles that confer beneficial traits or behaviors, while selecting
against those for deleterious qualities. Mutations introduce new alleles into a population.
Genetic drift stems from the chance occurrence that some individuals have more offspring
than others and results in changes in allele frequencies that are random in direction. When
individuals leave or join the population, allele frequencies can change as a result of gene flow.

Activity 1: Genetic Drift Simulation (Day 2)
This simulation, like evolution itself, is based on random events. There are several ways to
choose a random number. One way is to roll a die. There is a simulated "5-sided" die to the
left.
In this activity you will need:

die or improvised die (5 sides numbered 1-5 and one side blank)
colored pencils (5 different colors)
Worm worksheet (to be provided by your teacher)
WORM WORKSHEET

Step 1. Color the worms in Generation 0 –each of a different color.
Step 2. Roll the die and put a dot next to the corresponding number of worm.
Step 3. Repeat Step 2 until you’ve chosen N numbers, where N is the number of worms in the
population (in this case,N=5)

Step 4. Draw a line from each dot to the worm in the next generation.
Step 5. Color the worm in the next generation the same color as their parents.
Step 6. Repeat Steps 2-5 until you produced a generation of worms of the same color.
Step 7. Continue to run the simulation for an additional of 5 generations after reaching the
generation of the same colors.
1. Based on your worksheet, in what generation you have reached the worms of the same
color?
2. What did you observe in the succeeding generations after reaching the generation of the
same colors?

3. Do you think there is still a probability of producing a generation of different alleles from
a generation of same alleles? Why?
4. How does genetic drift affect evolution?
Rubric for Scoring

1. The simulation activity will be scored 20 points upon completion. This shall not be graded
as it falls on formative assessment.
2. The simple essay constructions in the guide questions will be scored following the rubric
that follows.
Score
Criteria
4 3 2 1
All sentences Most sentences Most sentences Sentences sound
are well are well are well awkward, are
constructed and constructed and constructed, but distractingly
have varied have varied they have a repetitive, or are
structure and structure and similar structure difficult to
length. The length. The and/or length. understand. The
author makes author makes a The author author makes
Structure no errors in few errors in makes several numerous errors
grammar, grammar, errors in in grammar,
mechanics, mechanics, grammar, mechanics,
and/or spelling. and/or spelling, mechanics, and/or spelling
but they do not and/or spelling that interfere
interfere with that interfere with
understanding. with understanding.
understanding.
Content clear and are clear but are not
well supported well supported
by detailed and by detailed
information.
TOTAL SCORE:
Signature

Reflection
4. I learned that
References
CK12.ORG. 2014. Biology Concepts Flexbook. California: CK 12 Foundation, Inc.
Basco-Tiamzon, et. al. (2015). General Biology 2. Quezon City: Vibal Group, Inc.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3
Concepts_in_Biology_(OpenStax)/11%3A_Evolution_and_Its_Processes/11.2%3A_
Mechanisms_of_Evolution
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/evolution/act/drift/frame.html
Answer Key
Answers may vary.
Designed by:
MARIA ROSARIO C. ESPIRITU

mariarosario.espiritu@deped.gov.ph
Roxas Stand Alone Senior High School

11
General Biology 2
Quarter 3-Week 3
Evolution and Origin of Biodiversity:
Patterns of Descent with
Modification

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
NAME GRADE LEVEL
SECTION DATE

Evolution and Origin of Biodiversity:
Patterns of Descent with Modification
It’s nice to be back. New learnings are on the way! Are you ready for your new learning
ventures? You have learned in your past lesson about the mechanism that produce change in
populations from generation to generation. Isn’t it amazing how species change overtime?
Now, can you give an organism which can be an animal or a plant species? Have you
seen different kinds or variants of this species and also other species which look like them
because they are related?
Get ready and set your mind for this week we will discuss patterns of descent with
modification.
WHAT IS SPECIATION?
Speciation is the process of formation of a new genetically independent group of
organisms, called species, through the course of evolution. Simply, the process of splitting of
genetically homogenous population into two or more populations that undergo genetic
differentiation and eventual reproductive. The entire course of evolution depends upon the
origin of new populations (species) that have greater adaptive efficiency than their ancestors.
Speciation occurs in two ways.
 Transformation of old species into new species over time.
 Splitting of a single species into several, that is the multiplication of species.
According to Ernst Mayer’s definition, “Species are groups of interbreeding natural

populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.” Given the extraordinary
diversity of life on the planet there must be mechanism for speciation: the formation of two
species from one original species. Darwin envisioned this process as a branching event and
diagrammed the process in the only illustration found in the Origin of Species (Figure 6.1)
Figurer 6.1. The only illustration in

Darwin’s On the origin of Species is (a)
a diagram showing speciation events
leading to biological diversity. The
diagram shows linear evolution of a
modern man (b) Modern Elephants
eveolved from the Palaeomastodon, a
species that lived in Egypt 35-50 million
http://blacksmithsurgical.com/t3-assets/fiction/jeja-the-evolution

There are different reproductive isolating mechanisms:
A. Pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms prevent fertilization and zygote formation.
I. Geographic or ecological or habitat isolation – potential mates occupy different areas or
habitats thus, they never come in contact
II. Temporal or seasonal isolation – different groups may not be reproductively mature at
the same season, or month or year
III. Behavioral isolation – patterns of courtship are different
IV. Mechanical isolation – differences in reproductive organs prevent successful
interbreeding
V. Gametic isolation – incompatibilities between egg and sperm prevent fertilization
B. Post-zygotic isolation mechanisms allow fertilization but nonviable or weak or sterile

hybrids are formed.
I. Hybrid inviability – fertilized egg fails to develop past the early embryonic stages
II. Hybrid sterility – hybrids are sterile because gonads develop abnormally or there is
abnormal segregation of chromosomes during meiosis
III. Hybrid breakdown - F1 hybrids are normal, vigorous and viable, but F2 contains many
weak or sterile individuals
Isolation Barriers | BioNinja ib.bioninja.com.au

SPECIATION CAUSES
Speciation occurs as a result of several factors which are:
1. Natural selection
 As explained by Charles Darwin, different individuals in a species might develop
specific distinct characteristics which are advantageous and affect the genetic
makeup of the individual.
 Under such conditions, these characteristics will be conserved, and over time, new
species might be formed.
 However, in this case, the essential aspect of this factor is that speciation occurs
only when a single species splits into several species resulting in the multiplication
of species.
2. Genetic drift
 Genetic drift is the change in the allele frequencies in a population as a result of
“sampling error” while selecting the alleles for the next generation from the gene pool
of the current population.
 It has been, however, argued that genetic drift doesn’t result in speciation and just
results in evolution, that is, change from one species to another, which cannot be
considered speciation.
3. Migration
 When a certain number of species from a population migrate from one geographical
region to another, the species might accumulate characteristics which are different
from that of the original population.
 Migration usually results in geographical isolation and ultimately leads to speciation.
4. Chromosomal Mutations
 Chromosomal mutations have the potential to serve as (or contribute to) isolating
mechanisms, and the locking up and protection of a particularly favorable gene
complement through a chromosomal mutation.
 These mutations, when preserved from one generation to another, might result in the
formation of new species.
5. Natural causes
 Sometimes, natural events imposed by the environment like a river or a mountain
range might cause the separation of what once a continuous population is divided into
two or smaller populations.
 These events result in geographical isolation of the incipient species followed by
reproductive isolation leading to speciation.
6. Reduction of gene flow
 Speciation might also occur in the absence of some extrinsic physical barriers.
 There might be a reduced gene flow over a broad geographical range where individuals
in the Far East would have zero chance of mating with individuals in the far western
end of the range.
 In addition, if there are some selective mechanisms like genetic drift at the opposite
ends of the range, the gene frequencies would be altered, and speciation would be
ensured.

TYPES OF SPECIATION/MODES OF SPECIATION
Image Source: Wikipedia (Ilmari Karonen)
The classification of the modes or types of speciation is based on how much the geographical
separation of the original population contributes to the reduced gene flow and ultimately, the
formation of new species.
THE MODES OF SPECIATION ARE: ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION

• Allopatric speciation is the mode of
speciation in which the original population
is divided into two by a barrier resulting in
reproductive isolation.
• The model for allopatric speciation was
presented by Mayr.
• It is based on the concept that new species
arise when some physical geographic
barrier divides the large population of a
species into two or more small populations.
• The individuals of these isolated
populations cannot interbreed because of
their physical isolation.
• Physical isolation might occur either due to physical barriers like vast expanses of ocean,
high mountains, glaciers, deep river valleys, wide rivers or deserts, or a considerable
distance due to a larger geographical range.
• Each isolated population starts to adapt to their separated environments while
accumulating differences and evolving independently into new species.
• Allopatric speciation can occur even in cases in which the barrier allows some individuals
to cross the barrier to mate with the members of the other groups.
• For speciation even to be considered “allopatric,” gene flow between the soon-to-be
species must be significantly reduced—but it doesn’t have to be entirely reduced to zero.

Examples of Allopatric speciation
• The classic example of allopatric speciation is that of Darwin’s finches. The divergent
populations of finches inhabiting the Galapagos Islands were observed to have differences
in features such as body size, color, and beak length or shape. The differences resulted
because of the different types of food available in various Islands.
• Another example is of Grand Canyon Squirrels which were separated during the
formation of the Grand Canyon and resulted in two different species of squirrels.
PERIPATRIC SPECIATION
Peripatric speciation is a special
condition of allopatric speciation which occurs
when the size of the isolated subpopulation is
small.
In this case, in addition to geographic separation,
genetic drift also plays an important as genetic
drift acts more quickly in small populations.
The small, isolated subpopulation might carry
some rare genes which upon reaching the new
geographical region become fixed over the course
of a few generations as a result of genetic drift.
Image Source;15.3 Mechanisms of EVOLUTION Slide share
• As a result, the entire population of the new region ends up having these rare genes.
• Over time, new genetic characters, as well as natural selection, cause the survival of
individuals which are better suited to the climate and food of the new region.
• Finally, under the influence of all these factors, new species are formed.
• However, it is very difficult to explain what role genetic drift played in the divergence of
the two populations, which makes gathering evidence to support or refute this mode very
challenging.
Examples of Peripatric speciation
• The Australian bird Petroica multicolour and London Underground mosquito, a variant
of the mosquito Culex pipiens, which entered in the London Underground in the
19th century are the examples of Peripatric speciation.
PARAPATRIC SPECIATION
• Parapatric speciation is a mode of

speciation in which there is no extrinsic
barrier between the population but, the
large geographic range of the population
causes the individuals to mate with the
neighboring individuals than with the
individuals in a different part of the
geographical range.
• In this case, the population is
continuous, but the population doesn’t
mate randomly.
Image Source: Unacademy.com
• Here, the genetic variation occurs as a result of reduced gene flow within the population
and varying selection pressures across the population’s range.
• This occurs in population which is distributed over a large geographical range. Thus, the
individuals in the far west region cannot mate with the individuals in the far east region.
• Through a few generations, new species might be formed within the existing population.
Examples of Parapatric speciation

• The grass species Anthoxanthum odoratum where some species living near the mine have
become tolerant to heavy metals; however, other plants that don’t live around the mines
are not tolerant.
• But because the plants are close together, they could fertilize each other and result in a
new species.
SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
• Sympatric speciation is the process of the
formation of new species from an original
population that are not geographically
isolated.
• It is based on the establishment of new
populations of a species in different
ecological niches and the reproductive
isolation of founders of the new population
from the individuals of the source
population.
• Gene flow between daughter and parental
population during sympatric speciation is
Image Source: Evolution AP Biology Evolution IV postulated to be inhibited by intrinsic
factors, such as chromosomal changes and
non-random mating.
• Exploiting a new niche might automatically reduce gene flow with individuals exploiting
a different niche.
• This mode of speciation is common in herbivore insects when they begin feeding and
mating on a new plant or when a new plant is introduced within the geographical range
of the species.
• The gene flow is then reduced between the species that specialize in a particular plant
which might ultimately lead to the formation of new species.
• The selection resulting in specialization needs to be really strong for the population to
diverge.
• Thus, sympatric speciation is a sporadic event in multicellular organisms or randomly
mating populations.
Examples of Sympatric speciation

• Sympatric speciation is observed in apple maggot flies which 200 years ago laid eggs and
bred only on hawthorns but now lays eggs on both hawthorns and domestic apples.
• As a result, gene flow between parts of the population that mate on different types of fruit
is reduced, and in fewer than 200 years, some genetic differences between these two
groups of flies have evolved.

This picture shows the differences of the different modes of speciation.
LEARNING COMPETENCY
 Show patterns of descent with modification from common ancestors to produce the
organismal diversity observed today.
Specifically, the learners will be able to:
 define species according to the biological species concept;
 distinguish the various types of reproductive isolating mechanisms that can
lead to speciation;
 discuss the different modes of speciation; and
 explain how evolution produce the tremendous amount of diversity among
organisms.

3. There are three (3) learning activities in this material. Strictly follow what is/are
asked in every activity and accomplish the activity within the given timeline.
4. In case the materials in the activity are not available in your place, you may
improvise or use related materials.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
“MAP IT OUT”
Make a concept map with the word “SPECIES” showing how you understand
each term then finally giving your own definition of Species based on what you have
written in your concept map. Use separate sheet of paper in doing this activity.
SPECIES
SPECIES
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
“Say Something”
Activity 1: ESSAY
Answer the following questions briefly but substantially. (See attached rubric)
1. Identify whether assortative mating is a type of pre- or post-zygotic reproduction isolation

and describe its importance in sympatric and allopatric speciation.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Please describe at least two totally difference of Parapatric Speciation to Peripatric

Speciation
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Briefly describe allopatric and sympatric speciation and provide a real-world example of
each.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Explain how evolution produce the tremendous amount of diversity among organisms.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
Now let us see if you remember what we have encountered in our journey. Read each
question carefully. Write the letter that corresponds to your answer. Use another sheet of
paper.
1. Which of the following statements about biological species is(are) correct?

I. Biological species is a group of individuals whose members interbreed with one
another.
II. Biological species are the model used for grouping extinct forms of life.
III. Members of biological species produce viable, fertile offsprings.
A. I only C. I and III E. I, II, and III
B. II only D. II and III
2. The following isolating mechanisms prevent fertilization and formation of zygote except
A. Temporal isolation C. Gametic isolation E. Behavioral isolation
B. Hybrid breakdown D. Ecological isolation
For numbers 3-5, use the following choices:

A. Allopatric speciation
B. Sympatric speciation
C. Parapatric speciation
3. Occurrence of abrupt genetic change cause reproductive isolation between groups of
individuals.
4. Occurs when populations are separated by a geographic barrier.
5. Abrupt change in the environment over a geographic border and strong disruptive selection
affects gene flow between neighboring populations.

RUBRICS FOR SCORING
5 / 4 / 3 / 2 / NEEDS 1 /
EXCELLEN V ERY AV ERAG I MPROV EMEN UNACCEPTABL
T GOOD E T E
Ideas This paper is clear This paper The writer is Topic is not well- As yet, the paper has no
and focused. It is mostly beginning to defined and/or there clear sense of purpose or
holds the reader's focused define the are too many topics. central theme. To extract
attention. and has topic, even meaning from the text,
Relevant details some good though the reader must make
and quotes enrich details and development inferences based on
the central theme. quotes. is still basic or sketchy or missing
general. details.
Organizatio The organization Paper (and The Sentences within The writing lacks a clear
n enhances and paragraphs) organizational paragraphs make sense of direction. Ideas,
showcases the are mostly structure is sense, but the order of details, or events seem
central idea or organized, strong enough paragraphs does not. strung together in a
theme. The order, in order, to move the loose or random fashion;
structure of and makes reader through there is no identifiable
information is sense to the the text internal structure.
compelling and reader. without too
moves the reader much
through the text. confusion.
Sentence The writing has an The writing The text hums The text seems choppy The reader has to
Fluency easy flow, rhythm, mostly along with a and is not easy to read practice quite a bit in
and cadence. flows, and steady beat, orally. order to give this paper a
Sentences are well usually but tends to be fair interpretive reading.
built, with strong invites oral more
and varied reading. businesslike
structure that than musical,
invites expressive more
oral reading. mechanical
than fluid.
Conventions The writer The write The writer The writer seems to Errors in spelling,
demonstrates a understand shows have made little effort punctuation,
good grasp of s good reasonable to use conventions: capitalization, usage,
standard writing writing control over a spelling, punctuation, and grammar and/or
conventions (e.g., convention limited range capitalization, usage, paragraphing repeatedly
spelling, s and of standard grammar and/or distract the reader and
punctuation, usually writing paragraphing have make the text difficult to
capitalization, uses them conventions. multiple errors. read.
grammar, usage, correctly. Conventions
paragraphing) and Paper is are sometimes
uses conventions easily read, handled well
effectively to and errors and enhance
enhance are rare; readability; at
readability. minor other times,
touch-ups errors are
would get distracting and
this piece impair
ready to readability.
publish.
Presentation The form and The format The writer's The writer's message is The reader receives a
presentation of the only has a message is only understandable garbled message due to
text enhances the few understandabl occasionally, and paper problems relating to the
ability for the mistakes e in this is messily written. presentation of the text,
reader to and is format. and is not typed.
understand and generally
connect with the easy to
message. It is read and
pleasing to the pleasing to
eye. the eye.
Adopted from https://www.uen.org/rubric/previewRubric.html?id=20123

11
General Biology 2
Quarter 3-Week 3
Development of Evolutionary Thought

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
NAME GRADE LEVEL
SECTION DATE

Development of Evolutionary Thought
The Ukrainian-born American geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky famously wrote that

“nothing makes sense in biology except in the light of evolution.” He meant that the tenet that
all life has evolved and diversified from a common ancestor is the foundation from which we
approach all questions in biology. When we try to understand how the Earth has changed, we
also try to understand how biological processes that take place have caused disruptions in the
organismal equilibrium.
The thought that species change had been suggested and debated well before Charles
Darwin began to explore this idea. Since then, scientists from different parts of the country
developed and proposed theories on how evolution on the different species happen, this
includes their relationship and ancestors.
Are you ready to learn on the development of evolutionary thought? C’mon and join
me, let’s get to know them!!!
THE ROAD TO EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

Evolution Before Darwin
 Plato’s Idealism
o He saw variations in plant and animal populations as imperfect representations
of ideas forms.
o Only the perfect forms of organisms were real.
 Aristotle’s Scala naturae (scale of nature)
o Special creation of each species
o Organisms were created in their current form.
o The earth was only a few thousand years’ old.
 Carl Von Linne
o Swedish botanist
o Worked on the classification of plants.
o Published Species Plantarum (~7,300 plants)
o Ordered classification of plants based on their similarities (showed the natural
relationships of plants)
 Thomas Malthus
o Economist and clergyman
o Published “An Essay on the Principle of Population”
o Populations had an inherent tendency to increase geometrically, while the
resources needed to support this growth increase slowly or not at all.
o Because of the continued growth of a species would outstrip needed resources,
growth would be limited.
 Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
o French biologist who is best known for his Theory of Inheritance of Acquired
Characteristics, first presented in 1801.
o Proposed that modern species descended from other species.
o Lamarckism based on two theories:
1. Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics- traits acquired by an individual
during its life are passed to its offspring.
2. Use and Disuse- organs of the body that were used extensively to cope with
the environment became larger and stronger, while organs that were not used
deteriorated.
EXAMPLE: The Evolution of the Giraffe
Giraffes obtained their long necks from previous giraffes who stretched to eat
the leaves of high tree branches.
Stretching increased the length of length of their necks and this acquired
characteristics was passed to the next generation.
o LAMARCKISM is the first to present a unified theory that attempted to explain
the changes in organisms from one generation to the next.

Darwin’s Time (1800s)
 Georges Cuvier
o French anatomist and naturalist and writer, paleontologist
o He strongly opposed the concept of evolution.
o He proposed the theory of CATASTROPHISM.
 History of living organisms recorded in layers of rock containing a
succession of fossil species in chronological order.
 Fossils were organisms that had died in a series of catastrophes, after
which extinct plants and animals were replaced by the immigration of
distant species to the devastated region.
 James Hutton
o Scottish geologist. He took up law, medicine and agriculture.
o He published Theory of the Earth.
 Geological change occurred slowly but continuously by the process of
GRADUALISM.
 Sedimentary rock that encased fossils formed by the gradual
accumulation of sediments in bodies of water.

 Charles Lyell
o Scottish lawyer turned geologist.
o He published the Principles of Geology.
 UNIFORMITARIANISM- the processes that alter the Earth are uniform
through time.
o He believed that Hutton’s evidence for gradualism indicated that the earth was
millions of years’ old.
o He believed that even the slow and subtle processes could cause substantial
change over time.
 Gregor Mendel
o Austrian biologist
o He discovered the basic principles of heredity.
o Father of Classical Genetics
 Individual characteristics determined by inherited factors transmitted
from parent to offspring.
 Charles Darwin
o Published the Origin of Species 1859 to explain his theories of evolution.
o The first person who proposed a mechanistic approach to evolutionary thought.
o The father of synthetic evolution
o He proposed a mechanism for evolution: NATURAL SELECTION.
 A population of organisms can change overtime as a result of individuals
with certain heritable characteristics leaving more offspring than other
individuals.
o He discovered that the various Galapagos Islands had different species of
animals.
o He noticed 13 species of finches. Each finch had a different beak, specialized to
find food on its island.
 Alfred Russel Wallace
o English naturalist
o Studied the Malay Archipelago and Amazon
o Proposed a theory of evolution similar to Darwin’s.

Neo- Darwinian/ Contemporary Times
 Hugo De Vries
 Carl Correns
 Erich Von Tschermak
o Rediscover Mendel’s laws of heredity
o The start of rediscovering evolution in terms of Mendel’s ideas
 James Watson Francis Crick
o Elucidated the structure of DNA (genetic material)
o DNA contains coded information which acts as a blueprint for the transfer of
hereditary information from generation to generation.
o Mutation as the raw material for evolution

LEARNING COMPETENCY
 The learners shall be able to trace the development of evolutionary thought.
Specifically, the learners will be able to:
 enumerate the scientists and cite their respective contributions in the development
of evolutionary thought.
 describe Jean Baptiste Lamarck’s hypothesis on evolutionary change.
 discuss Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
7. There are three (3) learning activities in this material. Strictly follow what is/are
asked in every activity and accomplish the activity within the given timeline.
8. In case the materials in the activity are not available in your place, you may
improvise or use related materials.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
Now let us see if you remember what we have encountered in our journey. Read
each question carefully. Write the letter that corresponds to your answer. Use another
sheet of paper.
1. Catastrophism, meaning the regular occurrence of geological or meteorological

disturbances (catastrophes), was Cuvier's attempt to explain the existence of
A. Evolution.
B. The fossil record.
C. Uniformitarianism.
D. The origin of new species.
E. Natural selection.
2. Which of the following represents an idea that Darwin learned from the writings of
Thomas Malthus?
A. Technological innovation in agricultural practices will permit exponential
growth of the human population into the foreseeable future.
B. Populations tend to increase at a faster rate than their food supply normally
allows.
C. Earth changed over the years through a series of catastrophic upheavals.
D. The environment is responsible for natural selection.
E. Earth is more than 10,000 years old.

3. In the mid-1900s, the Soviet geneticist Lysenko believed that his winter wheat
plants, exposed to ever-colder temperatures, would eventually give rise to ever more
cold tolerant winter wheat. Lysenko's attempts in this regard were most in agreement
with the ideas of
A. Cuvier.
B. Hutton.
C. Lamarck.
D. Darwin.
E. Lyell.
4. Which of the following ideas is not included in Darwin’s theory?
A. All organisms that have ever existed arose through evolutionary
modifications of ancestral species.
B. The great variety of species live today resulted from the diversification of
ancestral species.
C. Natural selection drives some evolutionary change.
D. Natural selection preserves favorable traits.
E. Natural selection eliminates adaptive traits.
5. Which of the following statements is not compatible with Darwin’s theory?
A. All organisms have arisen by descent with modification.
B. Evolution has altered and diversified ancestral species.
C. Evolution occurs in individuals rather than in groups.
D. Natural selection eliminates unsuccessful variations.
E. Evolution occurs in because some individuals function better than others in
a particular environment.
6. Which of the following must exist in a population before natural selection can act
upon that population?
A. Genetic variation among individuals
B. Variation among individuals caused by environmental factors.
C. Sexual reproduction
D. Three of the responses are correct.
E. Two of the responses are correct.
7. Which of the following does not contribute to the study of evolution?
A. Population genetics
B. Inheritance of acquired characteristics.
C. Fossil records
D. Comparative embryology
E. Comparative morphology

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
“You Know Me! ”
Enumerate five (5) scientists and cite their respective contributions in the
development of evolutionary thought.
NAME OF THE SCIENTISTS CONTRIBUTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
“You know me. Right?”
After reading the passage about Lamarck and Darwin, let us see if you can answer the
following. Read each question carefully. Write the letter that corresponds to your answer. Use
another sheet of paper.
1. What term did Lamarck use to explain how new species emerged?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What term did Darwin use to explain how new species emerged?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Do you think there is any similarity in the theories proposed by the two scientists? Explain.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

4. Read the passages below and answer the questions.
A. Bob believes that giraffes have long necks because they have stretched their necks
to try and reach food that is high in trees. Since the parent had stretched its neck, it passed the
long neck on to its offspring.
B. Ryan believed that giraffes have long necks because the ones with long necks were
able to reach the food, and those with short necks could not and died. The long-necked giraffes
reproduced, and soon all of the giraffes had long necks.
4.1. Who thinks like Lamarck? ___________________

4.2. Who thinks like Darwin? ____________________
LEARNING ACTIVITY 4
“Who said What?”
In the table below identify who said what.
CONCEPT/IDEA Darwin, Lamarck or Both
1. There is variation within a species
2. Organisms can only pass on traits they are

born with
3. The environment had something to do
with why organisms changed
4. Parents can pass on changes made in their
lifetime to their offspring
5. Organisms change because they want to
survive
6. Organisms cannot become extinct
7. Parents can pass on at least some of their

traits to their offspring
8. Certain traits helped organisms survive
better than organism without those traits
9. Species are still changing today
10. Natural selection
11. Acquired characteristics
12. Species have changed over time

11
General Biology 2
Quarter 3-Week 4
Evidence for Evolution

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
NAME GRADE LEVEL
SECTION DATE

EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
In a population of organisms, there may be a dominant trait(s); that is, the trait(s) of the
majority. If it happens that a trait of an individual in that population becomes the trait of the
majority, three things can be said: (a) the individual has increased its number to become the
majority in the population, (2) its trait(s) is well suited to the environment, hence making it
adaptable and (3) organic evolution has taken place. In this sense, organic evolution can be said
as a change in the genetic makeup of the population that takes place over time. This change
leaves observable marks which serve as evidence for it. The five lines of evidence that support
evolution include: fossil record, biogeography, comparative anatomy, comparative
embryology and molecular biology (N.A. Campbell 2007).
Fossil Record
Fossils are the petrified remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms. They
vary in age (spanning from 10, 000 to billions of years ago) and size (from microscopic to
gigantic organisms) (N. Society 2013). All fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and the
layer (strata) of rock where they are located is known as fossil record (Boundless 2018). This
record is important for: (1) it showed the relationship between fossils and their placement, (2)
it became the basis for knowing the history of the earth (geologic timescale) and (3) it served
as a source of data for proving the truthfulness of evolution (Society 2013, Boundless 2018 and
Britannica 2021). The fossil record, which has been substantiated by paleontology after
Charles Darwin, provides consistent evidence that organisms in the past are not the same as
those of today. Their body parts are not the same but bear striking similarities. This means three
things: (1) organisms changed or have modified their form or structure through time, (2) their
similarities point to a common origin, lineage, or ancestry and (3) change is progressive and
does not undergo reversals. For
instance, “amphibians will not
appear before fishes, nor
mammals before reptiles, and no
complex life will occur in the
geological record before the
oldest eucaryotic cells.” These
concepts embody what Darwin
proposed as descent with
modification (Boundless 2018)
and (N. (US) 1999). The list in
figure 1 shows the progression
of life based on the fossil record.
Figure 1. Evolution of life forms

Biogeography
The study of the geographic distribution of organisms is known as biogeography
(Grewal 2021). It explains how the organisms that have scattered over the world have
undergone changes (historical biogeography) or have stayed only in a specific location but have
diversified into different species
(ecological biogeography) (SparkNotes
2021). In both cases, biogeography
explains that organic evolution (change in
the physical traits of organisms) took place
as a way of organism’s adaptation to their
environment (McKay n.d.). For example,
the split of Pangea into two supercontinents
(Laurasia in the north, Gondwana in the
south) have produced corresponding
unique flora and fauna on these continents
(Khan Academy 2021). Similarly, the
different camels in Africa, Asia and South
America are results of adaptation due to
animal migration (Grewal 2021). Such is
https://bit.ly/3excYTT depicted in figure 2.
Figure 2. Adaptation of camels
Comparative Anatomy
The study of the similarities and differences of the structure or parts of animals is called
comparative anatomy (CK-12 Foundation 2016). It is used to explain organic evolution by
(1) establishing relationship between/among animals being compared on the bases of their
shared features (Khan Academy 2021) and (2) tracing their common ancestry (SparkNotes
2021) despite the changes they have undergone through adaptation because of their varied
environments and lifestyle (National Academy of Sciences 1999). Comparative anatomy has
led to the classification of structures into (1) homologous, (2) analogous and vestigial—all
proofs of organic evolution. Homologous structures are body parts that may seem different
on the outside but can be proved the same by: similarity of anatomical construction, similar
topographical relations to the animal body, similar embryonic development and similar
physiological functions (Hyman1965). A classic example of this is the mouthparts of
grasshoppers, honeybees, butterflies and female mosquitoes, depicted in the table below.
Animal Mouth Parts Function/s Figure 3 shows two things
about the mouth parts of the
given insects: (1) they vary
in sizes—some are enlarged,
reduced or absent and (2)
they have been modified in
biting and appearance. The New World
grasshopper Encyclopedia (2020) accounts
chewing
this modification as a
necessary way for insects to
exploit a variety of food.
These differences among
organisms of common
ancestry
Animal Mouth Parts Function/s ancestry is called radiative
evolution. In other words,
they have comparable parts
because they share a
common ancestry but have
ticking and been modified in appearance
honeybee because of their adaptation to
biting
differences in environmental
conditions. Other than the
form, it is also noticeable
that the functions of these
parts have become varied.
Unique to the function of a
grasshopper’s mouth parts is
chewing, whereas honeybees
butterfly sucking have developed them for
ticking. Both insects,
however, utilize their mouth
for biting. In likelihood,
mosquitoes have evolved to
use their mouth for piercing
but share, with butterflies,
the same function of using
female piercing and their mouth for sucking.
mosquito sucking
Indeed, homologous structures
are comparable in form but
may or may not have the
same function.
Legend: The basic mouth parts of insects include: a, antennae; c, compound eye; lb, labrium
(upper lip); lr, labrum; md, mandibles; mx, maxillae.
Figure 3. Mouth parts homologous in insects
Source: https://bit.ly/3lfj2Sd
The opposite can be said of analogous
structures—parts with seemingly comparable
form (on the outside) because they evolved to
perform the same function and not because
they were inherited from a common ancestor
(CK-12 Foundation 2016). Figure 4 shows the
apparent likeness in the wings of birds and bats.
These organisms which have no common
lineage have developed seemingly comparable
wings because they have responded to similar
environmental conditions. Such process of
forming analogous parts is called convergent Figure 4. Bird wing vs. Bat wing
evolution (Slizewska 2021).
Source: https://bit.ly/30I6TvS
Vestigial structures
These are hereditary parts that no longer seem to be useful in the current structure of an
organism but may have served some important function to the organism in the past (Scoville
2020). There are two main reasons why structures become unnecessary: (1) mutation in the
genome responsible for the formation of the part and (2) the structure is not needed in adapting
to the environment (BD Editors 2017). When structures become less and less useful, they
become degenerate, atrophied or imperfect in form (Miller 2005). Even while they are no
longer essential, they are important in
establishing tracing the organism’s possible
ancestor (Slizewska 2021). Our wisdom teeth
(see Figure 5) are concrete example of human
vestigial structures. In the present time, we
cannot use them because they are beyond the
limits of our jaw. They are now just reminders
of our ancestors whose jaws were bigger and
resorted in using them because they are the last
to fall off, especially at a time when toothbrush
was not in use (Miller 2005).
Figure 5. Wisdom teeth
Source: https://bit.ly/3tmhAjI
Comparative Embryology
The study of the development of vertebrate embryos from different species and the
inter-relatedness of these species based on their embryonic similarities is called comparative
embryology (Sharma 2019). It is supported by developmental biology which is the study of
growth and development of organism (Gilbert 2000). It is important in proving evolution since
the observable similarities in the vertebrates before birth or hatching provide evidence for
common ancestry (CK-12 2016).
The image (in figure 6) shows that
similarities or homologies are more
observable in the earlier stages or
that “general features of an embryo
appear before the specialized
features”—referred to as the first
principle of embryology by Karl
Ernst von Baer (Christine n.d.).
Moreover, the similarities in the
embryos will disappear as they
develop. For instance, some will
lose their tail and gills (CK-12
2016). Another observation can be
added, that is, embryos become
more differentiated as they develop.
As von Baer puts it, “the embryos
develop from simple to more
complex structures (Christine n.d.). Figure 6. Embryos compared
Source: https://bit.ly/30LHNMo

Molecular Biology
Molecular biology studies the “composition, structure and interactions of cellular
molecules such as nucleic acids and proteins that carry out the biological processes essential
for the cell’s functions and maintenance (G. Revechon n.d.).” It provides evidence for evolution
in two ways: (1) it established common ancestry in the sense that all organisms are composed
nearly of the same genetic codes [that translates amino acids into proteins] and the same twenty
(20) amino acids (Biology for Majors 2021); (2) it was able to explain the mechanisms of
evolution through the changes in the protein during the process of DNA replication brought
about by mutation, selection or drift (Francisco J. Ayala 1999). For example, human DNA
differs 1.2% from chimpanzees, 1.6% from gorillas, and 6.6% from baboons (CK-12 2016).
From such data, we can infer that the lesser is the difference, the closer they are to being
relatives and nearer to having a common ancestry. Humans and chimpanzees are closest
relatives since they have the least degree of amino acid difference. Baboons would be more
distant relative for it has the greatest degree of amino acid difference when compared to that of
humans. Figure 7 shows these concepts.
Figure 7. Common ancestry

Source: https://bit.ly/3cw3kOQ
LEARNING COMPETENCY WITH CODE
Explain evidence of evolution (e.g., biogeography, fossil record, DNA/protein

sequences, homology and embryology); STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-12.

ACTIVITY 1: COMPARING FOSSIL ANATOMY
DIRECTIONS: Compare the series of skulls and front leg fossils (of organisms believed to
be ancestors of the modern-day horse) on the third and fourth columns and answer the questions
that follow.
HORSE HEAD FOREFOOT

EPOCH
(picture) (fossil) (fossil)
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Sources: https://bit.ly/3bGDnfZ
https://bit.ly/3teEDwN
https://bit.ly/3lcb6B8
1. What general change can be seen in the head of the five organisms?
2. What general change can be seen in the forefoot of the five organisms?
3. How can fossils be an evidence for evolution?
4. Read the research abstract below. After reading, answer the question: “Would you still
agree that organic evolution is gradual?” Explain your answer.
Abstract:
Of all the sources of evidence for evolution by natural selection, perhaps the most
problematic for Darwin was the geological record of organic change. In response to the absence
of species-level transformations in the fossil record, Darwin argued that the fossil record was
too incomplete, too biased, and too poorly known to provide strong evidence against his theory.
Here, this view of the fossil record is evaluated in light of 150 years of subsequent
paleontological research. Although Darwin's assessment of the completeness and resolution of
fossiliferous rocks was in several ways astute, today the fossil record is much better explored,
documented, and understood than it was in 1859. In particular, a reasonably large set of studies
tracing evolutionary trajectories within species can now be brought to bear on Darwin's
expectation of gradual change driven by natural selection. An unusually high-resolution
sequence of stickleback-bearing strata records the transformation of this lineage via natural
selection. This adaptive trajectory is qualitatively consistent with Darwin's prediction, but it
occurred much more rapidly than he would have guessed: almost all of the directional change
was completed within 1,000 generations. In most geological sequences, this change would be
too rapid to resolve. The accumulated fossil record at more typical paleontological scales
(10(4)-10(6) years) reveals evolutionary changes that are rarely directional and net rates of
change that are perhaps surprisingly slow, two findings that are in agreement with the
punctuated-equilibrium model. Finally, Darwin's view of the broader history of life is reviewed
briefly, with a focus on competition-mediated extinction and recent paleontological and
phylogenetic attempts to assess diversity dependence in evolutionary dynamics. (Hunt 2010)

ACTIVITY 2: PREDICTING POSSIBLE ADAPTATIONS
DIRECTIONS: Choose 2 islands from the given and draw the appearance of the rat that have
adapted in these 2 islands. Explain how these adaptations are beneficial to the rat. Note: the
activity was based from: https://bit.ly/3lcb6B8.
Rat 1 Rat 2
Beneficial Adaptations of Rat 1 Beneficial Adaptations of Rat 2

ACTIVITY 3: COMPARING STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
DIRECTIONS: Complete the tables and answer what is asked for. Note: the activity is based
from: https://bit.ly/3lcb6B8.
Table 1: Homologous and Analogous Structures
Animal part Function
human arm picking up, grasping and holding objects
dog’s front foot
bat’s wing
dragonfly’s wing
1. Which of the two (2) animal parts are homologous? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Which of the two (2) animal parts are analogous? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Table 2. Vestigial Structures

Below are some vestigial structures found in humans. For each, hypothesize what its function
may have been.
Human part Function
coccyx (tail bone)
muscles for moving

the ear
appendix

ACTIVITY 4: WE LOOK ALIKE
DIRECTIONS: Based on the background information for learners on comparative biology,
match the picture from the choices with the given organism. Write the CAPITAL letters only
on the 2nd and 3rd columns of the table and answer what is asked for. Note: this activity is based
from: https://bit.ly/3lcb6B8.
Choices:
Set A
SET B
Organism Embryo (Set A) Embryo (Set B)

chicken
rabbit
human
tortoise
salamander
fish
Which set can prove common ancestry? What principle of embryology does it portray? Explain
your answer.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

ACTIVITY 5: WE ARE ALL RELATIVES
DIRECTIONS: Perform what is ask for in the tasks given and answer the questions that
follow. Note: the activity was copied with some modifications from: https://bit.ly/3lcb6B8.
Cytochrome c is a protein found in mitochondria. It is used in the study of evolutionary
relationships because most animals have this protein. Cytochrome c is made of 104 amino acids
joined together.
Below is a list of the amino acids in part of a cytochrome protein molecule for 9 different
animals. Any sequences the same for all animals have been skipped. For each non-human
animal, take a highlighter and mark any amino acids that are different than the human sequence.
100
101
102
103
104
42
43
44
46
47
49
50
53
55
54
56
57
58
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
Human Q A P Y S T A K N K G I I G E D T L M E K A T N E
Chicken Q A E F S T D K N K G I T G E D T L M E D A T S K
Horse Q A P F S T D K N K G I T K E E T L M E K A T N E
Tuna Q A E F S T D K S K G I V N N E T L R E K A T S -
Frog Q A A F S T D K N K G I T G E E T L M E S A C S K
Shark Q Q Q F S T D K S K G I T Q Q E T L R I K T A A S
Turtle Q A E F S T E K N K G I T G E E T L M E D A T S K
Monkey Q A P Y S T A K N K G I T G E D T L M E K A T N E
Rabbit Q A V F S T D K N K G I T G E D T L M E K A T N E
When you finish, record how many differences you found in the next table.
Number of Amino Acid Differences Compared to
ANIMAL
Human Cytochrome C
Chicken
Horse
Tuna
Frog
Shark
Turtle
Monkey
Rabbit
Which animal is the closest relative of humans? Which animal shares the farthest common
ancestor? Explain your answer using the tallied data.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

RUBRIC FOR SCORING
Each correct answer, in the activities 4 and 5 will be scored one (1) point, the rest which are
essay or short answer items will be scored following the rubric below.
Score
Criteria
4 3 2 1
All sentences are Most sentences Most sentences Sentences sound
well constructed are well are well awkward, are
and have varied constructed and constructed, but distractingly
structure and have varied they have a repetitive, or are
length. The structure and similar structure difficult to
author makes no length. The and/or length. understand. The
errors in author makes a The author makes author makes
Structure
grammar, few errors in several errors in numerous errors
mechanics, grammar, grammar, in grammar,
and/or spelling. mechanics, and/or mechanics, and/or mechanics, and/or
spelling, but they spelling that spelling that
do not interfere interfere with interfere with
with understanding. understanding.
understanding.
Content clear and are well clear but are not
supported by well supported by
detailed and detailed
information.
TOTAL SCORE:
Signature
CLOSURE/REFLECTION
4. I learned that
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES
Bastian, Jim. n.d. Rocks and Minerals in our Daily Lives. Springfield, Illinois.
BD Editors. 2017. Biology Dictionary. Accessed March 15, 2021.
https://biologydictionary.net/vestigial-structures/.
—. 2017. Biology Dictionary. Accessed March 15, 2021.
Bell, Terence. 2019. ThoughtCo. June 25. Accessed May 26, 2020.
https://www.thoughtco.com/copper-applications-2340111.
Biology for Majors. 2021. OER Services. Accessed March 16, 2021. https://bit.ly/3qIXXRm.
Boundless. 2018. Biology: Libretexts. August 15. Accessed March 12, 2021. bio.libretexts.org.
British Geological Survey. 2017. Minerals UK. Accessed May 25, 2020.
https://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/mineralsYou/whatAre.html.
Christine. n.d. Evidence for Evolution. Accessed March 15, 2021. https://bit.ly/3rR5Y82.
CK-12. 2016. CK-12. August 17. Accessed March 15, 2021. https://bit.ly/3lj8Dov.
CK-12 Foundation. 2016. CK-12. February 18. Accessed March 14, 2021.
https://bit.ly/3ldkZi5.
Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. 2020. Encyclopedia Britannica. January 16. Accessed
March 14, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/science/comparative-anatomy.
—. 2020. Encyclopedia Britannica. January 16. Accessed March 14, 2021.
Francisco J. Ayala, et.al. 1999. Science and Creationism, 6th edition. National Academy of
Sciences. https://bit.ly/3llbLjH.
G. Revechon, et.al. n.d. Nature Portfolio. Accessed March 16, 2021.
https://go.nature.com/3qTjI0O.
Gilbert, Scott F. 2000. Developmental Biology: 6th Edition. Sunderland MA: Sinauer
Associates. Accessed March 15, 2021. https://bit.ly/3tkVdLx.
Grewal, Suzanne Wakim and Mandeep. 2021. Biology: LibreText. January 4. Accessed March
13, 2021. https://bit.ly/3qOjAQ1.
Hamilton, Calvin and Rosanna. 2008. Science Views.com. Accessed May 26, 2020.
http://scienceviews.com/geology/minerals.html.
Hunt, Gene. 2010. Research Gate. July 10. Accessed March 13, 2021. <
https://bit.ly/30ESKPV.
Khan Academy. 2021. Agmen Foundation. Accessed March 14, 2021. https://bit.ly/3qLlz7Z.
McKay. n.d. Accessed March 13, 2021. https://bit.ly/3lcb6B8.
Miller, Brandon. 2005. Live Science. February 9. Accessed March 15, 2021.
https://bit.ly/3bKO9lE.
Museum of Natural and Cultural History. n.d. "Museum of Natural and Cultural History."
mnch.uoregon.edu. Accessed May 26, 2020. https://mnch.uoregon.edu/rocks-and-
minerals-everyday-uses.
N. (US). 1999. NCBI Resources. Accessed March 23, 2021.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK230201/.
N. Society. 2013. Fossil. Accessed March 12, 2021.
www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/fossil.

11
General Biology 2
Quarter 3-Week 4
Evolutionary Relationships

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
NAME GRADE LEVEL
SECTION DATE

EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS
In the past lesson, we have ventured into the five lines of evidence to support the
truthfulness of evolution: fossil record, biogeography, comparative anatomy, comparative
embryology and molecular biology. This time, the five lines of evidence will be used as bases
to infer evolutionary relationships among organisms. Our quest is basically to answer two
essential questions about evolutionary relationships or phylogeny: (1) Which organisms are
closely related? and (2) What is their common ancestor?
Fossil Record and Comparative Anatomy

Fossil record provides priceless data
on the skeletal morphology of organisms that
no longer exist today but are invaluable in
piecing together relationships among living
organisms that nowadays look quite different
from one another—birds and crocodiles, for
example (Carlson, Volume 9, 1999). Figure 1
depicts two of the evolved openings (fenestra)
of an archosaur skull, behind the eye; hence
are called diapsids. The first large opening is
Figure 1. Archosauria
on the snout in front of the eye (antorbital
Source: https://bit.ly/3cChaAd
fenestra) and the other is at the junction of three
bones in the lower jaw (mandibular fenestra). As to the functions of these openings, there are
just bones of contention ranging from glandular, muscular to pneumatic hypotheses
(Witmer, 1997). Figures 2& 3 show
other openings in the archosaur skull.
Figure 3. Openings in archosaur skull

Source: https://bit.ly/3sJjD1G
Figure 2. Archosaur skull compared
Source: https://bit.ly/31AK2T6

Figures 1, 2 and 3, initially establish the similarity
that exists among archosaur skulls which are also
observable in birds and crocodiles although have become
less prominent in the latter (Hafermann, 2020). The other
typical archosaur characteristic that further proves
similarity with birds and crocodiles is a modified ankle
joint (Smith, 2005). Figure 4 shows the reduced size of
the fifth toe as well as the evolution in the joints of
crocodiles and birds. A common ancestral joint has
variegated based on their function in the prevailing
environmental conditions. The difference is aptly
described as follows (Berkeley University of California, Figure 4. Archosaur ankle joint
n.d.): Source: https://bit.ly/3m6E066
The Pseudosuchia (left picture in figure 4) have what is called a crurotarsal,

or "crocodile-normal" ankle. This is a very flexible arrangement in which
the astragalus (medial proximal ankle bone) bears a peg that fits into a
socket in the calcaneum (lateral proximal ankle bone). Ankle rotation then
occurs between these two bones, permitting both a somewhat erect stance
(like the crocodilian "high walk") where the hindlimb is held closer to the
midline of the body, and a more sprawling stance like that of earlier
tetrapods. The result of this is that the pseudosuchians can move in two
different ways; walking with an erect or sprawling posture. The
Ornithosuchia (right picture in figure 4) have a mesotarsal ankle, which is a
simple hinge joint between the lower leg and astragalus and calcaneum, and
the distal ankle bones. This restricts the posture to a more erect orientation,
so the gait can be called parasagittal — the limbs move parallel to the
vertebral column and are held relatively vertical. Birds and most mammals
have this parasagittal gait; birds inherited it from their dinosaurian
ancestors, while mammals evolved it independently.
From the previous fossil arguments, it can be said that birds and crocodiles are
evolutionary relatives because of their similarities in the skull features and ankle joint.
Moreover, since such similarities can be traced back to archosaurs which existed way back 246
million to 229 million years ago, in the Middle of the Triassic Period, (Editors of Encyclopedia
Britannica, 2017) then the common ancestor between them are the archosaurs.
Fossil record is not only limited to macrofossils; rather, many of them are also
microscopic. The oldest fossils are the stromatolites, discovered in western Australia and said
to be 3.5 billion years old. They are formed by cyanobacteria, sometimes called blue-green
algae or pond scum because they grew in shallow oceans when the earth was still cooling
(National Geographic Society, 2021).
The approach used so far was comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct
species. By so doing, one can infer the lineages of those species (Boundless, 2020). However,
this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones
or teeth. For most organisms with soft tissues and bodies, another approach is deemed
necessary for establishing their evolutionary relationships.

Fossil Record and Molecular Biology
As aforementioned, the main limit of the use of fossil record in establishing
evolutionary relationships and common ancestry rests on the fact that some species do not leave
fossils either because of their soft body composition or the geology of the place where they
lived (University of Pennsylvania, 2011). If they leave any traces, it must be inferred from the
DNA of their descendants or descendants of their relatives. This implies the use of molecular
characters such as: differences in the amino-acid sequence of a protein, differences in the
individual nucleotide sequence of a gene, or differences in the arrangements of genes. Using
this approach require certain assumptions. First, more similarities in the sequence of
nucleotides in the DNA of two compared organisms mean greater chances for common
ancestry and closer relationship (CK-12, 2016). For example, human DNA sequences are 98-
99% the same as those of chimpanzees implying high chances of having a more recent common
ancestor between humans and chimpanzees and a very close relationship between them can be
established. Second, differences in the sequence of nucleotides of the DNA of compared
organisms can be used to estimate their molecular clock—the estimated rate it took the
organisms to diverge from their common ancestor (Ho, 2008). In other words, the fewer the
differences, the less time since the species split from each other and began to evolve into
different species. For instance, birds evolve at an average rate of approximately 1% per 1
million years, meaning that any two bird species are diverging from each other at a rate of 2%
per 1 million year (Schluter, 2008). The rate would be more varied for more divergent species.
This is depicted in the study of Stauffer and company (2001) which yielded the following rates:
5.4 ± 1.1 million years ago (36 nuclear genes) for the human-chimpanzee divergence. Older
splitting events are estimated as 6.4 ± 1.5 million years ago (gorilla, 31 genes), 11.3 ± 1.3
million years ago (orangutan, 33 genes), and 14.9 ± 2.0 million years ago (gibbon, 27 genes)
(R.L. Stauffer, 2001). This is more simply presented in the phylogram below (figure 5).
Humans and chimpanzees started to split or differentiate from a common ancestor 1.1 mya at
a rate of 5.5%. It had the same split with orangutans 1.3 mya at a rate of 11.3% and so on.
.
Figure 5. Phylogram of humans and other primates
LEARNING COMPETENCY WITH CODE
Infer evolutionary relationships among organisms using the evidence of evolution

(STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-13).

ACTIVITY 1: DID WHALES WALK ON LAND?
DIRECTIONS: Analyze the picture and answer the questions that follow.
Source: https://bit.ly/3cBcqec

1. Which living animal is the closest relative of whales?
2. Which extinct animals are believed to be relatives of whales that walked on land?
3. Which extinct animal shows an amphibian—the first transition from land-dwelling to

water-dwelling relatives of whales?
4. Trace the evolutionary relationship between the whale and its relatives by indicating their
similarities:
INDOHYUS because…
WHALES are like
PAKICETUS and AMBULOCETUS because…
KUTCHICETUS because…
RADHOCETUS because…
DARUDON because…
ODONTOCETES and MYSTICETES because…
ODONTOCETES because…
MYSTICETES because…

ACTIVITY 2: OUR CLOSEST RELATIVE
DIRECTIONS: Perform what is ask for in the tasks given and answer the questions that
follow. Note: the activity was copied with some modifications from: https://bit.ly/3wjYRYG.
Hemoglobin subunit alpha 1 is a protein found in mRNA. It is used in the study of evolutionary
relationships because most animals have this protein. It is involved in oxygen transport from
the lung to the various peripheral tissues.
Log on to NCBI website:

(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/guide/dna-rna/)
Below is a list of the scientific names of organisms.

Common name Scientific Name The result would appear multiple, so
Dog Canis lupus choose the hemoglobin alpha which looks
Tiger Panthera tigris like:
Mouse Mus musculus
Hamster Cricetulus griseus
Polar Bear Ursus maritimus
Macaque Macaca mulatta
Rat Rattus norvegicus
Human Homo sapiens
Chicken Gallus gallus
Click on FASTA
Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes
Whale Balaenoptera musculus

Do the same for the other assigned animals. Once done, log in to the website:
(https://bit.ly/31BwiHU).
1. Draw your phylogram based on what you received from your email. Use the box for your
sketch.

2. Which animal is the closest relative of humans? Explain your answer using the phylogram.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Which animal is the farthest relative of humans? Explain your answer using the phylogram.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
RUBRIC FOR SCORING

The different items will be scored following the rubric below.
Score
Criteria
4 3 2 1
All sentences are Most sentences Most sentences Sentences sound
well constructed are well are well awkward, are
and have varied constructed and constructed, but distractingly
structure and have varied they have a repetitive, or are
length. The structure and similar structure difficult to
author makes no length. The and/or length. understand. The
errors in author makes a The author makes author makes
Structure grammar, few errors in several errors in numerous errors
mechanics, grammar, grammar, in grammar,
and/or spelling. mechanics, and/or mechanics, and/or mechanics, and/or
spelling, but they spelling that spelling that
do not interfere interfere with interfere with
with understanding. understanding.
understanding.
Content clear and are well clear but are not
supported by well supported by
detailed and detailed
information.
TOTAL SCORE:
Signature

CLOSURE/REFLECTION
7. I learned that
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES
Bastian, J. (n.d.). Rocks and Minerals in our Daily Lives. Springfield, Illinois.
BD Editors. (2017). Biology Dictionary. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from
https://biologydictionary.net/vestigial-structures/
BD Editors. (2017). Biology Dictionary. Retrieved March 15, 2021
Bell, T. (2019, June 25). ThoughtCo. Retrieved May 26, 2020, from
https://www.thoughtco.com/copper-applications-2340111
Berkeley University of California. (n.d.). UC Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved March 31, 2021,
from https://bit.ly/3sQqN4h
Biology for Majors. (2021). OER Services. Retrieved March 16, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3qIXXRm
Boundless. (2018, August 15). Biology: Libretexts. Retrieved March 12, 2021, from bio.libretexts.org
Boundless. (2020, August 15). Biology LibreText. Retrieved March 31, 2021, from
https://bit.ly/2ONhYcp
British Geological Survey. (2017). Minerals UK. Retrieved May 25, 2020, from
https://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/mineralsYou/whatAre.html
Carlson, S. J. (Volume 9, 1999). Evolution: Investigating the Evidence. Paleontological Society, 1-5.
Retrieved March 31, 2021, from https://bit.ly/2Pp2jQR
Christine. (n.d.). Evidence for Evolution. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3rR5Y82
CK-12. (2016, August 17). CK-12. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3lj8Dov
CK-12 Foundation. (2016, February 18). CK-12. Retrieved March 14, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3ldkZi5
Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (2017, February 15). Archosaur. Retrieved March 31, 2021, from
https://bit.ly/3fuKbj5
Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (2020, January 16). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved March 14,
2021, from https://www.britannica.com/science/comparative-anatomy
Editors, B. (2017, April 28). Biology Dictionary. Retrieved March 16, 2021, from
https://bit.ly/3s3XoCU
Francisco J. Ayala, e. (1999). Science and Creationism, 6th edition. National Academy of Sciences.
Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3llbLjH

G. Revechon, e. (n.d.). Nature Portfolio. Retrieved March 16, 2021, from
https://go.nature.com/3qTjI0O
Gilbert, S. F. (2000). Developmental Biology: 6th Edition. Sunderland MA: Sinauer Associates.
Retrieved March 15, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3tkVdLx
Grewal, S. W. (2021, January 4). Biology: LibreText. Retrieved March 13, 2021, from
https://bit.ly/3qOjAQ1
Hafermann, D. (2020, May 4). Everythingwhat. Retrieved March 31, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3wenkyp
Hamilton, C. a. (2008). Science Views.com. Retrieved May 26, 2020, from
http://scienceviews.com/geology/minerals.html
Ho, S. (2008). Scitable. Retrieved April 1, 2021, from https://go.nature.com/3maJaOH
Hunt, G. (2010, July 10). Research Gate. Retrieved March 13, 2021, from < https://bit.ly/30ESKPV
Khan Academy. (2021). Agmen Foundation. Retrieved March 14, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3qLlz7Z
McKay. (n.d.). Retrieved March 13, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3lcb6B8
Miller, B. (2005, February 9). Live Science. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3bKO9lE
Museum of Natural and Cultural History. (n.d.). Museum of Natural and Cultural History. Retrieved
May 26, 2020, from mnch.uoregon.edu: https://mnch.uoregon.edu/rocks-and-minerals-
everyday-uses
N. (US). (1999). NCBI Resources. Retrieved March 23, 2021, from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK230201/
N. Society. (2013). Fossil. Retrieved March 12, 2021, from
www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/fossil
N.A. Campbell, J. R. (2007). Essential Biology with Physiology, 2nd edition. San Francisco, CA:
Pearson, Benjamin Cummings.
National Academy of Sciences. (1999). Science and Creationism: A View from the National Acadermy
of Sciences, Second Edition. Washington DC: The National Academic Press. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.17226/6024.
National Geographic Society. (2021). National Geographic. Retrieved March 31, 2021, from
https://bit.ly/3tvT1B1
National Mining Association (NMA). (2012, October 2). 40 Common Minerals and their Uses.
Washington DC.
Oxford University of Natural History. (2006). The Learning Zone. Retrieved May 27, 2020, from
www.oum.ox.ac.uk: https://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/thezone/minerals/define/index.htm
R.L. Stauffer, A. W.-W. (2001). Human and Ape Molecular Clocks and COnstraints on Paleontological
Hypotheses. Journal of Heredity, 469-474.
Radford, B. (2013, February 21). Live Science. Retrieved May 26, 2020, from
https://www.livescience.com/32509-why-is-quartz-used-in-watches.html
Schluter, J. W. (2008). Calibrating the avian molecular clock. Australia: Nature Education. Retrieved
April 1, 2021, from https://go.nature.com/3maJaOH
Scoville, H. (2020, January 4). ThoughtCo. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3cArKqt
Sharma, Y. (2019, December 27). Microbe Notes. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3lkalq0
Slizewska, G. (2021). Expii. Retrieved March 14, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3qNEzTf
Smith, D. (2005, October 26). Archosaur. Retrieved March 31, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3rHtHXj
SparkNotes. (2021). Retrieved March 13, 2021, from https://bit.ly/30ESJLJ
University of Pennsylvania. (2011, September 20). Science Daily. Retrieved April 1, 2021, from
https://bit.ly/3ugoNT7
Wikimedia. (2020, November 2). New World Ecyclopedia. Retrieved March 14, 2021, from
https://bit.ly/3vmDsNS
Witmer, L. M. (1997). The Evolution of the Antorbital Cavity of Archosaurs: A study in Soft-Tissue
Reconstruction in the Fossil Record with An ANlysis of the Function Pneumaticity. Journal of
Vertebrate Paleontology, 1-57. Retrieved March 31, 2021, from https://bit.ly/3m7KSAb
Workman, D. (2019, April 1). World's Top Exports. Retrieved May 27, 2020, from
www.worldstopexports.com: http://www.worldstopexports.com/philippines-top-10-imports/

11
General Biology 2
Quarter 3-Week 5
Structural and Developmental
Characteristics and
Relatedness of DNA Sequence
in Classifying Living Things

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
NAME GRADE LEVEL
SECTION DATE

Structural and Developmental Characteristics and Relatedness of
DNA Sequence in Classifying Living Things
Biologists classify organisms into different categories according to similarities and

differences of organisms. It is presumed that the high degree of similarities indicates a closer
biological relationship.
Comparative anatomy investigates the homologies, or inherited similarities among
organisms in bone structure and in other parts of the body. The similarities are less between
mammals and birds, and still less between mammals and fishes. The anatomical features of
different organisms have a similar appearance or function because they were inherited from a
common ancestor. The more homologies the two organisms possess, the more they are closely
related. The forelimbs of humans, whales, dogs, and bats are homologous. The skeletons of
these limbs are all constructed of bones arranged according to the same pattern because they
derive from a common ancestor with similarly arranged forelimbs. In Parallelism, or parallel
evolution, it follows a common pathway in two or more unrelated or distantly related organisms
because of similar environmental pressures. The organisms have similar morphological
characteristics even though they did not have a common ancestor. There are many examples of
parallel evolution in plants, including distantly related plant families that have evolved from
an autotrophic to a parasitic mode of existence. An example of parallel evolution in plants is
the appearance of xylem vessels in the vascular tissues of very distantly related plants, such
as Ephedra in the gymnospermous division Gnetophyta and flowering plants in the
angiospermous division Anthophyta (Magnoliophyta). A notable example of parallel evolution
in animal is the similarity of the marsupial mammals of Australia to the placental mammals
elsewhere.
On the other hand, convergence, or convergent evolution, is the development of a
similar anatomical feature in distinct species lines after divergence from a common ancestor.
The shark (a fish) and the dolphin (a mammal) are much alike in external morphology, their
similarities are due to convergence and evolved independently as adaptations to aquatic life.
While analogies are anatomical features that have the same form or function in different species
that have no known common ancestor. The wings of a bird and of an insect are analogous
organs.
Comparisons of DNA sequences are now becoming more commonly used as an aid in
distinguishing species. If two animals share a many DNA sequences, it is likely that they are
at least closely related. Evolutionary theory states that inherited characters like DNA sequence
change over time. Organisms that are closely related will have more similar DNA sequences
than distantly related organisms, and the longer two species have been separated from a
common ancestor, the more their DNA sequences will differ. For example, human DNA

sequences are about 97% identical to chimp DNA sequences, while human DNA sequences
are about 85% identical to mouse DNA sequences. For example, humans and chimps share
more physical characteristics (e.g. bipedalism, opposable thumbs).
https://www.britannica.com/animal/primate-mammal
Scientists can estimate these relationships by studying the organisms’ DNA sequences.
As the organisms evolve and diverge, their DNA sequences accumulate mutations. Scientists
compare these mutations using sequence alignments to reconstruct evolutionary history. A
Phylogenetic trees are diagrams of evolutionary relationships among organisms. It is a diagram
that depicts the lines of evolutionary descent of different species, organisms, or genes from a
common ancestor. It is useful in organizing knowledge of biological diversity, for structuring
classifications, and for providing insight into events that occurred during evolution.
Phylogenetic trees show evolutionary relationships between species or other groups of organisms. A sample monophyletic
group of monkeys, apes, humans, and their last common ancestor (red dot) is highlighted in yellow. A second potential
monophyletic group could include those in yellow as well as the tarsiers and the last common ancestor of this larger group
(blue dot). https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/media_colorbox/2967/media_original/en

Learning competency
Explain how the structural and developmental characteristics and relatedness of DNA
sequences are used in classifying living things (STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-14).
DIRECTIONS/INSTRUCTONS
3. There are five (5) learning activities in this material. Strictly follow what is/are asked
Activity 1. Tell whether the following structural and developmental characteristics are
homologous, parallelism, convergence, or analogous.
___________1. forelimb of a bear, the wing of a bird, and human arm
___________2. South American and African monkeys
___________3. North American wolves and Tasmanian wolves (thylacines)
___________4. wings of a bird and a butterfly
___________5. forelimb of a horse, the wing of a bird
___________6. Penguins and fish both have fins.
___________7. complex eyes of vertebrates, cephalopods (squid and octopus)
___________8. shells of brachiopods and bivalve mollusks
___________9. a true anteater (genus Myrmecophaga) and a marsupial anteater, or numbat
(Myrmecobius)
___________10. tapirs and pigs
Activity 2. Comparing structure and DNA sequence. Examine a small fragment of one gene in
three species of fruit flies (Drosophila yakuba, Drosophila simulans, and Drosophila
sechellia) – all known to be distinct fly species and answer the questions below.
https://biologos.org/articles/series/evolution-basics/genomes-as-ancient-texts
Questions:
1. Do you think these organisms belong to the same species? Why or why not?
_______________________________________

2. Comparing the taxonomic data of the species, what can you observe?
Scientific Classification Scientific Classification Scientific Classification

Kingdom: Animalia Kingdom: Animalia Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda Phylum: Arthropoda Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta Class: Insecta Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera Order: Diptera Order: Diptera
Genus: Drosphila Genus: Drosphila Genus: Drosphila
Subgenus: Sophophora Subgenus: Sophophora Subgenus: Sophophora
Species group: Melanogaster Species group: Species group:
Species complex: Melanogaster Melanogaster
simulans complex Species: D. sechellia Species: D. yakuba
Species: D. simulans
Binomial Name Binomial Name
Binomial Name Drosophila sechellia Drosophila yakuba
Drosophila simulans Tsacas and Baechli, 1981 Burla, 1954
Sturtevant, 1919
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
Answer:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Activity 3. Constructing a phylogenetic tree. Find the relatedness of the DNA sequences in the
table and answer the following questions below.
https://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/how-build-phylogenetic-tree
Questions
1. Compare the sequences to see how similar they are to each other and differ in the
number of nucleotides.
Sequence #1 vs Sequence 2
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. Using the example, sequences 1 and 2 differ by 1 nucleotide, out of the 20 totals. So,
the difference between Sequence 1 and 2 is: 1/20= 0.05. By computing the number of
nucleotide difference, the possible outcome is given on the table. True or False?
__________________
1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
2 0.1 0.2 0.25
3 0.25 0.3
4 0.25
3. Now, refer to the data on the table above, arrange the sequence in increasing difference
from sequence 1 to 5.
____ __ __ __ ___
Activity 4. Species of potato moth have been identified with the DNA sequence. Study the
table and diagram below and answer the questions given.
https://bioone.org/journals/florida-entomologist/volume-103/issue-3/024.103.0304/Assessing-Genetic-Diversity-of-Three-Species-of-
Potato-Tuber-Moths/10.1653/024.103.0304.full
https://www.slideshare.net/rtbcgiar/development-of-attractandkill-for-the-benefit-of-small-scale-potato-farmer

Questions:
1. Why do scientists care about the classification of an organism would belong to?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. If you will classify the organisms, what are the characteristics will you consider?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Do you think organisms can be possibly classify into two categories?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Consider the DNA sequence, will it be easy to classify organism?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Activity 5. Classifying Plant Species. DNA sequence are widely used to study and
reconstruct the evolutionary history of plants. The table below are sample sequences from a
chloroplast gene that has been used to reconstruct the relationships of representative plant
species which are collected from many tens of thousands of nucleotides.
https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-answers/addition-morphological-characters-land-plants-shown-phylogeny-
figure-271-dna-sequences-wid-q48
Questions:
1. What did you observe in the DNA sequence are they similar? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. If you were to group the given plant species, do they have same division?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. From the example of plant species on the table given,classify two representative plants
using Binomial Nomenclature.
REFLECTION
1. I have learned that
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES
David Baum, PhD. 2008. Reading a Phylogenetic Tree: The Meaning of Monophyletic Groups.
Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/reading-a-phylogenetic-
tree-the-meaning-of-41956/
Dennis O’Neil. (1998 2012). Principle of Classification Retrieved from
https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/animal/animal_2.htm
Zhen Fu, Carmen I. et al. (2020). Assessing Genetic Diversity of Three Species of Potato
Tuber Moths (Gelechiidae, Lepidoptera) in the Ecuadorian Highlands. Retrieved
from https://bioone.org/journals/florida-entomologist/volume-103/issue-
Analogous structures. Retrieved from https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/analogous-
structures
Convergent and parallel evolution. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.britannica.com/science/evolution-scientific-theory/Convergent-
and-parallel-evolution
11
General Biology 2
Quarter 3-Week 5-6
Distinctive Characteristics of a
Specific Taxon
Relative to other Taxa

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
NAME GRADE LEVEL
SECTION DATE

Distinctive Characteristics of a Specific Taxon
Relative to other Taxa
Classification of organisms on the basis of certain characters like mode of nutrition,

thallus organization, cell structure, phylogenetic relationships and reproduction simplifies the
study of a wide variety of organisms.
R.H. Whittaker proposed the five-kingdom classification in 1969. This classification
includes five kingdoms Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
1. Kingdom Monera
Kingdom Monera is considered as the most primitive group of organisms and monerans
are most abundant of all. It generally comprises unicellular organisms with a prokaryotic cell
organization and lack of well-defined cell structures including the nucleus and other cell
organelles. Cyanobacteria, archaebacteria, mycoplasma, and bacteria are a few members of this
kingdom.
The general features of Monerans are:
1. Monerans are present in both aerobic and anaerobic environment.

2. Some have rigid cell walls, while some do not.
3. The membrane-bound nucleus is absent in monerans.
4. Habitat – Monerans are found everywhere in hot or thermal springs, in the deep ocean
floor, under ice, in deserts and also inside the body of plants and animals.
5. They can be autotrophic, they can synthesize food on their own while some others have
a heterotrophic, saprophytic, parasitic, symbiotic, commensalistic and mutualistic as
modes of nutrition.
6. Locomotion is with the help of flagella.
7. Circulation is through diffusion.
8. Respiration in these organisms vary, few are obligate aerobes, while some are obligate
anaerobes and facultative anaerobes.
9. Reproduction is mostly asexual, and few also reproduce by sexual reproduction. Sexual
reproduction is by conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Asexual reproduction
is by binary fission.

2. Kingdom Protista
Protists are all unicellular eukaryotic organisms. This kingdom forms a link between
other kingdoms of fungi, plants, and animals. Many species of this kingdom are the primary
producers in the aquatic ecosystem, and some are responsible for serious human diseases like
malaria.
General features of Kingdom Protista are as follows:
1. They are simple, unicellular, eukaryotic organisms.

2. Most of the protists live in water, some in moist soil or even the body of human and
plants.
3. These organisms have a membrane-bound nucleus, endomembrane systems,
mitochondria for cellular respiration and some have chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
4. Nuclei contain multiple DNA strands, and the number of nucleotides is significantly
less.
5. Respiration – cellular respiration is the primarily aerobic process, but some living in
the moist soil underneath ponds or in digestive tracts of animals are facultative
anaerobes.
6. Locomotion is often by flagella or cilia.
7. Nutrition- include both heterotrophic and autotrophic.
8. Reproduction – Some reproduce sexually and others asexually.
9. Some protists are pathogens of both plants and animals. Example: Plasmodium
falciparum causes malaria in humans.
3. Kingdom Fungi
Fungi are a group of organisms that are found everywhere from air, water, land to the soil.
They are also found in plants and animals. Some fungi are microscopic and appear like plants,
they are in fact closely related to animals.
Fungi have great economic importance and show a great diversity in morphology and
habitat. Kingdom fungi include mushrooms, smuts, yeasts, puffballs, rusts, smuts, truffles,
morels, and molds.
General features of fungi are as follows:
1. Fungi are eukaryotic, non-vascular and non-motile organisms.

2. The growth rate of fungi is slower than that of bacteria.
3. Fungi grow best in an acidic environment.
4. The Kingdom Fungi consist of both unicellular (e.g., yeast, molds) and multicellular
(e.g., mushrooms) organisms.
5. Like plant cells, fungi have cell walls made up of complex sugar molecules called
chitin. But unlike plants, they do not undergo photosynthesis.
6. The cell wall is composed of chitin. The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular
or composed of microscopic threads called hyphae.
7. They have a heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Few species are saprophytes i.e., they feed
on dead and decaying organic matters.
8. Some fungi are parasitic while some are symbionts. They can live in a symbiotic
relationship with algae, like blue-green algae. These are called lichens.

9. Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means. Asexual reproduction takes
place by means of spores and sexual reproduction takes place by means of gametic
copulation, somatic copulation, and Spermatization.
4. Plant Kingdom
Plants are autotrophs, they produce their own food. They are primary producers in many
ecosystems, giving them a vital role in the survival of many other organisms. The
production of oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis support life processes of other
organisms.
1. Plants are multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cells.
2. Plant cells are distinguished by their cell walls containing cellulose, chloroplasts that
perform photosynthesis, and a large central vacuole that holds water and keeps the plant
turgid.
3. Many plants have vascular tissue, such as xylem and phloem that carries water and
nutrients throughout the plant.
4. Plants reproduce both sexually and asexually and have what is known as alternation of
generations.
5. Animal Kingdom
The animal kingdom is the largest kingdom amongst the five kingdoms consisting of
all animals. Animals are multicellular eukaryotes and heterotrophic. Besides these similarities,
they are also related to their cell arrangement, body symmetry, and level of organization,
coelom, and presence/absence of notochord.
General features of fungi are as follows:
1. Higher levels of organization which allow animals to perform many complex
functions.
2. Animals can detect environmental stimuli, such as light, sound, and touch.
Stimuli are detected by sensory nerve cells. The information is transmitted and
processed by the nervous system. The nervous system, in turn, may direct the
body to respond.
3. All animals can move. Muscles and nerves work together to allow movement.
Being able to move lets animals actively search for food and mates. It also helps
them escape from predators.
4. Animals have internal digestion of food. Animals consume other organisms and
may use special tissues and organs to digest them.
LEARNING COMPETENCY
Identify the unique/distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to other taxa
(STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-15).

DIRECTIONS/INSTRUCTONS
3. There are three (3) learning activities in this material. Strictly follow what is/are asked
Activity 1. Unlocking Similarities and Differences.

Fill in the table below by describing the characteristics of kingdoms Monera, Protista,
and Fungi in different categories.
Categories MONERA PROTISTA FUNGI
Types of cell
Presence of
organelles
Cellular organization
Presence of cell wall
Presence of nucleus
Mode of nutrition
Locomotory
organelles
Mode of
Reproduction
Location
Example of species

Activity 2. All about Plants.
Study the figure and answer the questions given below.
Figure 1. Phylogenetic plant tree showing the major clades and traditional
groups. Monophyletic groups are in black and paraphyletics in blue according
to symbiogenetic origin of plant cells and phylogeny of algae, bryophytes, vascular plants,
and seed plants. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants)
Questions:
1. Compare vascular and nonvascular plants.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. List at least five characteristics of plants.

a. ___________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________
d. ___________________________________________
e. ___________________________________________
3. What adaptations of plants make life possible on land? Water?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. Compare the characteristics of Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. Give three reasons why seed plants are important.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Activity 3. Comparing animals.
Study the figure and answer the questions given below.
Figure 2. Animal phylogeny. Phylogenetic diagram showing the position of the phylum Echinodermata
(shown in red; e.g. starfish) in the deuterostomian branch of the animal kingdom. The Bilateria comprise
two super-phyla-the deuterostomes and the protostomes. The deuterostomes comprise the chordates
(vertebrates, urochordates and cephalochordates) and the ambulacrarians (hemichordates and
echinoderms). The protostomes comprise the lophotrochozoans (e.g. molluscs and annelids) and the
ecdysozoans (e.g. arthropods and nematodes). The Cnidaria (e.g. sea anemones) are basal to the
Bilateria. Images of representative animals from each phylum were obtained from http://phylopic.org
or were created by the authors or by M. Zandawala (Stockholm
University). (https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Animal-phylogeny-Phylogenetic-diagram-showing-the-
position-of-the-phylum-Echinodermata_fig1_294103554)

Questions:
1. List at least five characteristics of animals.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. How are invertebrates different from vertebrates?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. What is more complex, cnidarian or nematode?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. What adaptations of animals make life possible on land? Water?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Activity 4. Comparing Characteristics of the five kingdoms.
Fill in the table by describing the characteristics of the organisms.
Characteristics MONERA PROTIST FUNGI PLANT ANIMAL

Types of cell
One-celled or
many-celled
Movement
Mode of
Nutrition
Example

REFLECTION
1. I have learned that

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES:
Daniel, L. Ortleb, EP, & Biggs, A. 1994. Life Science. Glencoe/Mc Graw- Hill. pp. 200-2011,
p 230, pp 252-283.
Animal Characteristics. March 5, 2021. Retrieved from
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A
_Introductory_Biology_(CK-
12)/10%3A_Animals/10.01%3A_Animal_Characteristics
Explore the Features of Kingdom Monera, Protista and Fungi. Retrieved from
https://byjus.com/biology/kingdom-monera-protista-fungi/
Plant. April 28, 2017. Retrieved from https://biologydictionary.net/plant
Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always

115
11
General Biology 2
Quarter 3-Week 6
Species Diversity and Cladistics

118
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
NAME GRADE LEVEL
SECTION DATE

Species Diversity and Cladistics
Welcome back! Today you will be discovering the living species at hand. Brace
yourself as you examine further the countless organisms that occupy our biosphere.
Have you ever wondered how you knew that both Aspin (Asong Pinoy) and Labrador
are dogs even though they are different in breeds? What makes a seashore and a bangus to be
both classified as fishes even if they live in two different types of habitat? Having very diverse
forms of life on earth, classifying is undoubtedly a meticulous task. Naming, identifying,
describing and classifying biological specimens are the many things a young biologist must
do. Remember that because of evolutionary processes that occur on earth, there will always be
a great chance that new species will arise and are waiting to be discovered.
Since new data are constantly coming and help many biologists understand certain
evolutionary relationships, classifications are constant updated and changed. The goal of
modern systematics is to construct a monophyletic taxon, which would reflect true
evolutionary relationships by including all descendants of a single common ancestor. Various
lines of evidence can be used to determine the degree of common ancestry between two taxa,
including comparison of morphology, nucleic acid sequence, protein sequence, and embryo
development (Krempels and Lee, 2003) As new technologies arise, your ability to study
evolutionary relationships evolves as well.
LEARNING COMPETENCY
Describe species diversity and cladistics, including the types of evidence and
procedures that can be used to establish evolutionary relationships (STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-16).

119
1. Read every part of the material comprehensively and answer the guide questions based on
your own understanding.
2. Use the suggested references or other related references to answer the activities.
3. You may also improvise materials if the tools given are not available in your area.
4. If you have good internet connection, you may visit the recommended websites for
enhancement and supplementary purposes.
Read
There are several methods that have been used to work out the evolutionary
relationships of organisms. The most successful of these is the so-called "cladistic" or
"phylogenetic" method. This method is based on an older concept, that of "homologous
characters".
To begin, we supply some definitions:
Character: A feature or thing we can examine or label. It is important that the feature be
heritable.
Homologous Character: Character which is shared by taxa by descent.
Analogous Character: Shared resemblance between characters by other means than descent,
such as adaptation. This is often called a homoplastic character.
Homologous characters are the fundamental basis of cladistics. In cladistics we look

for characters that we can hypothesis are shared because they were inherited from a common
ancestor. The premise is that a species develops a new character and passes that character down
to its daughter species. Each of the daughter species then can add new characters, but each adds
a different one, since they are now separate species and on their own evolutionary trajectory.
This continues to happen through time as more and more species split off.
In cladistics we assume that we wish to focus on genealogical relationships and that our
classifications of taxa should depend on our analysis of these genealogical relationships. Of
prime importance is the historical sequence in which the taxa descended from a common
ancestor. Hence, our cladistic hypotheses are based on our estimate of the historical sequence
of the acquisition of novel characters.
The method in cladistics is to build and test relationships based on the distribution of
the states of characters and to build groups by the recognition of synapomorphies.
Cladograms are diagrams which depict the relationships between different groups of
taxa called “clades”. By depicting these relationships, cladograms reconstruct the evolutionary
history (phylogeny) of the taxa. Cladograms can also be called “phylogenies” or “trees”.
Cladograms are constructed by grouping organisms together based on their shared derived
characteristics.

120
STEPS:
1. First, you need to make a "characteristics chart" the helps you analyze which
characteristics each species has. Fill in a "x" for yes it has the trait and "o" for "no" for
each of the organisms below.
Then you count how many times you wrote yes for each characteristic. Those
characteristics with a large number of "yeses" are more ancestral characteristics because
they are shared by many. Those traits with fewer yeses, are shared derived characters, or
derived characters and have evolved later.
TAXA
Characters Shark Bullfrog Kangaroo Human
Vertebrae X X X X
Two pairs of 0 X X X
limbs
Mammary 0 0 X X
glands
Placenta 0 0 0 X
Total YES 1 2 3 4
2. Draw a Venn diagram. Start with the character that is shared by all the taxa on the outside.
Inside each box, write the taxa that have only that set of characters.
3. Convert the Venn diagram into a cladogram. The traits are written on the main line, and
species go on the branches. On the cladogram below, try to put all the characters and the
species in the correct evolutionary history.

121
ACTIVITY 1: Sharable link
Examine the sample cladogram, each letter on the diagram points to a derived character, or
something different (or newer) than what was seen in previous groups. Match the letter to its
character.
1. ___ Wings
2. ____ 6 Legs
3. ___ Segmented Body
4. ___ Double set of wings
5. __ Cerci (abdomenal appendages)
6. ___ Crushing mouthparts
7. ____ Legs
8. __ Curly Antennae
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
Branch it out
▪ Evaluate cladistic system

Fill out the following character matrix. Mark an “X” if an organism has the trait.
Cells Legs Antenna Wings 2 sets of wings

Worm
Spider
Carpenter Ant
House fly
Dragonfly

122
In the box below, create a cladogram based on your matrix.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
Going Further
▪ Make an analysis on the importance of evidence and procedures that can be used to
establish evolutionary relationships
As we transition in the new normal because of the Pandemic brought by COVID-19 in the
world, Scientists continuously searching for the root of this virus. Based on the a research
entitle “Regaining perspective on SARS-CoV-2 molecular tracing and its implications” found in
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340081340_Regaining_perspective_on_SARS-CoV-
2_molecular_tracing_and_its_implications
1. What do you think are the importance in studying and knowing the evolutionary
relationship on the molecular tracing of COVID-19?
2. What are the implication of the spread of the new strands of the virus in the world?
3. As a STEM student, how will you help in giving awareness on the COVID-19 updates?

123
Cladograms of SARS-CoV-2 subclades. Cladograms were extracted from ML phylogenies rooted by
enforcing a molecular clock. Colored branches represent country of origin of sampled sequences (tip
branches) and ancestral lineages (internal branches). Numbers at nodes indicate ultrafast bootstrap (BB)
support (only >90% values are shown). (a) Cladogram of a monophyletic clade within the SARS-CoV-
2 ML tree inferred from sequences available on March 3rd, 2020 (Supplementary Figure S1). The
subclade including sequences from Italy and Germany, named Subclade A, is highlighted. (b)
Cladogram of subclade A of the SARS-CoV-2 ML tree including additional sequences available on
March 10th, 2020 (Supplementary Figure S2).

124
REFLECTION
Directions: Accomplish this part honestly.
1. I learned that
Rea, D., & Dagamac , A. (2017). General Biology 2 Rex books store, Inc. 927
Sampaloc, Manila.
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad1.html
https://rainbow.ldeo.columbia.edu/courses/v1001/cladistics5.htmlErathsky
(2010). What
http://kamland.stanford.edu/GeoNeutrinos/geoNeutrinos.html
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340081340_Regaining_perspective_o
n_SARS-CoV-2_molecular_tracing_and_its_implications

125

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11

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Compentency Page number

• Discuss the applications of recombinant DNA

• Describe general features of the history of life on

• Explain the mechanisms that produce change in

• Show patterns of descent with modification from

• Trace the development of evolutionary thought

• Explain evidences of evolution (e.g., biogeography,

• Infer evolutionary relationships among organisms

• Explain how the structural and developmental

• Identify the unique/ distinctive characteristics of a

• Describe species diversity and cladistics, including the

NOTE: Practice Personal Hygiene Protocols always

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 1

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

WHAT IS GENETIC ENGINEERING?

Genetic engineering is artificially copying a piece of

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 2

The altered DNA is called recombinant DNA.

GENERAL OUTLINE ON THE FORMATION OF RECOMBINANT DNA

1. Isolation of a specific gene from donor

THIS WORKS THIS WAY!

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 3

• Restriction enzymes cut the DNA

3. Ligation is re-joining cut fragments of DNA and

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 4

SOME METHODS TO SCREEN RECOMBINANT CELLS

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 5

• Bacterial cell reproduces by Binary

Outline the processes involved in genetic engineering (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-6).

HOW TO USE THIS MATERIAL?

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 6

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 7

Outline of recombinant DNA

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 8

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 9

3. I want to learn more on

REFERENCES FOR LEARNERS

J.S. Robert, F. Baylis, (2008) Genetic Engineering. International Encyclopedia of Public

http:/www.britannica.com May 22, 2020

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 10

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 12

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR LEARNERS

LET’S CHECK YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE!

WHAT IS GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM?

WHAT IS RECOMBINANT DNA?

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 13

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 14

Discuss the applications of recombinant DNA (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-7).

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 15

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 16

Of the different applications of recombinant DNA, think of something that you

3. If you will give a name to your GMO, what is it? Why?

Note: Observe Health Hygiene Protocols always 17

TOPIC: “Scientists be allowed to develop organisms that express a novel trait

1. Your activity 3 will be graded based on the given rubric.

RUBRICS FOR SCORING

Activity 2. The following criteria should be followed in the presentation:

Criteria Meaning Very Evident Less Not

Concise The output/ presentation 5 3 2 1