1

What is the relation of Pakistan

Studies with various disciplines of
social sciences?
Pakistan Studies is an
interdisciplinary field of study that
focuses on the history, culture,
politics, and society of Pakistan and
its regions. It also examines the
relations of Pakistan with other
countries and regions, especially in
South Asia, the Muslim world, and
the global community. Pakistan
Studies is closely related to various
social sciences, such as sociology,
 2

anthropology, psychology,
economics, and history, as it draws
on their theories, methods, and
findings to analyze and understand
various aspects of Pakistan’s past and
present.
RELATION OF PAKISTAN
STUDIES WITH VARIOUS
SOCIAL SCIENCES:
Sociology:
Sociology is the scientific study of
human social behavior, groups, and
societies. It aims to explain how
social structures, processes, and
 3

interactions shape human actions and

outcomes. Sociology is relevant to
Pakistan Studies as it helps to explore
the diversity and complexity of
Pakistani society, which is composed
of various ethnic, linguistic, religious,
and regional groups. Sociology also
helps to examine the social issues and
challenges that Pakistan faces, such
as poverty, inequality, violence,
migration, urbanization, education,
health, and gender. Sociology also
helps to understand the role of social
institutions, such as family, religion,
 4

media, and civil society, in Pakistan’s

development and governance.
Anthropology:
Anthropology is the holistic study of
human cultures and societies across
time and space. It aims to understand
how people make sense of their
world and adapt to different
environments. Anthropology is
relevant to Pakistan Studies as it
helps to document and analyze the
rich and varied cultural heritage of
Pakistan, which reflects the
influences of various historical and
 5

geographical factors. Anthropology

also helps to examine the cultural
diversity and change in Pakistan, as
different groups maintain, modify, or
transform their traditions, values, and
identities in response to internal and
external forces. Anthropology also
helps to understand the cultural
aspects of Pakistan’s relations with
other countries and regions,
especially in terms of religion,
language, and art.
Psychology:
 6

Psychology is the scientific study of

human mind and behavior. It aims to
explain how mental processes, such
as cognition, emotion, motivation,
and personality, influence human
actions and outcomes. Psychology is
relevant to Pakistan Studies as it
helps to explore the psychological
characteristics and experiences of
Pakistani people, such as their
attitudes, beliefs, perceptions,
feelings, and aspirations. Psychology
also helps to examine the
psychological factors that affect
 7

Pakistan’s social and political

dynamics, such as leadership, group
behavior, conflict, cooperation,
persuasion, and decision making.
Psychology also helps to understand
the psychological impact of
Pakistan’s history and current
situation, such as trauma, stress,
resilience, and coping.
Economics:
Economics is the social science that
studies how people produce,
distribute, and consume goods and
services. It aims to explain how
 8

economic systems, policies, and

choices affect human welfare and
development. Economics is relevant
to Pakistan Studies as it helps to
explore the economic performance
and potential of Pakistan, which is a
developing country with a large
population, a diverse economy, and a
strategic location. Economics also
helps to examine the economic
challenges and opportunities that
Pakistan faces, such as growth,
poverty, inequality, trade, investment,
inflation, debt, and corruption.
 9

Economics also helps to understand

the economic aspects of Pakistan’s
relations with other countries and
regions, especially in terms of aid,
remittances, and regional integration.
History:
History is the study of the past and its
significance for the present and the
future. It aims to reconstruct and
interpret the events, actors, and
processes that shaped human
societies and civilizations. History is
relevant to Pakistan Studies as it
helps to explore the historical origins
 10

and evolution of Pakistan, which is a

relatively young nation-state that
emerged from the partition of British
India in 1947. History also helps to
examine the historical events and
issues that influenced Pakistan’s
development and identity, such as
independence, democracy, military
rule, nationalism, Islamization, and
nuclearization. History also helps to
understand the historical context and
background of Pakistan’s relations
with other countries and regions,
 11

especially in terms of colonialism,

partition, wars, and alliances.
Pakistan Studies is a
multidisciplinary field of study that
encompasses various social sciences,
such as sociology, anthropology,
psychology, economics, and history.
These social sciences help to provide
a comprehensive and critical
understanding of Pakistan’s society,
culture, politics, and economy, as
well as its relations with other
countries and regions. Pakistan
Studies also contributes to the
 12

advancement of social sciences by

offering new perspectives, insights,
and data on a complex and dynamic
country and region.

What is the relationship of

Pakistan Studies with Geography?
Pakistan Studies is a field of study
that covers the history, culture,
politics, and society of Pakistan and
its regions. Geography is a branch of
science that studies the physical
features of the earth and its
atmosphere, as well as the human
 13

activities that affect them. The

relationship of Pakistan Studies with
geography is that geography helps to
understand the natural and human
factors that have shaped Pakistan’s
past and present, as well as the
challenges and opportunities that it
faces in the future.
Some examples of how geography is
related to Pakistan Studies are:
 Geography helps to explain the
location, size, shape, and boundaries
of Pakistan, as well as its climate,
 14

terrain, natural resources, and

environmental issues.
 Geography helps to explore the
diversity and distribution of
Pakistan’s population, as well as its
ethnic, linguistic, religious, and
cultural groups.
 Geography helps to analyze the
economic development and
potential of Pakistan, as well as its
trade, agriculture, industry, and
infrastructure.
 Geography helps to understand the
regional and international relations
 15

of Pakistan, as well as its role and

position in South Asia, the Muslim
world, and the global community.
Therefore, geography is an important
and integral part of Pakistan Studies,
as it provides a comprehensive and
holistic perspective on the country
and its people.

What is the relationship of

Pakistan Studies with Theology?
Theology is the study of God and
religious beliefs, practices, and
 16

traditions. It aims to understand the

nature, attributes, and will of God, as
well as the sources, methods, and
implications of religious knowledge.
Theology is relevant to Pakistan
Studies as it helps to explore the
religious diversity and dynamics of
Pakistan, which is a predominantly
Muslim country with a significant
Christian minority and other faith
communities. Theology also helps to
examine the theological issues and
challenges that Pakistan faces, such
as religious freedom, tolerance,
 17

dialogue, extremism, and blasphemy.

Theology also helps to understand the
theological aspects of Pakistan’s
relations with other countries and
regions, especially in terms of
interfaith cooperation, peacebuilding,
and human rights.
Some examples of how theology is
related to Pakistan Studies are:
 Theology helps to explain the
historical and contemporary role of
Islam in Pakistan, as well as its
various sects, schools, and
movements. Theology also helps to
 18

explore the Islamic teachings and

values that influence Pakistan’s
culture, politics, and society.
 Theology helps to document and
analyze the Christian presence and
contribution in Pakistan, as well as
its denominations, institutions, and
expressions. Theology also helps to
examine the Christian perspectives
and responses to the issues and
opportunities that Pakistan offers.
 Theology helps to investigate and
appreciate the other religious
traditions and communities in
 19

Pakistan, such as Hinduism,

Sikhism, Buddhism, and
Zoroastrianism. Theology also
helps to understand the
commonalities and differences
among these faiths and their
interactions with Islam and
Christianity.
 Theology helps to develop and
apply a contextual and relevant
theology for Pakistan, which
addresses the needs and aspirations
of the Pakistani people, as well as
the challenges and opportunities
 20

that the Pakistani context presents.

Theology also helps to engage in
constructive and respectful dialogue
and collaboration with other
theological traditions and
disciplines.
Therefore, theology is an important
and integral part of Pakistan Studies,
as it provides a comprehensive and
critical understanding of the religious
dimension of Pakistan and its people.

What is the relation of Pakistan

Studies with political science?
 21

Political science is the study of

political systems, institutions, actors,
and behaviors. It aims to explain how
political power, authority, and
legitimacy are exercised, distributed,
and contested in different contexts
and levels. Political science is related
to Pakistan Studies as it helps to
understand the political history,
culture, and dynamics of Pakistan,
which is a diverse and complex
country with a turbulent and evolving
political landscape. Political science
also helps to examine the political
 22

challenges and opportunities that

Pakistan faces, such as democracy,
governance, security, development,
and foreign policy. Political science
also helps to understand the political
aspects of Pakistan’s relations with
other countries and regions,
especially in South Asia, the Muslim
world, and the international
community.
Some examples of how political
science is related to Pakistan Studies
are:
 23

 Political science helps to explain the

historical and contemporary role of
the state in Pakistan, as well as its
structure, functions, and
performance. Political science also
helps to explore the various political
institutions and actors in Pakistan,
such as the executive, the
legislature, the judiciary, the
bureaucracy, the military, the
political parties, the civil society,
and the media.
 Political science helps to analyze the
political behavior and participation
 24

of the Pakistani people, as well as

their political attitudes, opinions,
and preferences. Political science
also helps to examine the political
culture and identity of Pakistan, as
well as the role of religion,
ethnicity, language, and region in
shaping political orientations and
outcomes.
 Political science helps to investigate
the political issues and problems
that Pakistan faces, such as
constitutional crises, civil-military
relations, electoral reforms,
 25

corruption, human rights, terrorism,

and extremism. Political science
also helps to evaluate the political
solutions and strategies that
Pakistan adopts, such as dialogue,
negotiation, coalition, consensus,
and resistance.
 Political science helps to understand
the political interests and objectives
of Pakistan, as well as its
capabilities and constraints. Political
science also helps to assess the
political risks and opportunities that
Pakistan encounters, such as
 26

regional cooperation, global

integration, strategic competition,
and conflict resolution.
Therefore, political science is an
important and integral part of
Pakistan Studies, as it provides a
comprehensive and critical
understanding of the political
dimension of Pakistan and its people.

Which factors led to the evolution

of Muslim Society in the
Subcontinent?
 27

The evolution of Muslim society in

the Subcontinent was a gradual and
complex process that spanned over
several centuries. It involved various
factors, such as political, religious,
cultural, social, economic, and
intellectual, that influenced and
interacted with each other. The result
was a diverse and dynamic Muslim
community that contributed to the
history and civilization of the
Subcontinent.
Political Factors
 28

One of the main factors that led to the

evolution of Muslim society in the
Subcontinent was the political factor,
which involved the conquests and
rule of various Muslim dynasties and
empires. The first Muslim presence
in the Subcontinent was established
by the Arab invaders in the 8th
century CE, who conquered Sind and
parts of Punjab. However, the
definitive Muslim conquest came
from the post-Abbasid military
regimes in Afghanistan, such as the
Ghaznavids and the Ghurids, who
 29

launched raids and expeditions into

the Subcontinent from the 10th to the
12th century CE. These were
followed by the establishment of the
Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century
CE, which was the first Muslim
empire that ruled over most of the
Subcontinent for over three centuries.
The Delhi Sultanate was succeeded
by the Mughal Empire in the 16th
century CE, which was the largest
and most powerful Muslim empire
that unified and enriched the
Subcontinent for over two centuries.
 30

The political factor had a significant

impact on the evolution of Muslim
society in the Subcontinent, as it
facilitated the spread and
consolidation of Islam, the
development and administration of
Muslim institutions, the patronage
and protection of Muslim culture and
learning, and the interaction and
integration of Muslims with other
communities.
Religious Factors
Another important factor that led to
the evolution of Muslim society in
 31

the Subcontinent was the religious

factor, which involved the
propagation and practice of Islam, the
role of saints and Sufis, and the
diversity and dynamics of Muslim
sects and movements. The Muslim
traders, who came to the
Subcontinent from the first Hijra,
were the first to introduce Islam to
the coastal areas through their fair
dealing and simplicity. The Muslim
conquerors and rulers also played a
role in spreading Islam through their
military and political power, as well
 32

as their policies and incentives.

However, the most influential and
effective agents of Islamization were
the saints and Sufis, who preached
and taught Islam in a peaceful and
tolerant manner, attracting many
converts and followers from different
backgrounds and regions. The saints
and Sufis also established various
orders and networks, such as the
Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadiri, and
Naqshbandi, that fostered spiritual
and social cohesion among the
Muslims. The religious factor also
 33

involved the diversity and dynamics

of Muslim sects and movements,
such as the Sunnis, Shias, Ismailis,
Ahmadiyyas, Deobandis, Barelvis,
and Wahhabis, that reflected the
different interpretations and
expressions of Islam, as well as the
challenges and opportunities that the
Muslims faced in the Subcontinent.
The religious factor had a significant
impact on the evolution of Muslim
society in the Subcontinent, as it
shaped the identity and values of the
Muslims, the code and conduct of
 34

their life, the sources and methods of

their knowledge, and the
commonalities and differences
among them.
Cultural Factors
A third factor that led to the evolution
of Muslim society in the
Subcontinent was the cultural factor,
which involved the development and
exchange of literature, art,
architecture, language, and traditions
among the Muslims and other
communities. The Muslims brought
with them their rich and varied
 35

cultural heritage, which reflected the

influences of various historical and
geographical factors, such as the
Arab, Persian, Turkish, Mongol, and
Afghan cultures. The Muslims also
adopted and adapted to the local
cultures of the Subcontinent, which
were influenced by the Hindu,
Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh traditions.
The result was a synthesis and fusion
of diverse and distinctive cultural
elements, that gave rise to new and
original forms and expressions of
Muslim culture in the Subcontinent.
 36

Some examples of the cultural factor

are the development of literature in
various languages, such as Arabic,
Persian, Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi, and
Bengali, the creation of art and
architecture in various styles, such as
the Indo-Islamic, Mughal, and
Deccani styles, the emergence of
language and literature in various
languages, such as Urdu, Punjabi,
Sindhi, and Bengali, the creation of
art and architecture in various styles,
such as the Indo-Islamic, Mughal,
and Deccani styles, the evolution of
 37

language and dialects, such as Urdu,

Hindustani, and Rekhta, and the
formation and transformation of
traditions and customs, such as the
Islamic festivals, ceremonies, and
rituals.
The cultural factor had a significant
impact on the evolution of Muslim
society in the Subcontinent, as it
enriched and diversified the Muslim
civilization, the expression and
communication of Muslim ideas and
emotions, and the interaction and
 38

integration of Muslims with other

cultures and communities.
Social Factors
A fourth factor that led to the
evolution of Muslim society in the
Subcontinent was the social factor,
which involved the growth and
distribution of the Muslim
population, the formation and
differentiation of the Muslim classes
and groups, and the influence and
impact of the Islamic values and
norms. The Muslim population in the
Subcontinent increased and expanded
 39

over time, due to various reasons,

such as conversions, migrations,
marriages, and births. The Muslim
population also varied and dispersed
across different regions and areas,
depending on the political, economic,
and cultural factors. The Muslim
society in the Subcontinent was
composed of various classes and
groups, such as the nobles, the ulema,
the merchants, the artisans, the
peasants, and the slaves, that had
different roles and statuses in the
society. The Muslim society also
 40

included various ethnic, linguistic,

religious, and regional groups, such
as the Arabs, the Turks, the Afghans,
the Persians, the Mughals, the
Pathans, the Kashmiris, the Sindhis,
the Balochis, the Punjabis, the
Bengalis, and the Deccanis, that had
different origins and identities in the
society. The social factor also
involved the influence and impact of
the Islamic values and norms, such as
equality, peace, justice, and morality,
that attracted and appealed to many
people, especially the oppressed and
 41

marginalized classes, such as the

low-caste Hindus, the Buddhists, and
the tribal people, who found in Islam
a source of dignity and liberation.
The social factor had a significant
impact on the evolution of Muslim
society in the Subcontinent, as it
determined the size and structure of
the Muslim community, the diversity
and complexity of the Muslim
society, and the role and position of
the Muslims in the Subcontinent.
Economic Factors
 42

A fifth factor that led to the evolution

of Muslim society in the
Subcontinent was the economic
factor, which involved the
development and exchange of trade,
industry, and agriculture among the
Muslims and other communities. The
Muslims contributed to the economic
development and potential of the
Subcontinent, by introducing and
improving various sectors and
activities, such as trade, industry, and
agriculture. The Muslims also
engaged in economic exchange and
 43

cooperation with other communities,

both within and outside the
Subcontinent, by establishing and
maintaining various routes and
networks, such as the Silk Road, the
Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea. The
economic factor also involved the
provision and distribution of
economic opportunities and resources
among the Muslims and other
communities, by implementing and
enforcing various policies and
systems, such as the taxation, the
 44

revenue, the currency, and the

division of labor.
The economic factor had a significant
impact on the evolution of Muslim
society in the Subcontinent, as it
influenced the prosperity and welfare
of the Muslims, the production and
consumption of goods and services,
and the relations and interactions of
Muslims with other economies and
societies.
Intellectual Factors
A sixth factor that led to the
evolution of Muslim society in the
 45

Subcontinent was the intellectual

factor, which involved the
advancement and dissemination of
knowledge, learning, and education
among the Muslims and other
communities. The Muslims brought
with them their intellectual heritage,
which reflected the achievements and
contributions of various Muslim
scholars and thinkers in various fields
and disciplines, such as theology,
philosophy, law, science, medicine,
mathematics, astronomy, geography,
history, and literature. The Muslims
 46

also benefited and learned from the

local intellectual traditions of the
Subcontinent, which were influenced
by the Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and
Sikh schools of thought. The result
was a synthesis and fusion of diverse
and distinctive intellectual elements,
that gave rise to new and original
forms and expressions of Muslim
knowledge and learning in the
Subcontinent. Some examples of the
intellectual factor are the patronage
and protection of scholars, poets, and
artists by the Muslim rulers and
 47

nobles, the establishment and

development of various institutions
and centers of learning, such as the
madrasas, the libraries, the
observatories, and the courts, the
translation and transmission of
various texts and works from
different languages and cultures, such
as Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, and
Greek, and the development and
application of various methods and
approaches of inquiry and research,
such as the rational, the empirical,
and the mystical.
 48

The intellectual factor had a

significant impact on the evolution of
Muslim society in the Subcontinent,
as it enhanced and diversified the
Muslim civilization, the expression
and communication of Muslim ideas
and emotions, and the interaction and
integration of Muslims with other
cultures and communities.
The evolution of Muslim society in
the Subcontinent was shaped by
political, religious, cultural, social,
economic, and intellectual factors.
These elements collectively
 49

contributed to the formation of a

diverse and dynamic Muslim society,
leaving a lasting imprint on the
history and civilization of the
Subcontinent.

What role does Pakistan Studies

play in shaping national identity
and fostering a sense of patriotism
among the citizens of Pakistan?
Pakistan Studies is a multi-
disciplinary subject that encompasses
social sciences, culture, economic,
geography, and politics of Pakistan. It
 50

aims at enhancing students’

knowledge about the history, culture,
and geography of Pakistan and to
inculcate patriotism in the hearts of
students so that they may become
good citizens.
Pakistan Studies plays a vital role in
shaping the national identity and
fostering a sense of patriotism among
the citizens of Pakistan by:
 Highlighting the historical and
cultural heritage of Pakistan:
Pakistan Studies traces the origins
and evolution of Pakistan as a
 51

nation-state, from the decline of the

Mughal Empire to the creation of
Pakistan in 1947, and the
subsequent political and social
developments up to 1999. It also
explores the rich and diverse
cultural influences that have shaped
the Pakistani identity, such as the
Indus Valley Civilization, the
Islamic civilization, the British
colonial legacy, and the regional
and ethnic diversity of Pakistan. By
learning about the historical and
cultural heritage of Pakistan,
 52

students can develop a sense of

pride and belonging to their country
and appreciate its achievements and
challenges.
 Promoting the values and ideals of
Pakistan: Pakistan Studies
emphasizes the values and ideals
that underpin the Pakistani identity,
such as democracy, human rights,
rule of law, social justice, tolerance,
and unity. It also examines the role
of Islam as the state religion and the
source of guidance for the Pakistani
people, as well as the respect for
 53

other religions and minorities. By

learning about the values and ideals
of Pakistan, students can develop a
sense of loyalty and commitment to
their country and its constitution,
and uphold its sovereignty and
integrity.
 Enhancing the awareness and
understanding of the geography
and environment of Pakistan:
Pakistan Studies covers the physical
and human geography of Pakistan,
including its location, climate,
natural resources, population,
 54

agriculture, industry, trade, and

urbanization. It also addresses the
environmental and development
issues facing Pakistan, such as
pollution, deforestation, water
scarcity, energy crisis, poverty, and
education. By learning about the
geography and environment of
Pakistan, students can develop a
sense of responsibility and
stewardship for their country and its
natural and human resources, and
contribute to its sustainable
development.
 55

Pakistan Studies is a crucial subject

that helps shape the national identity
and foster a sense of patriotism
among the citizens of Pakistan. By
learning about the history, culture,
geography, environment, and
development of Pakistan, students
can gain a comprehensive and
balanced perspective of their country
and its place in the world. They can
also develop a positive attitude and
behavior towards their country and its
people, and play an active role in its
progress and prosperity.
 56

How does the interdisciplinary

nature of Pakistan Studies
contribute to a holistic
understanding of Pakistan's
development, challenges, and
opportunities in the contemporary
world?
The interdisciplinary nature of
Pakistan Studies contributes to a
holistic understanding of Pakistan’s
development, challenges, and
opportunities in the contemporary
world by:
 57

 Integrating different perspectives

and methods from various
disciplines: Pakistan Studies draws
on the insights and approaches of
social sciences, culture, economic,
geography, and politics to analyze
and interpret the complex and
dynamic realities of Pakistan and its
people. By integrating different
perspectives and methods from
various disciplines, Pakistan Studies
enables students to gain a
comprehensive and balanced view
of Pakistan’s historical, cultural,
 58

social, economic, and political

dimensions, and to appreciate the
diversity and plurality of its society.
 Addressing the current and
emerging issues and challenges
facing Pakistan: Pakistan Studies
engages with the current and
emerging issues and challenges
facing Pakistan, such as security,
terrorism, extremism, democracy,
human rights, governance,
development, environment,
education, health, and gender. By
addressing these issues and
 59

challenges, Pakistan Studies helps

students to understand the causes
and consequences of these
problems, and to explore the
possible solutions and alternatives
for Pakistan’s future.
 Exploring the opportunities and
potentials for Pakistan’s progress
and prosperity: Pakistan Studies
explores the opportunities and
potentials for Pakistan’s progress
and prosperity, such as its strategic
location, natural resources, human
capital, cultural heritage, regional
 60

and international relations, and

innovation and entrepreneurship. By
exploring these opportunities and
potentials, Pakistan Studies helps
students to recognize the strengths
and assets of Pakistan, and to
identify the areas and sectors where
Pakistan can excel and contribute to
the global community.

What were the Social Conditions in

Pre Islamic Arabia?
Pre-Islamic Arabia was a society that
lacked any central authority or
 61

political organization. The Arabs

lived in tribal groups that often
fought with each other over scarce
resources and honor. The social
structure of the Arabs was based on
kinship, loyalty, and tribalism. The
following are some of the main
aspects of the social conditions in
pre-Islamic Arabia:
 Strict patriarchy: The Arabs were
a patriarchal society, where men had
absolute authority over women and
children. Women had no rights or
status, and were treated as property
 62

or commodities. They had no say in

matters of marriage, divorce,
inheritance, or custody. They were
also subject to domestic violence,
polygamy, and sexual
exploitation. Women were
considered a source of shame and
dishonor for their families, and were
often secluded or veiled to prevent
any contact with strangers.
 Burying females: One of the most
barbaric practices of the pre-Islamic
Arabs was the burying of female
infants alive. This was done either
 63

out of fear of poverty, or out of

shame of having a daughter instead
of a son. The Qur’an condemned
this practice as a heinous crime and
a grave sin. The Qur’an also
declared that on the Day of
Judgment, the buried girls will be
asked for what crime they were
killed.
 Gambling: Gambling was a
widespread and addictive habit
among the pre-Islamic Arabs. They
gambled on various games of
chance, such as dice, arrows, and
 64

horse races. They also gambled on

the outcomes of wars and raids.
Gambling often led to debt, poverty,
violence, and family disputes. The
Qur’an prohibited gambling as a
harmful and evil activity that sows
enmity and hatred among people.
 Drinking: Drinking alcohol was
another common vice of the pre-
Islamic Arabs. They drank wine,
beer, and other intoxicants to escape
from the harsh realities of life in the
desert. They also drank to celebrate,
socialize, and compose poetry.
 65

Drinking alcohol often resulted in

drunkenness, immorality,
aggression, and negligence of
religious duties. The Qur’an forbade
drinking alcohol as a filthy and
abominable act that impairs the
intellect and the soul.
The social conditions in pre-Islamic
Arabia were marked by ignorance,
injustice, oppression, and corruption.
Islam came to reform and elevate the
society by introducing the principles
of monotheism, morality, justice,
equality, and human dignity. Islam
 66

abolished the evil practices of the

pre-Islamic Arabs and established a
new social order based on the
guidance of God and His Messenger.

What were the religious Conditions

in Pre Islamic Arabia?
Religious Conditions in Pre-Islamic
Arabia
Pre-Islamic Arabia was a region with
diverse and complex religious beliefs
and practices. The main categories of
religions in pre-Islamic Arabia were:
 67

Arabian Polytheism
This was the dominant form of
religion in pre-Islamic Arabia, based
on the worship of deities and spirits.
The most common form of
polytheism was animism, which
attributed souls or spirits to natural
phenomena, such as mountains, trees,
rocks, stars, etc. Another form of
polytheism was idolatry, which
involved the veneration of images or
statues of gods and goddesses, often
housed in shrines or temples. The
most famous shrine in pre-Islamic
 68

Arabia was the Kaaba in Mecca,

which contained up to 360 idols of
various deities. Some of the most
prominent deities in Arabian
polytheism were:
 Allah: The supreme god of the
Meccan pantheon, whose name
means “the god” in Arabic. He was
considered the creator and the lord
of the universe, but he had little
relevance in the daily religious life
of the people.
 Hubal: The chief god of the Kaaba
and the patron of the Quraysh tribe,
 69

who controlled Mecca. He was

associated with divination, rain, and
war. He was represented by a
human-shaped idol made of red
agate.
 Al-Lat, Al-Uzza, and Manat: The
three chief goddesses of Arabian
polytheism, known as “the
daughters of Allah”. They were
worshipped as the sources of power,
protection, and fortune. Al-Lat was
the goddess of fate and fertility, Al-
Uzza was the goddess of love and
 70

war, and Manat was the goddess of

death and destiny.
Monotheism
This was the belief in the existence of
a single god, who was the creator and
the ruler of the universe. Monotheism
was introduced to Arabia by the
influence of neighboring
civilizations, such as the Roman,
Persian, and Ethiopian empires. The
main monotheistic religions in pre-
Islamic Arabia were:
 Judaism: One of the oldest
monotheistic religions, based on the
 71

belief in the God of Abraham, Isaac,

and Jacob, and the revelation of the
Torah to Moses. Judaism had a long
history in Arabia, dating back to the
migration of Jewish tribes from
Palestine and Yemen since the
Roman times. Some of the most
prominent Jewish tribes in pre-
Islamic Arabia were the Banu
Nadir, the Banu Qaynuqa, and the
Banu Qurayza, who settled in
Yathrib (later known as Medina).
 Christianity: The religion based on
the belief in Jesus Christ as the son
 72

of God and the savior of humanity,

and the teachings of the New
Testament. Christianity spread to
Arabia after the Roman emperor
Constantine converted to it in the
4th century CE, and established it as
the official religion of the empire.
Several Christian kingdoms and
tribes emerged in Arabia, such as
the Himyarites in Yemen, the
Ghassanids in Syria, and the
Lakhmids in Iraq. The dominant
form of Christianity in Arabia was
Miaphysitism, which held that
 73

Jesus had one nature that was both

divine and human.
 Zoroastrianism: The religion based
on the teachings of the prophet
Zoroaster, who preached the
existence of one god, Ahura Mazda,
and the cosmic struggle between
good and evil. Zoroastrianism was
the official religion of the Sasanian
Empire, which ruled over Persia and
parts of Arabia in the 3rd-7th
centuries CE. Zoroastrianism
influenced some of the Arabian
tribes, especially in the east and
 74

south of the peninsula, such as the

Banu Tamim and the Banu Asad.
 Sabianism: The religion based on
the worship of the stars and the
planets, and the practice of
astrology and astronomy. Sabianism
was a term used by the Quran and
other Islamic sources to refer to a
group of monotheists who were
neither Jews nor Christians, but
followed the religion of Abraham.
Some scholars identify the Sabians
with the Mandaeans, a Gnostic sect
 75

that revered John the Baptist as their

prophet.
In conclusion, pre-Islamic Arabia
was a region with diverse and
complex religious beliefs and
practices, ranging from polytheism to
monotheism. The main categories of
religions in pre-Islamic Arabia were
Arabian polytheism, Judaism,
Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and
Sabianism. Each of these religions
had its own history, doctrines, rituals,
and followers, and they often
interacted and competed with each
 76

other in the social and political

spheres of Arabia.

What were the economic

Conditions in Pre Islamic Arabia?
Economic Conditions in Pre-
Islamic Arabia
Pre-Islamic Arabia was a period of
about six centuries before the advent
of Islam and the prophethood of
Muhammad (peace be upon him).
During this time, the Arabs were
divided into two main groups: the
 77

city dwellers and the nomads. The

economic conditions of these groups
varied according to their location,
resources, and activities. Some of the
main aspects of the economy in pre-
Islamic Arabia were:
1. Monopoly of Jews
The Jews were among the most
influential and wealthy groups in pre-
Islamic Arabia, especially in the
cities of Madinah, Khaybar, and
Fadak. They had a monopoly over
many trades and industries, such as
agriculture, irrigation, date palm
 78

cultivation, wine making, leather

tanning, metal working, and jewelry
making. They also controlled the
markets and the prices of goods, and
often exploited the non-Jewish
customers and workers. They had
strong ties with the Byzantine and
Persian empires, and enjoyed
protection and privileges from them.
They also had a well-developed
system of banking and lending, and
charged high interest rates on
loans. They were often involved in
conflicts and wars with the Arab
 79

tribes, and sometimes allied with

them against their enemies.
2. Land Owners:
The land owners were another
wealthy and powerful group in pre-
Islamic Arabia, especially in the
regions of Ta’if, Yemen, and Oman.
They owned large estates and farms,
and employed many workers and
slaves to cultivate them. They
produced crops such as dates, grapes,
wheat, barley, rice, and spices, and
exported them to other regions and
countries. They also had orchards,
 80

gardens, and vineyards, and enjoyed

a luxurious lifestyle. They were often
at odds with the nomads, who raided
their lands and crops, and sometimes
fought with them over water and
grazing rights.
3. Armament Industry:
The armament industry was a vital
and profitable sector in pre-Islamic
Arabia, as the Arabs were constantly
engaged in wars and raids. The main
weapons used by the Arabs were
swords, spears, bows, arrows,
daggers, shields, and armor. The
 81

swords were made of iron or steel,

and were often decorated with gold,
silver, or jewels. The spears and
arrows were made of wood, metal, or
bone, and were sometimes poisoned
or barbed. The daggers were used for
close combat or assassination, and
were often concealed in the clothes or
shoes. The shields were made of
leather, wood, or metal, and were
used for defense or as a weapon. The
armor was made of leather, metal, or
chain mail, and covered the head,
chest, and limbs. The armament
 82

industry was mainly based in the

cities of Makkah, Madinah, and
Ta’if, where skilled craftsmen and
artisans produced and sold the
weapons. The weapons were also
imported from other countries, such
as Byzantium, Persia, India, and
China.
4. Slavery as an Institution:
Slavery was a common and accepted
institution in pre-Islamic Arabia, and
slaves were considered as property
and commodities. The slaves were
mainly captured in wars, raids, or
 83

piracy, or bought from slave markets

or traders. The slaves were of
different origins, such as Arabs,
Africans, Persians, Romans, Indians,
and Turks. The slaves were used for
various purposes, such as domestic
work, farming, herding, mining,
construction, entertainment,
prostitution, and military service. The
slaves had no rights or dignity, and
were often mistreated, abused, or
killed by their masters. The slaves
could be freed by their masters, or by
 84

paying a ransom, or by converting to

Islam after its emergence .
5. Money Lenders on Interests:
Money lending was a widespread and
lucrative practice in pre-Islamic
Arabia, and was often associated with
the Jews and the Quraysh tribe. The
money lenders lent money to the
needy or the traders, and charged
high interest rates on the loans. The
interest rates varied according to the
amount, duration, and risk of the
loan, and could reach up to 100% or
more. The money lenders also used
 85

various tricks and tactics to increase

the debt or delay the repayment, such
as changing the terms, adding fees, or
demanding collateral. The money
lenders had a strong influence and
power over the debtors, and could
seize their property, enslave them, or
harm them if they failed to pay. The
money lending practice was a source
of injustice, oppression, and
corruption in the society, and was
condemned and prohibited by Islam .
6. Makkah and Madinah Centers
Traded with Syria and Yemen:
 86

Makkah and Madinah were the two

most important and prosperous trade
centers in pre-Islamic Arabia, and
had extensive trade relations with
Syria and Yemen. Makkah was the
hub of the caravan trade, and hosted
the annual pilgrimage of the Ka’bah,
which attracted many merchants and
pilgrims from different regions and
countries. Makkah had a strategic
location on the crossroads of the
trade routes that connected the
Arabian Peninsula with Africa, Asia,
and Europe. Makkah exported goods
 87

such as leather, wool, perfumes,

spices, and dates, and imported goods
such as silk, cotton, gold, silver,
copper, iron, ivory, and porcelain.
Makkah also had a monopoly over
the trade of frankincense and myrrh,
which were highly valued and
demanded by the Byzantine and
Persian empires. Makkah had two
main trade seasons: the winter
season, when the caravans traveled to
Syria, and the summer season, when
the caravans traveled to Yemen .
 88

Madinah was the center of the

agricultural and industrial trade, and
had a fertile and diverse land.
Madinah produced and exported
goods such as dates, grapes, wheat,
barley, rice, honey, cheese, butter,
oil, vinegar, leather, metal, and
jewelry. Madinah also imported
goods such as cloth, weapons, horses,
camels, and slaves. Madinah had a
mixed population of Arabs, Jews, and
Christians, and had a complex and
dynamic social and political
structure. Madinah had three main
 89

trade routes: the northern route,

which connected it with Syria and
Iraq, the eastern route, which
connected it with Bahrain and Oman,
and the southern route, which
connected it with Yemen and
Ethiopia .

What were the political Conditions

in Pre Islamic Arabia?
Political Conditions in Pre-Islamic
Arabia
 90

Pre-Islamic Arabia refers to the

period before the emergence of Islam
in the 7th century CE. It covers a vast
region that includes the Arabian
Peninsula and parts of the Levant,
Mesopotamia, and North Africa. The
political conditions in pre-Islamic
Arabia varied according to the
geographical, cultural, and historical
factors of each region. However,
some general features can be
identified:
1. Absence of Political
Organization:
 91

One of the most remarkable features

of the political life of pre-Islamic
Arabia was the absence of any
centralized or unified political
organization. There was no state, no
government, no law, and no order in
most parts of Arabia. The only
exception was Yemen in the south-
west, where some ancient kingdoms
and dynasties had developed, such as
Saba, Himyar, and Aksum . However,
even these kingdoms were often
unstable, fragmented, and subject to
foreign influence and invasion.
 92

2. Tribal Chiefs:
The main unit of social and political
organization in pre-Islamic Arabia
was the tribe. A tribe was a group of
people who claimed descent from a
common ancestor and shared a
common territory, culture, and
language. Each tribe had a chief, who
was usually the eldest or the most
influential member of the tribe. The
chief’s authority was based on his
personal qualities, such as courage,
generosity, wisdom, and charisma,
rather than on any formal or legal
 93

power. The chief was responsible for

leading the tribe in war, settling
disputes, distributing resources, and
representing the tribe in external
affairs
3. Moral Authority than Political:
The authority of the tribal chief was
moral rather than political. He did not
have the power to enforce his
decisions or to impose his will on the
tribe. He could only persuade, advise,
and arbitrate. He had to respect the
customs, traditions, and opinions of
the tribe, and to consult with the
 94

elders and the nobles. He also had to

share his wealth and status with the
tribe, and to uphold the values of
hospitality, generosity, and bravery.
If he failed to do so, he could lose his
respect, influence, and authority
among the tribe.
4. Century after Century with no
Government:
The tribal system of pre-Islamic
Arabia was very old and persistent. It
had existed for centuries, and had
resisted any attempts to change or
challenge it. The Arabs lived in a
 95

state of anarchy, without any central

or higher authority to regulate their
affairs. They did not acknowledge
any king, emperor, prophet, or
lawgiver, other than their own tribal
chiefs. They did not have any written
laws, codes, or constitutions, but
relied on their oral traditions,
customs, and agreements. They did
not have any permanent alliances,
coalitions, or confederations, but
formed temporary and shifting
alliances based on mutual interests or
common enemies .
 96

5. Tribalism over Ethics:

The tribal system of pre-Islamic
Arabia also had some negative
consequences. It fostered a strong
sense of tribalism, loyalty, and
solidarity among the members of the
same tribe, but also a sense of
hostility, rivalry, and enmity among
the members of different tribes.
Tribalism took precedence over
ethics, morality, and justice. A tribe
had an obligation to protect, support,
and avenge its members, even if they
had committed crimes, injustices, or
 97

atrocities. A tribe that failed to do so

was considered weak, dishonorable,
and contemptible. Tribalism also led
to frequent conflicts, wars, and blood
feuds among the tribes, often over
trivial matters, such as water, pasture,
camels, or women .
6. War between Tribes:
War was a permanent institution of
the pre-Islamic Arabian society. It
was a way of life, a source of honor,
glory, and fame, and a means of
survival, wealth, and power. The
desert environment could support
 98

only a limited number of people, and

the state of inter-tribal war
maintained a rigid control over the
growth of population. The Arabs also
saw war as a pastime, a sport, or a
drama, waged by professional
warriors, according to old and gallant
codes, while the rest of the tribe
cheered, sang, and recited poetry.
War was also a way of expressing the
tribal identity, pride, and solidarity,
and of asserting the tribal superiority,
dominance, and prestige .
7. War a Sport Cheered:
 99

The Arabs of pre-Islamic Arabia had

a peculiar attitude towards war. They
did not view it as a tragedy, a
calamity, or a curse, but as a joy, a
thrill, or a blessing. They did not fear
death, but welcomed it as a
martyrdom, a sacrifice, or a destiny.
They did not seek peace, but courted
war as a challenge, an adventure, or a
duty. They did not fight for any noble
cause, such as religion, justice, or
freedom, but for personal motives,
such as revenge, pride, or greed.
They did not have any strategy,
 100

tactics, or discipline, but relied on

their courage, skill, and luck. They
did not have any regular army,
weapons, or fortifications, but formed
bands of raiders, armed with swords,
spears, and bows, and attacked the
enemy by surprise, ambush, or
guerilla warfare .
8. Plundering:
One of the main objectives of the pre-
Islamic Arabian warfare was
plundering. The Arabs raided the
enemy tribes, caravans, villages, and
towns, and looted their goods,
 101

animals, and captives. Plundering

was a way of acquiring wealth,
resources, and status, as well as a
way of compensating for the losses,
damages, and injuries inflicted by the
enemy. Plundering was also a way of
humiliating, provoking, and
challenging the enemy, and of
inviting retaliation and revenge.
Plundering was often accompanied
by killing, enslaving, torturing, and
mutilating the enemy, especially the
men, while sparing, ransoming, or
marrying the women and children .
 102

9. Guerilla Warfare:
The Arabs of pre-Islamic Arabia did
not engage in conventional or regular
warfare, but in guerilla or irregular
warfare. They did not have any fixed
or permanent battlefields, but fought
wherever and whenever they
encountered the enemy. They did not
have any large or organized armies,
but small or scattered groups of
fighters. They did not have any long
or sustained campaigns, but short or
sporadic raids. They did not have any
clear or decisive outcomes, but
 103

ambiguous or inconclusive results.

They did not have any formal or
binding treaties, but informal or
temporary truces. They did not have
any rules or regulations, but customs
or conventions .
The political conditions in pre-
Islamic Arabia were characterized by
the absence of any central or unified
political organization, the dominance
of the tribal system, the prevalence of
the tribal chief’s moral authority, the
persistence of the tribal anarchy, the
priority of the tribal loyalty over
 104

ethics, the frequency of the inter-

tribal warfare, the enjoyment of the
war as a sport, the practice of the
plundering as a way of life, and the
use of the guerilla warfare as a mode
of combat. These conditions had a
profound impact on the social,
economic, cultural, and religious
aspects of the pre-Islamic Arabian
society, and also on the emergence,
development, and spread of Islam in
the 7th century CE.
 105

Which conditions led to the

emergence of Islam?
Islam is a monotheistic religion that
emerged in the 7th century CE in the
Arabian Peninsula. The founder of
Islam is Muhammad, who Muslims
believe to be the final prophet of
God. Islam spread rapidly through
military conquest, trade, pilgrimage,
and missionary activity. The
following conditions contributed to
the emergence and expansion of
Islam:
 106

1. Prophet Muhammad’s
emergence:
Muhammad was born in Mecca, a
city that was a major trade center and
a site of pilgrimage for the
polytheistic Arabs. He received his
first revelation from God through the
angel Gabriel in 610 CE, and began
to preach the message of Islam,
which means submission to God. He
faced opposition and persecution
from the Meccan elites, who saw his
monotheistic message as a threat to
their economic and religious
 107

interests. In 622 CE, he migrated to

Yathrib (later renamed Medina),
where he established a community of
Muslims and a political authority. He
also formed alliances with some of
the Arab tribes and fought several
battles against the Meccans. In 630
CE, he conquered Mecca and
destroyed the idols in the Kaaba, the
sacred shrine of the Arabs. He died in
632 CE, leaving behind a large and
growing community of believers.
2. Attractions in the new system of
Islam:
 108

Islam appealed to many people in

Arabia and beyond for various
reasons. Some of the attractions of
Islam were:
 The concept of tawhid, or the
oneness of God, which contrasted
with the polytheism and idolatry of
the pre-Islamic Arabs and other
peoples.
 The concept of umma, or the
community of believers, which
transcended tribal, ethnic, and racial
boundaries and offered a sense of
solidarity and brotherhood.
 109

 The concept of sharia, or the divine

law, which provided a
comprehensive and coherent system
of ethics, morality, and justice for
the Muslims.
 The concept of jihad, or the
struggle in the way of God, which
motivated the Muslims to defend
their faith, expand their territory,
and spread their message.
 The concept of akhira, or the
afterlife, which promised rewards
for the righteous and punishments
 110

for the wicked in the Day of

Judgment.
3. Establishment of the ideal city-
state of Medina:
Medina was the first city-state that
was governed by the principles of
Islam under the leadership of
Muhammad. It was also the place
where the Quran, the holy book of
Islam, was compiled and where many
of the traditions (hadith) of
Muhammad were recorded. Medina
served as a model for the later
Islamic polities, as it demonstrated
 111

how Islam could be applied in

various aspects of life, such as
politics, economics, social relations,
and warfare. Medina was also the
base from which Muhammad and his
followers launched their campaigns
against the Meccans and other
enemies of Islam.
4. Expansionism for preaching and
resources:
After the death of Muhammad, his
successors, known as the caliphs,
continued the mission of spreading
Islam to other regions. The first four
 112

caliphs, who are regarded by the

Sunni Muslims as the rightly guided
ones (Rashidun), led the Muslim
armies to conquer vast territories in
the Middle East, North Africa, and
Central Asia. These conquests were
driven by both religious and worldly
motives, such as:
 The duty of da’wa, or the invitation
to Islam, which obliged the Muslims
to share their faith with others and
invite them to join the umma.
 The need for fay, or the booty,
which consisted of the spoils of war,
 113

such as land, wealth, and slaves, that

were distributed among the Muslim
soldiers and the state treasury.
 The desire for ghana’im, or the
benefits, which included the access
to natural resources, trade routes,
and cultural exchanges, that
enriched the Muslim civilization.
5. Era of the pious caliphate:
The era of the pious caliphate refers
to the period of the first four caliphs,
who ruled from 632 to 661 CE. This
period is considered by many
Muslims as the golden age of Islam,
 114

as it witnessed the expansion of the

Muslim empire, the compilation of
the Quran, the development of the
Islamic law and theology, and the
emergence of the Sunni-Shia split.
The four caliphs were:
 Abu Bakr (632-634 CE), who was
the closest companion and father-in-
law of Muhammad. He was elected
as the first caliph by the consensus
of the Muslims. He faced the
challenge of the Ridda wars, which
were the rebellions of some of the
Arab tribes who refused to pay the
 115

zakat (alms tax) or renounced Islam

after the death of Muhammad. He
also initiated the first wave of
conquests in Syria and Iraq.
 Umar ibn al-Khattab (634-644
CE), who was another close
companion and father-in-law of
Muhammad. He was appointed as
the second caliph by Abu Bakr. He
was known for his justice,
administration, and military
prowess. He oversaw the second
wave of conquests in Egypt, Persia,
and Palestine. He also established
 116

the diwan (bureaucracy), the jizya

(poll tax), and the hijri (Islamic
calendar).
 Uthman ibn Affan (644-656 CE),
who was a wealthy merchant and
son-in-law of Muhammad. He was
elected as the third caliph by a
council of six companions. He was
known for his generosity, piety, and
patronage of the Quran. He ordered
the standardization and distribution
of the Quran to the provinces. He
also expanded the navy and the
conquests in North Africa and
 117

Central Asia. He faced criticism and

opposition from some of the
Muslims, who accused him of
nepotism, corruption, and deviation
from the sunna (the way of
Muhammad). He was assassinated
by a group of rebels in Medina.
 Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661 CE),
who was the cousin and son-in-law
of Muhammad. He was chosen as
the fourth caliph by the majority of
the Muslims, but faced the
challenge of the first civil war
(fitna) in Islam. He fought against
 118

the rebels who demanded the

revenge for Uthman’s murder, led
by Mu’awiya, the governor of Syria
and a relative of Uthman. He also
fought against the Kharijites, who
were the extremists who rejected
both Ali and Mu’awiya and declared
them as apostates. He was killed by
a Kharijite assassin in Kufa.
6. Umayyads and Abbasids:
The Umayyads and the Abbasids
were the two major dynasties that
ruled the Muslim world after the end
of the Rashidun caliphate. They
 119

differed in their origins, policies, and

achievements, such as:
 The Umayyads (661-750 CE) were
the descendants of Umayya, a clan
of the Quraysh tribe, to which
Muhammad and the first three
caliphs belonged. They established
their capital in Damascus and
adopted a hereditary system of
succession. They focused on the
consolidation and expansion of the
Muslim empire, reaching as far as
Spain and India. They faced
resistance and resentment from
 120

some of the Muslims, especially the

Shia, who supported the
descendants of Ali, and the non-
Arab converts (mawali), who were
discriminated against by the Arab
elites. They were overthrown by the
Abbasid revolution in 750 CE, but
survived in Spain as the Umayyad
emirate (756-1031 CE) and later the
Umayyad caliphate (929-1031 CE).
 The Abbasids (750-1258 CE) were
the descendants of Abbas, an uncle
of Muhammad. They claimed to
represent the interests of the Shia
 121

and the mawali, and to restore the

true spirit of Islam. They moved
their capital to Baghdad and adopted
a more cosmopolitan and inclusive
culture. They fostered the
flourishing of the Islamic
civilization, especially in the fields
of science, philosophy, literature,
and art. They faced the challenge of
the fragmentation and
decentralization of the Muslim
empire, as various provinces and
regions asserted their autonomy or
independence. They also faced the
 122

threat of the Mongol invasion,

which destroyed Baghdad and
ended the Abbasid caliphate in 1258
CE, although a remnant of the
Abbasids continued to rule in Cairo
as puppets of the Mamluks until
1517 CE.

What are the reasons that explain

the presence of Arabs in South
Asia?
The presence of Arabs in South Asia
can be traced back to the early
centuries of Islam, when Arab
 123

traders, missionaries, and warriors

interacted with the diverse peoples
and cultures of the region. The
reasons for their presence can be
categorized into five main factors:
trade, religion, quest for a seaport in
the Indian Ocean, immediate cause of
Muhammad bin Qasim’s entry, and
policy of conquest for the Islamic
empire.
1. Trade:
One of the earliest and most enduring
reasons for the presence of Arabs in
South Asia was trade. The Arabian
 124

Peninsula was strategically located

between the Mediterranean and the
Indian Ocean, and served as a hub for
commerce and exchange of goods,
ideas, and people Arab merchants
dominated trade in South Asia by the
9th century or earlier, and established
colonies and settlements along the
coastal regions of the Indian
subcontinent and Sri Lanka They
traded in spices, textiles, pearls, gold,
silver, and other commodities, and
also facilitated the transmission of
scientific, artistic, and literary
 125

knowledge between the Islamic

world and South Asia
2. Religion:
Another reason for the presence of
Arabs in South Asia was religion.
Islam first spread along the coastal
regions of the Indian subcontinent
and Sri Lanka, almost as soon as it
started in the Arabian Peninsula, as
the Arab traders brought it to South
Asia Some of the earliest mosques in
South Asia were built by Arab traders
and missionaries in the 7th and 8th
centuries, such as the Cheraman
 126

Juma Mosque in Kerala and the

Palaiya Jumma Palli in Tamil Nadu
Islam also appealed to some of the
local populations who were
dissatisfied with the caste system,
social inequalities, and religious
oppression of the dominant Hindu
and Buddhist traditions Islam also
attracted some of the local rulers and
elites who sought alliances and
protection from the expanding Arab
and later Turkish empires.
3. Quest for a seaport in the Indian
Ocean:
 127

A third reason for the presence of

Arabs in South Asia was their quest
for a seaport in the Indian Ocean. The
Arabs realized the strategic
importance of having a naval base
and a gateway to the rich and
populous lands of India and beyond.
They also wanted to counter the
influence and threat of the Persian
and Byzantine empires, who also
competed for the control of the
Indian Ocean trade routes. The Arabs
launched several naval expeditions
and raids to the coastal areas of South
 128

Asia, especially in Sind and Gujarat,

in the 7th and 8th centuries. They
also sought to establish diplomatic
and commercial relations with some
of the local kingdoms, such as the
Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, and the
Pallavas.
4. Immediate cause of Muhammad
bin Qasim’s entry:
A fourth reason for the presence of
Arabs in South Asia was the
immediate cause of Muhammad bin
Qasim’s entry. Muhammad bin
Qasim was a young Arab general
 129

who was sent by the Umayyad caliph

Walid I to conquer Sind in 711 CE.
The immediate cause of his invasion
was a pirate attack on an Arab ship
that was carrying gifts and pilgrims
to the caliph from the king of Ceylon.
The pirates took refuge in the port of
Debal, which was under the rule of
Raja Dahir, the king of Sind. The
caliph demanded that Raja Dahir
hand over the pirates and compensate
for the losses, but he refused. This
prompted the caliph to send
Muhammad bin Qasim with a large
 130

army and navy to punish Raja Dahir

and annex Sind.
5. Policy of conquest for the Islamic
empire:
A fifth reason for the presence of
Arabs in South Asia was the policy of
conquest for the Islamic empire. The
Umayyad and later the Abbasid
caliphs pursued a policy of expansion
and consolidation of their domains,
and saw South Asia as a potential
source of wealth, power, and
prestige. They also wanted to spread
Islam and establish their authority
 131

over the non-Muslim lands and

peoples. Muhammad bin Qasim’s
conquest of Sind was followed by
further invasions and annexations of
parts of Punjab, Gujarat, Baluchistan,
and Kashmir by subsequent Arab and
Turkish generals and governors. They
also faced resistance and challenges
from some of the local rulers and
communities, such as the Pratiharas,
the Gurjara-Pratiharas, and the
Rajputs.
In conclusion, the presence of Arabs
in South Asia can be explained by a
 132

combination of factors, such as trade,

religion, quest for a seaport in the
Indian Ocean, immediate cause of
Muhammad bin Qasim’s entry, and
policy of conquest for the Islamic
empire. These factors shaped the
history, culture, and society of South
Asia, and left a lasting impact on the
region.
What factors led to the success of
Arabs in South Asia?
The success of Arabs in South Asia
can be attributed to a combination of
factors, such as their technological,
 133

military, religious, cultural, and

intellectual achievements. The Arabs
were able to establish their presence
and influence in South Asia through
trade, conquest, conversion, and
cooperation with some of the local
rulers and communities. The Arabs
also contributed to the development
and enrichment of South Asian
civilization by introducing and
exchanging various aspects of their
culture, such as language, literature,
art, architecture, science, philosophy,
medicine, and astronomy.
 134

Technology of sea routes

One of the factors that led to the
success of Arabs in South Asia was
their technology of sea routes. The
Arabs were skilled navigators and
sailors who used the monsoon winds
and the stars to travel across the
Indian Ocean. They also developed
advanced ships, such as dhows and
junks, that could carry large cargoes
and passengers. The Arabs were able
to establish trade networks and
maritime colonies along the coastal
regions of South Asia, such as Sind,
 135

Gujarat, Malabar, and Sri

Lanka. They also explored and
reached other parts of Southeast Asia,
such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and the
Philippines
Naval fleets and siege engines
Another factor that led to the success
of Arabs in South Asia was their
naval fleets and siege engines. The
Arabs used their naval power and
military technology to launch raids
and invasions against some of the
coastal kingdoms and cities of South
Asia, such as Debal, Thana, Bharuch,
 136

and Somnath. They also employed

siege engines, such as catapults and
battering rams, to breach the
fortifications and walls of their
enemies. The Arabs were able to
defeat and subjugate some of the
local rulers and expand their
dominion in South Asia, especially in
Sind and Gujarat
Troop discipline and leadership
A third factor that led to the success
of Arabs in South Asia was their
troop discipline and leadership. The
Arabs had a well-organized and
 137

trained army that followed a strict

code of conduct and obedience. They
also had a hierarchical and
meritocratic system of command and
administration that ensured efficiency
and accountability. The Arabs were
led by courageous and charismatic
generals, such as Muhammad bin
Qasim, Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman
al-Murri, and Mahmud of Ghazni,
who inspired and motivated their
soldiers to fight and conquer. The
Arabs were able to overcome the
numerical and geographical
 138

disadvantages and achieve decisive

victories over some of the local
armies and militias
Jihad as morale booster
A fourth factor that led to the success
of Arabs in South Asia was jihad as a
morale booster. Jihad, or holy war,
was a religious duty and a spiritual
incentive for the Arabs to fight and
spread Islam. The Arabs believed that
they were fighting for the cause of
God and that they would be rewarded
with paradise or martyrdom. Jihad
also gave the Arabs a sense of unity
 139

and solidarity among themselves and

with other Muslims. The Arabs were
able to overcome the hardships and
challenges of warfare and maintain
their zeal and enthusiasm
Widespread belief of Muslim
success
A fifth factor that led to the success
of Arabs in South Asia was the
widespread belief of Muslim success.
The Arabs were able to project an
image of power and prestige by their
military and political achievements.
They also propagated the message of
 140

Islam and its superiority over other

religions and cultures. The Arabs
were able to attract and impress some
of the local populations and elites
who sought protection, alliance, or
conversion to Islam. The Arabs were
able to increase their influence and
authority in South Asia by gaining
the support and loyalty of some of the
local converts and collaborators
Concept of assimilation
A sixth factor that led to the success
of Arabs in South Asia was the
concept of assimilation. The Arabs
 141

were able to adapt and integrate into

the diverse and complex societies and
cultures of South Asia. They also
adopted and assimilated some of the
local customs, languages, and
practices that did not contradict with
Islam. The Arabs were able to create
a hybrid and syncretic culture that
combined elements of Arab and
South Asian traditions. The Arabs
were able to coexist and interact with
some of the local communities and
groups that accepted and respected
their presence and influence
 142

Toleration of religion
A seventh factor that led to the
success of Arabs in South Asia was
the toleration of religion. The Arabs
were able to practice and propagate
Islam in South Asia without imposing
it on the non-Muslims. They also
allowed and respected the freedom
and diversity of religion among the
local populations. The Arabs were
able to establish and maintain
peaceful and harmonious relations
with some of the local religious
communities and leaders, such as the
 143

Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and

Zoroastrians. The Arabs were able to
avoid and resolve some of the
potential conflicts and tensions that
could arise from religious differences
Exchange of cultures
An eighth factor that led to the
success of Arabs in South Asia was
the exchange of cultures. The Arabs
were able to introduce and transmit
various aspects of their culture, such
as language, literature, art,
architecture, science, philosophy,
medicine, and astronomy, to South
 144

Asia. They also learned and benefited

from the rich and ancient cultures of
South Asia, such as Hinduism,
Buddhism, Sanskrit, and
mathematics. The Arabs were able to
contribute to the development and
enrichment of South Asian
civilization by fostering and
facilitating a cross-cultural dialogue
and exchange
Education
A ninth factor that led to the success
of Arabs in South Asia was
education. The Arabs were able to
 145

establish and support various

institutions and centers of learning in
South Asia, such as mosques,
madrasas, libraries, and
observatories. They also produced
and disseminated various works and
texts on various subjects and
disciplines, such as Quran, Hadith,
Fiqh, Tafsir, Kalam, Tasawwuf,
History, Geography, Biography,
Poetry, Grammar, Rhetoric, Logic,
Ethics, Politics, Law, Economics,
Medicine, Pharmacy, Surgery,
Anatomy, Physiology, Botany,
 146

Zoology, Chemistry, Physics,

Astronomy, Astrology, Mathematics,
Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry,
and Arithmetic. The Arabs were able
to promote and enhance the
intellectual and scholarly activities
and achievements in South Asia
Science
A tenth factor that led to the success
of Arabs in South Asia was science.
The Arabs were able to develop and
advance various fields and branches
of science in South Asia, such as
medicine, pharmacy, surgery,
 147

anatomy, physiology, botany,

zoology, chemistry, physics,
astronomy, astrology, mathematics,
algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and
arithmetic. They also invented and
improved various instruments and
devices, such as astrolabes,
quadrants, sextants, compasses,
clocks, scales, balances,
thermometers, hygrometers, lenses,
mirrors, pumps, fountains, and
cannons. The Arabs were able to
apply and demonstrate their scientific
knowledge and skills in South Asia
 148

Peaceful administration
An eleventh factor that led to the
success of Arabs in South Asia was
peaceful administration. The Arabs
were able to establish and maintain a
stable and efficient system of
governance and administration in
South Asia, especially in Sind and
Gujarat. They also implemented and
enforced a fair and just system of law
and justice, based on the Sharia and
the local customs. The Arabs were
able to provide and ensure the
security and welfare of the people
 149

and the land in South Asia. They also

collected and distributed the taxes
and revenues in a reasonable and
equitable manner. The Arabs were
able to win and retain the trust and
confidence of the people and the land
in South Asia.
Sindh as the birthplace of Sufism
A twelfth factor that led to the
success of Arabs in South Asia was
Sindh as the birthplace of Sufism.
Sufism, or Islamic mysticism, was a
spiritual movement and practice that
emerged and flourished in Sindh,
 150

under the influence of the Arab and

Persian saints and scholars, such as
Hasan al-Basri, Rabia al-Basri,
Mansur al-Hallaj, Bayazid al-
Bistami, and Abu al-Hasan al-
Kharaqani. Sufism aimed to achieve
a direct and personal experience of
God through love, devotion, and self-
purification. Sufism also emphasized
the values of tolerance, compassion,
and service to humanity. Sufism was
able to attract and inspire many
people in South Asia, especially the
lower and oppressed classes, who
 151

sought solace and salvation from the

worldly troubles and injustices.
Sufism was also able to bridge and
harmonize the differences and
divisions among the various religious
and ethnic groups in South Asia.
Knowledge of Hindu science
A thirteenth factor that led to the
success of Arabs in South Asia was
their knowledge of Hindu science.
The Arabs were able to acquire and
appreciate the scientific knowledge
and achievements of the Hindus,
especially in mathematics,
 152

astronomy, and medicine. The Arabs

were able to translate and transmit
the Hindu works and texts, such as
the Surya Siddhanta, the
Aryabhatiya, the
Brahmasphutasiddhanta, the
Siddhanta Shiromani, the Charaka
Samhita, and the Sushruta Samhita,
into Arabic and Persian. The Arabs
were able to incorporate and improve
the Hindu concepts and methods,
such as the decimal system, the zero,
the algebra, the trigonometry, the
calculus, the heliocentrism, the
 153

planetary motions, the eclipses, the

Ayurveda, the surgery, and the plastic
surgery, into their own scientific
traditions. The Arabs were able to
advance and enrich the scientific
legacy of South Asia.
Philosophy
A fourteenth factor that led to the
success of Arabs in South Asia was
their philosophy. The Arabs were
able to learn and appreciate the
philosophical knowledge and wisdom
of the Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains,
especially in metaphysics,
 154

epistemology, ethics, and logic. The

Arabs were able to translate and
transmit the philosophical works and
texts, such as the Upanishads, the
Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the
Nyaya Sutras, the Vaisheshika
Sutras, the Samkhya Sutras, the
Mimamsa Sutras, the Vedanta Sutras,
the Dhammapada, the Abhidhamma,
and the Tattvartha Sutra, into Arabic
and Persian. The Arabs were able to
incorporate and develop the
philosophical concepts and
arguments, such as the Brahman, the
 155

Atman, the Maya, the Karma, the

Samsara, the Moksha, the Nirvana,
the Dharma, the Four Noble Truths,
the Eightfold Path, the Middle Way,
the Jainism, the Anekantavada, the
Syadvada, and the Ahimsa, into their
own philosophical traditions. The
Arabs were able to enrich and
diversify the philosophical discourse
and inquiry in South Asia.
Medicine
A fifteenth factor that led to the
success of Arabs in South Asia was
their medicine. The Arabs were able
 156

to practice and advance the field and

art of medicine in South Asia, based
on the teachings and traditions of the
Quran, the Prophet Muhammad, the
Greek, the Persian, and the Hindu
sources. The Arabs were able to
produce and disseminate various
works and texts on medicine, such as
the Kitab al-Tasrif by al-Zahrawi, the
Kitab al-Hawi by al-Razi, the Canon
of Medicine by Ibn Sina, the Kitab
al-Mansuri by al-Razi, the Kitab al-
Qanun fi al-Tibb by Ibn Sina, the
Kitab al-Tibb al-Nabawi by Ibn
 157

Qayyim al-Jawziyya, and the Kitab

al-Asbab wa al-Alamat by al-Majusi.
The Arabs were able to diagnose and
treat various diseases and disorders,
such as fever, plague, smallpox,
leprosy, tuberculosis, diabetes,
asthma, epilepsy, paralysis, and
mental illness. The Arabs were also
able to perform various surgical
procedures and operations, such as
cauterization, amputation, lithotomy,
cataract, rhinoplasty, and dentistry.
The Arabs were able to improve and
 158

enhance the health and well-being of

the people in South Asia.
Astronomy
A sixteenth factor that led to the
success of Arabs in South Asia was
their astronomy. The Arabs were able
to observe and study the celestial
phenomena and bodies in South Asia,
such as the sun, the moon, the stars,
the planets, the comets, the meteors,
and the eclipses. The Arabs were able
to calculate and predict the
movements and positions of the
heavenly objects, such as the solar
 159

and lunar calendars, the lunar

mansions, the zodiac signs, the
planetary conjunctions, and the
astrological influences. The Arabs
were able to construct and use
various astronomical instruments and
devices, such as astrolabes,
quadrants, sextants, compasses,
clocks, armillary spheres, celestial
globes, and observatories. The Arabs
were able to contribute and expand
the astronomical knowledge and
understanding in South Asia.
 160

Indian scholars and architects to

Baghdad
A seventeenth factor that led to the
success of Arabs in South Asia was
their invitation and migration of
Indian scholars and architects to
Baghdad. The Abbasid caliphs,
especially al-Mansur and al-Mamun,
were patrons and promoters of
learning and culture, and they
established the House of Wisdom in
Baghdad, where they gathered and
supported scholars, translators, and
scientists from various regions and
 161

backgrounds, including India. The

Abbasid caliphs also invited and
employed Indian architects and
engineers to design and build some of
the magnificent and splendid
buildings and structures in Baghdad,
such as the Round City, the Golden
Gate Palace, the Green Dome, and
the Bridge of the Barmakids. The
Abbasid caliphs were able to benefit
and appreciate the intellectual and
artistic talents and skills of the
Indians, and also to foster and
facilitate a cross-cultural exchange
 162

and dialogue between the Arabs and

the Indians.
Abu Mashar came to India for 10
years of astronomy
An eighteenth factor that led to the
success of Arabs in South Asia was
the visit and stay of Abu Mashar in
India for 10 years of astronomy. Abu
Mashar, also known as Albumasar,
was a famous and influential Arab
astrologer and astronomer, who lived
in the 9th century CE. He traveled to
India in 820 CE, and stayed there for
10 years, where he learned and
 163

studied the Indian astronomy and

astrology, especially the Surya
Siddhanta and the Aryabhatiya. He
also wrote and compiled his own
works and texts on astronomy and
astrology, such as the Kitab al-
Madkhal al-Kabir, the Kitab al-Uluf,
the Kitab al-Milal wa al-Duwal, and
the Kitab al-Qiranat. He also
introduced and popularized the
Indian astronomical and astrological
concepts and methods, such as the
sidereal year, the tropical year, the
precession of the equinoxes, the
 164

planetary periods, and the

horoscopes, to the Arab and Islamic
world. Abu Mashar was able to
advance and enrich the astronomical
and astrological traditions in both
South Asia and the Arab world.
Islamic civilization with ancient
Vedic civilization
A nineteenth factor that led to the
success of Arabs in South Asia was
their interaction and integration with
the ancient Vedic civilization. The
Vedic civilization was one of the
oldest and most influential
 165

civilizations in South Asia, dating

back to the 2nd millennium BCE. It
was based on the Vedas, the sacred
scriptures of Hinduism, which
contained the spiritual, moral, and
social teachings and practices of the
Vedic religion. The Vedic civilization
also produced and preserved various
works and texts on various subjects
and disciplines, such as the
Upanishads, the Vedangas, the
Sutras, the Smritis, the Epics, the
Puranas, and the Dharmashastras.
The Arabs were able to learn and
 166

appreciate the Vedic civilization and

its contributions to the culture and
history of South Asia. They also
interacted and integrated with some
of the Vedic peoples and
communities, such as the Brahmins,
the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas, and the
Shudras. The Arabs were able to
create and sustain a harmonious and
mutually beneficial relationship with
the Vedic civilization in South Asia.
In conclusion, the success of Arabs in
South Asia can be attributed to a
combination of factors, such as their
 167

technological, military, religious,

cultural, and intellectual
achievements. The Arabs were able
to establish their presence and
influence in South Asia through
trade, conquest, conversion, and
cooperation with some of the local
rulers and communities. The Arabs
also contributed to the development
and enrichment of South Asian
civilization by introducing and
exchanging various aspects of their
culture, such as language, literature,
 168

art, architecture, science, philosophy,

medicine, and astronomy.

What is the background of

Deoband Movement?
The Mughal Empire’s decline in the
18th and 19th centuries resulted in
the loss of political and economic
power for Indian Muslims under
British colonial rule. The British East
India Company not only exploited the
resources and imposed its laws on the
Indians, but also supported Christian
missionaries who sought to convert
 169

them. These developments created a

sense of insecurity and crisis among
Muslims, who felt their religious
identity and culture were endangered.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a
turning point in this situation. It was
partly inspired by the teachings of
Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi and
Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, two
prominent Muslim scholars who
advocated for jihad against the
British. Some local Muslims joined
the rebels and fought against the
British forces in the Battle of Shamli.
 170

Although the rebellion was

eventually suppressed, it inspired
many Muslims to take further action
to defend their faith and community.
In 1866, Nanautavi and Gangohi
founded the Darul Uloom Madrassa
in Deoband, a town in the United
Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh). They
aimed to provide Islamic education
and training to young Muslims who
could not afford or access Western
education. They also wanted to
revive the authentic teachings of the
Quran and the Hadith, and to reform
 171

the religious practices that had been

corrupted by superstition and
innovation. The Deobandi movement
was born out of this initiative, and it
became a powerful force for Islamic
revivalism and resistance in colonial
India. The movement continues to
have a significant impact on the
religious and political affairs of
Muslims, not only in South Asia but
also in other regions of the world.

What are the aims and objectives

of Deoband Movement?
 172

The movement had several aims and

objectives, which can be summarized
as follows:
1. Empower Muslims through in-
depth knowledge:
One of the main aims of the Deoband
movement was to empower the
Muslim community by providing
them with in-depth knowledge of
Islam, including the Quran, Tafsir
(exegesis), and Hadith (traditions of
the Prophet Muhammad). The
movement believed that the lack of
proper Islamic education had led to
 173

the decline and weakness of the

Muslims in India. Therefore, the
movement sought to revive the
classical Islamic sciences and train a
new generation of scholars and
leaders who could guide the
community in matters of faith and
practice.
2. Rekindle the spirit of Islam:
Another aim of the Deoband
movement was to rekindle the spirit
of Islam among its followers, who
had become detached from their faith
and traditions due to the influence of
 174

Western culture and colonial rule.

The movement aimed to foster a
deeper connection with Islam by
emphasizing the importance of
worship, piety, and morality. The
movement also encouraged its
followers to adhere to the Sunnah
(the way of the Prophet Muhammad)
and to avoid bid’ah (innovation) and
shirk (polytheism) in their religious
practices.
3. Teach and disseminate Islam:
A third aim of the Deoband
movement was to teach and
 175

disseminate Islam to the wider world,

especially to the non-Muslims who
were either ignorant or hostile to
Islam. The movement believed that it
was the duty of every Muslim to
spread the message of Islam and to
invite others to the truth. The
movement also sought to counter the
missionary activities of the Christians
and the Hindus, who were trying to
convert the Muslims to their faiths.
The movement used various methods
of teaching and preaching, such as
books, pamphlets, speeches, and
 176

debates, to convey the teachings of

Islam and to defend it from attacks
and criticisms.
4. Preserve freedom of thought and
knowledge:
A fourth aim of the Deoband
movement was to preserve the
freedom of thought and knowledge
that was essential for understanding
and interpreting Islam. The
movement valued the principle of
ijtihad (independent reasoning) and
rejected the blind imitation (taqlid) of
any school of thought (madhhab).
 177

The movement also respected the

diversity of opinions and
interpretations among the Muslim
scholars and jurists, as long as they
were based on sound evidence and
logic. The movement believed that
the freedom of thought and
knowledge was crucial for the
intellectual and spiritual development
of the Muslim community and for the
advancement of Islamic civilization.
5. Establish an Arabic institution
for Islamic propagation:
 178

A fifth aim of the Deoband

movement was to establish an
Arabic-language institution that
would serve as a center for Islamic
propagation and education. The
movement recognized the importance
of Arabic as the language of the
Quran and the Hadith, and as the
medium of communication among
the Muslims across the world. The
movement also realized the need for
an institution that would produce
qualified scholars and educators who
could teach and propagate Islam in
 179

Arabic and other languages.

Therefore, the movement established
the Nadwatul Ulama in Lucknow in
1894, which was an Arabic-oriented
madrassa that offered courses in
various Islamic and modern subjects.
6. Moral and religious renewal:
A sixth and final aim of the Deoband
movement was to bring about a moral
and religious renewal of the Muslim
community in India, which had been
corrupted by the social and political
conditions of colonial rule. The
movement contrasted itself with the
 180

Aligarh Movement, which was

another reform movement that
focused on Western education and
cooperation with the British Raj. The
Deoband movement criticized the
Aligarh Movement for compromising
the Islamic identity and values of the
Muslims, and for neglecting the
spiritual and moral aspects of Islam.
The Deoband movement aimed to
restore the dignity and honor of the
Muslims by reforming their character
and conduct, and by resisting the
foreign domination and oppression.
 181

What are the educational services

of the Deoband Movement?
The movement had several
educational services, which can be
summarized as follows:
1. Balanced teachings in Maqulat,
Manqulat, and Ilmul Kalam:
One of the educational services of the
Deoband movement was to offer
balanced teachings in Maqulat
(rational sciences), Manqulat
(transmitted sciences), and Ilmul
 182

Kalam (theology). The movement

aimed to foster a holistic
understanding of Islam by integrating
the rational and the revealed sources
of knowledge. The movement also
sought to reconcile the differences
and debates among the various
schools of thought within Islam, such
as the Ash'ari, Maturidi, and Hanafi
schools. The movement taught its
students to respect the diversity of
opinions and interpretations, as long
as they were based on sound
evidence and logic.
 183

2. Training in calligraphy,
bookbinding, and medicine:
Another educational service of the
Deoband movement was to provide
training in calligraphy, bookbinding,
and medicine, along with the
religious studies. The movement
promoted practical skills alongside
theoretical knowledge, believing that
they were both important for the
development of the Muslim
community. The movement also
encouraged its students to engage in
social service and charitable work,
 184

such as helping the poor and the

needy, and providing medical care
and education to the masses.
3. Adoption of the Dars-i Nizami
curriculum and establishment of
institutions:
A third educational service of the
Deoband movement was to adopt the
Dars-i Nizami curriculum, which was
a standardized and comprehensive
curriculum of Islamic studies that
was developed by Mulla Nizamuddin
Sahalvi in the 18th century. The
curriculum covered various subjects,
 185

such as Arabic, Persian, Urdu, logic,

philosophy, jurisprudence, theology,
and mysticism. The movement also
established several institutions that
followed the Dars-i Nizami
curriculum, such as the Darul Uloom
Deoband, which was the main center
of the movement, the Mazahir Uloom
in Saharanpur, which was a branch of
the Darul Uloom Deoband, the
Nadwatul Ulama in Lucknow, which
was an Arabic-oriented madrassa that
offered courses in various Islamic
and modern subjects, and the Jamia
 186

Millia Islamia in Delhi, which was a

national university that aimed to
combine Islamic and secular
education. These institutions served
as the hubs of Islamic propagation
and education, producing thousands
of scholars and educators who spread
the teachings of the Deoband
movement across the world.

What are the social services of the

Deoband Movement?
 187

The movement had several social

services, which can be summarized
as follows:
1. Preserving and disseminating
Islamic literature:
One of the social services of the
Deoband movement was to recognize
the importance of preserving and
disseminating Islamic literature,
especially in the face of British
censorship and confiscation. The
movement realized that the British
colonial authorities were trying to
suppress and destroy the Islamic
 188

heritage and culture by banning and

burning books and manuscripts that
contained Islamic teachings and
history. Therefore, the movement
took measures to protect and promote
Islamic literature by collecting,
copying, publishing, and distributing
books and pamphlets on various
Islamic topics. The movement also
established libraries and printing
presses within its institutions, and
supported other Islamic publications
and journals.
 189

2. Valuing the health and well-

being of its students and staff:
Another social service of the
Deoband movement was to value the
health and well-being of its students
and staff, and to provide them with
medical care and facilities. The
movement understood that the
physical and mental health of its
members was essential for their
academic and spiritual performance.
Therefore, the movement established
a hospital and a dispensary within its
premises, where it offered free
 190

treatment and medicine to its students

and staff, as well as to the local
population. The movement also hired
qualified doctors and nurses, and
trained some of its students in basic
medical skills. The movement also
ensured the hygiene and sanitation of
its buildings and surroundings, and
provided clean water and food to its
members.

What are the religious services of

the Deoband Movement?
 191

The movement had several religious

services, which can be summarized
as follows:
1. Producing notable scholars:
One of the religious services of the
Deoband movement was to produce
notable scholars who contributed to
the development and propagation of
Islamic thought and scholarship.
Some of the prominent scholars of
the Deoband movement were:
 Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi
(1863-1943): He was a prolific
writer and a renowned spiritual
 192

master. He authored more than a

thousand books on various Islamic
subjects, such as jurisprudence,
theology, mysticism, ethics, and
biography. His most famous work is
Bahishti Zewar (Heavenly
Ornaments), which is a
comprehensive guide for Muslim
women on religious and social
matters.
 Maulana Hussain Ahmed Madni
(1879-1957): He was a political
activist and a leader of the Indian
independence movement. He was
 193

also a scholar of Hadith and a

teacher at the Darul Uloom
Deoband. He played a key role in
the formation of the Jamiat Ulema-
e-Hind, a political party that
opposed the partition of India and
advocated for a united and secular
India.
 Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi
(1872-1944): He was a
revolutionary and a nationalist who
fought against the British colonial
rule. He was also a scholar of
Islamic philosophy and history. He
 194

advocated for the establishment of

an Islamic state in India, based on
the principles of democracy and
socialism. He also supported the
Khilafat Movement, which aimed to
restore the Ottoman Caliphate after
World War I.
 Maulana Ahmed Ali Lahori
(1887-1962): He was a scholar of
Quran and Tafsir (exegesis). He was
also a poet and a translator. He
translated the Quran into Urdu, and
wrote a commentary on it, called
Tafsir-e-Lahori. He also translated
 195

the works of Maulana Rumi and

Allama Iqbal into Urdu.
 Maulana Tajwri Najibabadi
(1893-1972): He was a scholar of
Hadith and a historian. He wrote a
comprehensive history of Islam,
called Tarikh-e-Islam, which covers
the period from the advent of Islam
to the 20th century. He also wrote
biographies of the Prophet
Muhammad and his companions, as
well as the four caliphs and the
twelve imams.
 196

 Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hasan
(1851-1920): He was the first
principal of the Darul Uloom
Deoband and a mentor of many
Deobandi scholars. He was also a
scholar of Hadith and a jurist. He
was involved in the Indian
Rebellion of 1857 and the Silk
Letter Conspiracy, which was a plot
to overthrow the British rule in
India with the help of the Ottoman
Empire and Afghanistan.
 Maulana Rashid Ahmed Gangohi
(1829-1905): He was the co-founder
 197

of the Darul Uloom Deoband and a

leading scholar of the Deobandi
movement. He was also a scholar of
Hadith and a jurist. He wrote several
books on Islamic jurisprudence,
such as Fatawa-e-Rashidiyya and
Imdad-ul-Fatawa. He was also a
spiritual master and a guide of many
Sufi disciples.
2. Rejecting certain traditional
Sunni practices:
Another religious service of the
Deoband movement was to reject
certain traditional Sunni practices
 198

that the movement considered to be

contrary to the Quran and the
Sunnah. The movement emphasized
the adherence to the Quran and the
Sunnah, and criticized the deviant
Sufi orders that practiced innovations
and superstitions. Some of the
practices that the Deoband movement
rejected were:
 Visiting the shrines and tombs of
saints and seeking their
intercession: The movement
considered this to be a form of shirk
(polytheism) and a violation of the
 199

Islamic monotheism (tawhid). The

movement argued that only Allah
can grant blessings and help, and
that the saints and the dead have no
power or authority. The movement
also discouraged the celebration of
the birthdays and death
anniversaries of the saints, and the
offering of vows and sacrifices at
their shrines.
 Using music and dancing as a
means of worship and spiritual
ecstasy: The movement considered
this to be a form of bid’ah
 200

(innovation) and a deviation from

the Sunnah. The movement argued
that music and dancing are
forbidden in Islam, and that they
distract the worshipers from the
remembrance of Allah and the
recitation of the Quran. The
movement also denounced the use
of drugs and intoxicants as a way of
attaining spiritual states, and the
practice of sama (audition) and wajd
(ecstasy) among some Sufi orders.
 Believing in the concept of wahdat
al-wujud (unity of existence): The
 201

movement considered this to be a

form of pantheism and a denial of
the distinction between the Creator
and the creation. The movement
argued that wahdat al-wujud is a
philosophical doctrine that
contradicts the Quran and the
Sunnah, and that it leads to the
confusion of the attributes of Allah
and the attributes of the created
beings. The movement also rejected
the concept of fana (annihilation)
and baqa (subsistence) among some
 202

Sufi orders, which imply the loss of

self and the union with Allah.

What are the political services of

the Deoband Movement?
The movement provided various
political services to the Muslim
community, such as:
1. Defending Islam against
colonialism and other threats:
The Deoband Movement emerged as
a response to the challenges posed by
the British colonial rule, the Christian
 203

missionary activities, the Hindu

revivalist movements, and the secular
nationalist movements in India. The
Deobandis sought to defend Islam
from these threats by promoting
Islamic education and social reform
among the masses. They established
a network of madrasas (Islamic
schools) that taught the Quran, the
Hadith, and the classical Islamic
sciences, as well as modern subjects
such as mathematics, geography, and
history . They also published books,
pamphlets, and journals that
 204

explained the Islamic doctrines and

refuted the arguments of their
opponents. The Deobandis
emphasized the importance of
following the Sunnah (the example of
the Prophet Muhammad) and the
consensus of the scholars (ijma) in
matters of faith and practice. They
rejected any innovations (bidah) or
deviations (shirk) from the orthodox
Islamic creed (aqidah). They also
advocated for the purification of the
Muslim society from the evils of
 205

ignorance, superstition, corruption,

and immorality .
2. Supporting the Pakistan
movement and the Muslim League:
The Deoband Movement played a
vital role in supporting the Pakistan
movement and the Muslim League,
the political party that led the demand
for a separate homeland for the
Muslims of India. The Deobandis
recognized the need for a separate
Muslim state as a means of
safeguarding the Islamic identity and
interests of the Muslim minority in
 206

India. They also acknowledged the

leadership of Quaid-e-Azam
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder
of Pakistan, and urged the Muslims to
vote for the Muslim League in the
elections of 1945-46. The Deobandis
also contributed to the Pakistan
movement by mobilizing the masses
through their speeches, writings, and
fatwas (religious verdicts). They also
participated in various political
campaigns and movements against
the British rule, such as the Silk
Letter Movement, the Khilafat
 207

Movement, the Civil Disobedience

Movement, and the Quit India
Movement.
3. Advocating for jihad against
foreign rulers and supporting the
Khilafat movement:
The Deoband Movement also
advocated for jihad (struggle) against
the foreign rulers who oppressed the
Muslims and violated their rights.
The Deobandis considered jihad as a
religious duty and a means of
establishing the rule of Islam in the
world. They also supported the
 208

Khilafat movement, which aimed to

restore the Ottoman Caliphate, the
symbolic and political leader of the
Muslim world, after it was abolished
by the secular Turkish Republic in
1924. The Deobandis joined forces
with the Indian National Congress,
the main nationalist party in India,
and other Muslim groups to launch a
mass movement in support of the
Khilafat cause. They also opposed
the partition of India, which they saw
as a British conspiracy to divide and
weaken the Muslim community.
 209

4. Showing leadership in armed

resistance against British colonial
rule:
The Deoband Movement also showed
leadership in armed resistance against
the British colonial rule, especially
during the First and Second World
Wars. The Deobandis organized and
led several militant groups and
movements that fought against the
British forces and their allies in India
and abroad. One of the most notable
examples of such movements was the
Silk Letter Movement, which was
 210

initiated by Mahmud Hasan

Deobandi, one of the prominent
leaders of the Deoband Movement.
The Silk Letter Movement was a
secret plan to overthrow the British
rule in India with the help of the
Ottoman Empire, Germany, and
Afghanistan. The movement involved
sending letters written on silk cloth to
various Muslim leaders and rulers,
inviting them to join the anti-British
alliance. The movement was exposed
and suppressed by the British
intelligence in 1916, and many of its
 211

members were arrested and

imprisoned.
5. Supporting and training
militants for the Afghan jihad and
the Kashmir insurgency:
The Deoband Movement also
supported and trained militants for
the Afghan jihad and the Kashmir
insurgency, two of the major
conflicts that affected the Muslim
world in the late 20th and early 21st
centuries. The Afghan jihad was a
guerrilla war waged by the Afghan
mujahideen (holy warriors) against
 212

the Soviet invasion and occupation of

Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989. The
Kashmir insurgency was a violent
uprising by the Kashmiri Muslims
against the Indian rule and oppression
in the disputed region of Kashmir
from 1989 onwards. The Deobandis
provided ideological, financial, and
military support to the militants who
fought in these conflicts. They also
established training camps and
madrasas in Pakistan and
Afghanistan, where they recruited
and indoctrinated young Muslims
 213

from various countries. The

Deobandis also influenced and
inspired several militant groups and
movements that emerged from these
conflicts, such as the Taliban, Jaish-
e-Mohammed, and Lashkar-e-
Jhangvi.

Deoband an epitome of paradox,

orthodox and heterodox, disagreed
with Aligarh on obliterating
Muslims on educational lines.
Comment.
 214

The Deoband and Aligarh

movements were two influential
Islamic educational movements in
British India during the late 19th and
early 20th centuries. They had
different visions of the role of Islam
and education in Indian society, and
often disagreed on various issues.
The Deoband movement was a
traditionalist and conservative
movement that sought to preserve
and promote Islamic knowledge and
practices, while the Aligarh
movement was a modernist and
 215

liberal movement that sought to

promote Western-style education and
social reform. The Deoband
movement can be seen as an epitome
of paradox, orthodox and heterodox,
as it had some contradictory and
unconventional aspects, as well as
some rigid and conventional ones.
The Deoband movement also
disagreed with the Aligarh movement
on obliterating Muslims on
educational lines, as it saw Western
education as a threat to Islamic
identity and values.
 216

Paradox
The Deoband movement was
paradoxical in some ways, as it had
some features that were contradictory
or inconsistent with its overall
conservative and traditionalist
outlook. For example:
 The Deoband movement was
founded in 1866, after the Indian
Rebellion of 1857, which was a
violent uprising against British
colonial rule. The founders of the
Deoband movement, such as
Maulana Muhammad Qasim
 217

Nanotvi and Maulana Rashid

Ahmad Gangohi, were actively
involved in the rebellion, and even
established their own government in
some areas. However, after the
suppression of the rebellion, the
Deoband movement adopted a non-
violent and apolitical stance, and
focused on religious education and
revivalism. The Deoband movement
avoided direct confrontation with
the British, and instead sought to
reform the Muslim community from
within .
 218

 The Deoband movement was based

on the teachings of the Madrasa-i-
Rahimiyah, a seminary founded by
Shah Waliullah, a prominent 18th
century Islamic scholar and
reformer. The Madrasa-i-Rahimiyah
emphasized the study of Hadith, the
traditions and sayings of the Prophet
Muhammad, as the primary source
of Islamic law and
guidance. However, the Deoband
movement also incorporated some
features of the modern educational
institutions established by the
 219

British, such as the division of

students into regular classes, the use
of attendance registers and written
examinations, and the awarding of
certificates and degrees .
 The Deoband movement was a
Sunni movement that followed the
Hanafi school of jurisprudence, one
of the four major schools of Islamic
law. The Deoband movement was
also influenced by the Sufi tradition,
the mystical and spiritual dimension
of Islam. However, the Deoband
movement also criticized some
 220

aspects of popular Sufism, such as

the veneration of saints, the use of
music and dance, and the practice of
intercession. The Deoband
movement advocated a more
puritanical and scriptural approach
to Sufism, and emphasized the
personal relationship between the
seeker and God .
Orthodox
The Deoband movement was
orthodox in many ways, as it had
some features that were rigid and
conventional, and adhered to the
 221

established norms and traditions of

Islam. For example:
 The Deoband movement was
committed to the preservation and
promotion of Islamic knowledge
and practices, and resisted any
changes or innovations that were
not in accordance with the Quran
and the Sunnah, the sources of
Islamic authority. The Deoband
movement established a network
of seminaries across India and
beyond, where students learned the
classical Islamic sciences, such as
 222

Quran, Hadith, Fiqh, Tafsir, and

Kalam. The Deoband movement
also produced many eminent
scholars and jurists, who wrote
authoritative books and fatwas on
various Islamic issues .
 The Deoband movement was
concerned with the moral and
religious rejuvenation of the
Muslim community, and urged the
Muslims to follow the Islamic
values and practices in their
personal and social lives. The
Deoband movement advocated a
 223

strict observance of the Islamic

rituals, such as the five daily
prayers, fasting, zakat, and
hajj. The Deoband movement also
encouraged the Muslims to adopt
the Islamic dress code, avoid the
consumption of alcohol and other
intoxicants, and abstain from the
mixing of genders and the
participation in non-Islamic
festivals and ceremonies .
 The Deoband movement was loyal
to the Islamic creed and identity,
and defended the Muslim faith and
 224

interests against the challenges and

threats posed by the British
colonialism, the Hindu revivalism,
and the Christian missionary
activities. The Deoband movement
rejected the British policies and
laws that were detrimental to the
Muslim rights and interests, such
as the abolition of the caliphate,
the partition of Bengal, and the
imposition of taxes on religious
endowments. The Deoband
movement also refuted the Hindu
and Christian claims and criticisms
 225

against Islam, and engaged in

polemical and apologetic writings
and debates .
Heterodox
The Deoband movement was
heterodox in some ways, as it had
some features that were
unconventional and deviated from the
mainstream or dominant views and
practices of Islam. For example:
 The Deoband movement was
influenced by the Wahhabi
movement, a reformist and
revivalist movement that
 226

originated in Arabia in the 18th

century. The Wahhabi movement
was led by Muhammad ibn Abd al-
Wahhab, a scholar who called for a
return to the pure and authentic
Islam of the early generations, and
denounced the innovations and
deviations that had crept into the
Muslim society over time. The
Wahhabi movement was also
supported by Muhammad ibn
Saud, the founder of the Saudi
dynasty, who waged a military
campaign to unify Arabia under
 227

the banner of Wahhabism. The

Deoband movement shared some
of the Wahhabi views and
objectives, such as the rejection of
popular Sufism, the emphasis on
the oneness of God, and the revival
of the Islamic law and
order. However, the Deoband
movement also differed from the
Wahhabi movement on some
issues, such as the respect for the
four schools of jurisprudence, the
acceptance of rational theology,
and the recognition of the spiritual
 228

authority of the Prophet

Muhammad .
 The Deoband movement was
involved in the Khilafat
movement, a political and religious
movement that emerged in India in
the aftermath of the World War I.
The Khilafat movement was led by
prominent Indian Muslim leaders,
such as Maulana Muhammad Ali
and Maulana Shaukat Ali, who
protested against the British
decision to abolish the Ottoman
caliphate, the symbolic and
 229

spiritual leadership of the Muslim

world. The Khilafat movement
also joined forces with the Indian
National Congress, the largest
political party in India, which was
led by Mahatma Gandhi, a Hindu
leader who advocated non-violence
and civil disobedience against the
British rule. The Deoband
movement supported the Khilafat
movement, and some of its leaders,
such as Maulana Mahmud-ul-
Hasan and Maulana Ubaid Ullah
Sindhi, participated in the
 230

movement and its

activities. However, the Deoband
movement also faced some
opposition and criticism from
some of its own members and
other Muslim groups, who
questioned the legitimacy of the
Ottoman caliphate, the feasibility
of the Khilafat movement, and the
alliance with the Indian National
Congress .
 The Deoband movement was
divided on the issue of the Pakistan
movement, the political and
 231

ideological movement that led to

the creation of Pakistan, a separate
Muslim state, in 1947. The
Pakistan movement was
spearheaded by Muhammad Ali
Jinnah, the leader of the All-India
Muslim League, who argued that
the Muslims of India were a
distinct nation from the Hindus,
and that they needed a separate
homeland to safeguard their
religious and cultural identity. The
Pakistan movement was also
supported by some of the Deoband
 232

leaders, such as Maulana Shabbir

Ahmad Usmani and Maulana
Ashraf Ali Thanvi, who saw
Pakistan as a potential Islamic state
and a refuge for the oppressed
Muslims of India. However, the
Pakistan movement was also
opposed by some of the Deoband
leaders, such as Maulana Husain
Ahmad Madani and Maulana Abul
Kalam Azad, who advocated for a
united and secular India, and who
believed that the Muslims could
coexist and cooperate with the
 233

Hindus on the basis of common

citizenship and interests .
Disagreement with Aligarh
The Deoband movement disagreed
with the Aligarh movement on
obliterating Muslims on educational
lines, as it saw Western education as
a threat to Islamic identity and
values. The Aligarh movement was a
modernist and liberal movement that
sought to promote Western-style
education and social reform among
the Muslims of India. The Aligarh
movement was founded by Sir Syed
 234

Ahmad Khan, a prominent Muslim

scholar and reformer, who
established the Muhammadan Anglo-
Oriental College, later known as the
Aligarh Muslim University, in 1875.
The Aligarh movement aimed to
modernize and rationalize the
Muslim society, and to improve the
relations between the Muslims and
the British. The Aligarh movement
also advocated for the Muslim
participation in the political and
cultural life of India, and supported
 235

the Indian National Congress and its

demand for self-government .
The Deoband movement had several
points of disagreement with the
Aligarh movement, such as:
 The Deoband movement viewed
Western education as a source of
corruption and deviation from the
Islamic faith and values. The
Deoband movement believed that
Western education was based on the
principles of secularism,
materialism, and nationalism, which
 236

were incompatible with the Islamic

worldview and ethos.
 The Deoband movement criticized
Western education as a means of
obliterating the Muslims on
educational lines. The Deoband
movement argued that Western
education was designed to
assimilate the Muslims into the
British culture and civilization, and
to alienate them from their Islamic
heritage and identity. The Deoband
movement feared that Western
education would erode the Muslim
 237

faith and morals, and would create a

class of Westernized and
secularized Muslims, who would be
loyal to the British and indifferent to
the Muslim interests and causes .
 The Deoband movement opposed
Western education as a source of
inferiority and dependency for the
Muslims. The Deoband movement
contended that Western education
was based on the Western sciences
and humanities, which were biased
and limited, and which did not
reflect the universal and
 238

comprehensive nature of the Islamic

knowledge and wisdom. The
Deoband movement claimed that
Western education would make the
Muslims ignorant and unaware of
their own rich and glorious Islamic
legacy and civilization, and would
make them dependent and
subservient to the Western powers
and influences .
 The Deoband movement rejected
Western education as a substitute or
alternative for the Islamic education.
The Deoband movement maintained
 239

that Islamic education was the only

true and authentic education for the
Muslims, and that it was sufficient
and superior to any other form of
education. The Deoband movement
asserted that Islamic education was
the only way to attain the spiritual
and worldly success and salvation
for the Muslims, and that it was the
only way to fulfill the Islamic
obligations and responsibilities for
the Muslims. The Deoband
movement insisted that Islamic
education was the only way to
 240

preserve and propagate the Islamic

faith and values for the Muslims .
The Deoband and Aligarh
movements were two contrasting and
conflicting Islamic educational
movements in British India. The
Deoband movement was a
paradoxical, orthodox, and heterodox
movement that sought to preserve
and promote the Islamic knowledge
and practices, and that disagreed with
the Aligarh movement on obliterating
the Muslims on educational lines.
The Deoband movement saw
 241

Western education as a threat to the

Islamic identity and values, and as a
source of corruption, deviation,
inferiority, and dependency for the
Muslims. The Deoband movement
advocated for the Islamic education
as the only true and authentic
education for the Muslims, and as the
only way to attain the spiritual and
worldly success and salvation for the
Muslims. The Deoband movement
had a significant impact on the
Muslim society and politics in India
and beyond, and it influenced many
 242

other Islamic movements and groups

in the modern era .

Islam spread by knowledge or

sword. Comment.
Islam is a religion that was revealed
to Prophet Muhammad ‫ ﷺ‬in the
7th century CE in Arabia. Islam
means submission to the will of God,
and its followers are called Muslims.
Islam is based on the belief in the
oneness of God, the prophethood of
Muhammad ‫ﷺ‬, and the guidance
of the Quran and the Sunnah. Islam is
 243

also a way of life that encompasses

moral, legal, social, and spiritual
aspects. Islam has more than 1.8
billion adherents worldwide, making
it the second-largest and the fastest-
growing religion in the world. Islam
is often accused of being spread by
the sword, meaning that it was
imposed on people by force and
violence. However, this accusation is
not supported by historical evidence
or Islamic teachings. In fact, Islam
was spread by knowledge and
 244

persuasion, and by the example and

conduct of its followers.
Knowledge and Persuasion
Islam was spread by knowledge and
persuasion, meaning that it appealed
to the rationality and conscience of
people, and invited them to accept its
message with wisdom and good
instruction. Islam did not compel
anyone to embrace it, but rather
respected the freedom of choice and
belief of all people. The Quran, the
holy book of Islam, states:
 245

“There shall be no compulsion in

[acceptance of] the religion. The right
course has become clear from the
wrong.” (Quran 2:256)
“Invite to the way of your Lord with
wisdom and good instruction, and
argue with them in a way that is
best.” (Quran 16:125)
“And say, ‘The truth is from your
Lord, so whoever wills - let him
believe; and whoever wills - let him
disbelieve.’” (Quran 18:29)
Islam also presented its teachings and
arguments with evidence and reason,
 246

and challenged its opponents to

produce their proofs and arguments.
The Quran says:
“Say, ‘Bring forth your proofs, if you
are truthful.’” (Quran 2:111)
“Or do they say, ‘He invented it?’
Say, ‘Then bring forth a surah like it
and call upon [for assistance]
whomever you can besides Allah, if
you should be truthful.’” (Quran
10:38)
“Have they not considered the
Quran? Had it been from [any] other
than Allah, they would have found
 247

within it much contradiction.” (Quran

4:82)
Islam also addressed the various
aspects of human life and society,
and offered solutions and guidance
for the problems and challenges that
people faced. Islam provided a
comprehensive and coherent
worldview that satisfied the
intellectual, moral, spiritual, and
emotional needs of people. Islam also
promoted justice, peace, equality, and
human dignity for all people,
regardless of their race, gender, or
 248

status. Islam also encouraged

learning, inquiry, and civilization,
and contributed to the advancement
of science, art, and culture. Islam also
fulfilled the prophecies and teachings
of the previous prophets and
scriptures, and confirmed their
common message of monotheism and
morality. All these factors made
Islam an attractive and convincing
religion for many people, who
embraced it willingly and sincerely.
Example and Conduct
 249

Islam was also spread by the example

and conduct of its followers, meaning
that they demonstrated the practical
and positive effects of Islam in their
lives and interactions with others.
The Prophet Muhammad ‫ ﷺ‬was
the best example of Islam, as he
embodied its teachings and values in
his character and behavior. He was
known for his honesty, integrity,
generosity, kindness, mercy, justice,
and wisdom. He was also a leader, a
statesman, a reformer, a teacher, and
a guide for his companions and
 250

followers. He was respected and

loved by his friends, and admired and
praised by his enemies. He was
described by his wife Aisha as “the
Quran walking.” The Quran says
about him:
“And indeed, you are of a great moral
character.” (Quran 68:4)
“There has certainly been for you in
the Messenger of Allah an excellent
pattern for anyone whose hope is in
Allah and the Last Day and [who]
remembers Allah often.” (Quran
33:21)
 251

“We have not sent you, [O

Muhammad], except as a mercy to
the worlds.” (Quran 21:107)
The Prophet Muhammad ‫ ﷺ‬also
taught his companions and followers
to follow his example and to convey
the message of Islam to others with
wisdom and good manners. He said:
“Convey from me, even if it is one
verse.” (Bukhari)
“The best among you are those who
have the best manners and character.”
(Bukhari)
 252

“None of you will have faith till he

loves for his brother what he loves
for himself.” (Bukhari)
The companions and followers of the
Prophet Muhammad ‫ ﷺ‬were also
exemplary Muslims, who practiced
Islam faithfully and sincerely, and
who sacrificed their lives and wealth
for the sake of Allah. They were also
the pioneers and the carriers of Islam
to various regions and peoples, where
they spread the message of Islam
with their words and deeds. They
were known for their piety, courage,
 253

generosity, justice, and wisdom. They

were also tolerant and respectful of
other faiths and cultures, and
established peaceful and harmonious
relations with them. They also
contributed to the development and
prosperity of the lands and societies
that they entered, and left behind a
legacy of civilization and culture.
They were the best ambassadors of
Islam, and their example and conduct
inspired and influenced many people
to embrace Islam.
 254

In essence, Islam's expansion was not

driven by coercion but by the
persuasive power of its tenets and the
exemplary conduct of its followers.
Through its emphasis on knowledge,
reason, and the noble example set by
Prophet Muhammad ‫ ﷺ‬and his
companions, Islam resonated with the
innate human quest for truth and
goodness. Its message of
monotheism, justice, and peace
transcended cultural boundaries,
fostering societal progress and
individual enlightenment. By
 255

respecting individual choice and

embodying its principles in practical
living, Islam continues to inspire
millions globally, standing as a
testament to the enduring strength of
its ideals.

What are the factors that led to

Nationalism in Subcontinent?
Nationalism is a political and
ideological movement that asserts the
right of a nation to self-determination
and sovereignty. A nation is a group
of people who share a common
 256

identity, history, culture, and

territory. Nationalism in the
subcontinent refers to the various
forms of nationalism that emerged
among the people of India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal
during the colonial and post-colonial
periods. Nationalism in the
subcontinent was influenced by
various factors, such as the British
rule, the socio-religious reforms, the
partition, and the independence
movements.
1. British Rule:
 257

One of the main factors that led to

nationalism in the subcontinent was
the British rule, which lasted from
1757 to 1947. The British rule had
several political, economic, social,
and cultural impacts on the
subcontinent, which created a sense
of resentment and resistance among
the people. Some of the impacts of
the British rule were:
 The British established a centralized
and bureaucratic administration,
which replaced the traditional and
diverse forms of governance that
 258

existed in the subcontinent. The

British also imposed their laws,
policies, and institutions, which
often disregarded the local customs,
values, and interests of the people.
The British also exploited the
natural and human resources of the
subcontinent, and transferred the
wealth and profits to Britain, which
resulted in the impoverishment and
underdevelopment of the
subcontinent.
 The British introduced a modern
education system, which was based
 259

on the English language and the

Western curriculum. The British
education system exposed the
people of the subcontinent to the
ideas and values of the
Enlightenment, such as democracy,
liberty, equality, and nationalism.
The British education system also
created a new class of educated and
elite Indians, who became aware of
their rights and aspirations, and who
challenged the British authority and
domination. The British education
system also fostered a sense of unity
 260

and solidarity among the people of

the subcontinent, who shared a
common language and culture.
 The British promoted a policy of
divide and rule, which aimed to
create and exploit the differences
and conflicts among the people of
the subcontinent. The British
manipulated the religious, ethnic,
linguistic, and regional divisions
among the people, and favored
some groups over others, which
resulted in the polarization and
fragmentation of the society. The
 261

British also encouraged the

communal and separatist
movements, such as the Hindu
Mahasabha, the Muslim League,
and the Sikh Akali Dal, which
demanded separate states or regions
for their respective communities.
 The British suppressed the
nationalist and freedom movements,
which emerged in response to the
British rule. The British used
various methods of coercion and
repression, such as the use of force,
violence, arrests, censorship, and
 262

propaganda, to crush the resistance

and dissent of the people. The
British also enacted several laws
and acts, such as the Rowlatt Act,
the Government of India Act, and
the Indian Independence Act, which
curtailed the civil and political
rights of the people, and which
violated the principles of justice and
democracy.
2. Socio-Religious Reforms:
Another factor that led to nationalism
in the subcontinent was the socio-
religious reforms, which took place
 263

in the 19th and 20th centuries. The

socio-religious reforms were initiated
by various reformers and movements,
who aimed to reform and revive the
religions and societies of the
subcontinent, and who opposed the
British interference and influence.
Some of the socio-religious reforms
were:
 The Brahmo Samaj, founded by
Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828,
which advocated for the reform of
Hinduism, and which opposed the
practices of idolatry, polytheism,
 264

caste system, and sati. The Brahmo

Samaj also supported the causes of
women’s education, social equality,
and religious tolerance.
 The Arya Samaj, founded by Swami
Dayananda Saraswati in 1875,
which advocated for the revival of
Hinduism, and which opposed the
practices of ritualism, superstition,
and priestcraft. The Arya Samaj also
supported the causes of Vedic
education, social service, and
national awakening.
 265

 The Aligarh Movement, founded by

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in 1866,
which advocated for the reform of
Islam, and which opposed the
practices of orthodoxy, fanaticism,
and sectarianism. The Aligarh
Movement also supported the
causes of Western education, social
reform, and Muslim nationalism.
 The Singh Sabha Movement,
founded by Khem Singh Bedi and
others in 1873, which advocated for
the reform of Sikhism, and which
opposed the practices of
 266

Hinduization, corruption, and

ignorance. The Singh Sabha
Movement also supported the
causes of Sikh education, identity,
and solidarity.
3. Partition:
A third factor that led to nationalism
in the subcontinent was the partition,
which occurred in 1947. The partition
was the division of the subcontinent
into two independent states, India and
Pakistan, based on the religious lines
of Hindu and Muslim majority areas.
The partition was the result of the
 267

failure of the British and the Indian

leaders to reach a consensus on the
constitutional and political future of
the subcontinent, and the demand of
the Muslim League for a separate
homeland for the Muslims. The
partition had several political,
economic, social, and cultural
consequences on the subcontinent,
which created a sense of nationalism
among the people. Some of the
consequences of the partition were:
 The partition caused a massive and
violent migration of millions of
 268

people across the borders, which

resulted in the loss of lives,
properties, and belongings of the
people. The partition also created a
humanitarian crisis, as the refugees
faced the problems of poverty,
hunger, disease, and trauma. The
partition also created a security
crisis, as the borders became the
sites of conflicts, tensions, and wars
between the two states.
 The partition caused a disruption
and disintegration of the economy
and the infrastructure of the
 269

subcontinent, which resulted in the

decline of trade, industry, and
agriculture of the regions. The
partition also created a fiscal and
administrative crisis, as the assets,
liabilities, and institutions of the
subcontinent had to be divided and
allocated between the two states.
The partition also created a
developmental and environmental
crisis, as the resources, policies, and
plans of the subcontinent had to be
revised and adjusted for the two
states.
 270

 The partition caused a

transformation and differentiation of
the society and the culture of the
subcontinent, which resulted in the
emergence of new identities, values,
and norms of the people. The
partition also created a communal
and sectarian crisis, as the religious,
ethnic, linguistic, and regional
diversity of the subcontinent was
reduced and polarized between the
two states. The partition also created
a psychological and emotional
 271

crisis, as the people faced the issues

of nostalgia, trauma, and alienation.
4. Independence Movements:
A fourth factor that led to nationalism
in the subcontinent was the
independence movements, which
took place in the 20th century. The
independence movements were the
collective and organized efforts of the
people of the subcontinent to achieve
freedom and sovereignty from the
British rule. The independence
movements were led by various
leaders and parties, who adopted
 272

different strategies and ideologies to

pursue their goals. Some of the
independence movements were:
 The Indian National Congress,
founded in 1885, which was the
largest and the oldest political party
in the subcontinent, and which
represented the interests of the
majority of the people. The Indian
National Congress adopted the
methods of constitutionalism, non-
cooperation, civil disobedience, and
Quit India to challenge the British
rule, and demanded the complete
 273

independence and unity of the

subcontinent. The Indian National
Congress was led by various
leaders, such as Mahatma Gandhi,
Jawaharlal Nehru, and Subhas
Chandra Bose.
 The Muslim League, founded in
1906, which was the main political
party of the Muslims in the
subcontinent, and which represented
the interests of the minority of the
people. The Muslim League adopted
the methods of cooperation,
separatism, two-nation theory, and
 274

Pakistan Resolution to challenge the

British rule, and demanded the
partition and independence of the
subcontinent. The Muslim League
was led by various leaders, such as
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Muhammad
Ali Jinnah, and Liaquat Ali Khan.
 The Communist Party of India,
founded in 1925, which was the
radical and revolutionary political
party in the subcontinent, and which
represented the interests of the
working class and the peasants. The
Communist Party of India adopted
 275

the methods of Marxism, Leninism,

socialism, and armed struggle to
challenge the British rule, and
demanded the independence and
socialism of the subcontinent. The
Communist Party of India was led
by various leaders, such as M.N.
Roy, S.A. Dange, and P.C. Joshi.
 The Indian National Army, founded
in 1942, which was the military and
patriotic force in the subcontinent,
and which represented the interests
of the Indian soldiers and prisoners
of war. The Indian National Army
 276

adopted the methods of nationalism,

militarism, and alliance to challenge
the British rule, and demanded the
independence and liberation of the
subcontinent. The Indian National
Army was led by various leaders,
such as Rash Behari Bose, Subhas
Chandra Bose, and Lakshmi Sahgal.
Nationalism in the subcontinent was
a complex and dynamic phenomenon,
which emerged and evolved in
response to various factors, such as
the British rule, the socio-religious
reforms, the partition, and the
 277

independence movements.
Nationalism in the subcontinent was
also a diverse and contested
phenomenon, which reflected the
different and conflicting aspirations
and perspectives of the people.
Nationalism in the subcontinent had a
significant impact on the history and
politics of the region, and it continues
to shape the present and the future of
the nations and the people.

Muslim World is filled with

paradoxes and anomalies
 278

regarding the pursuit of western

education. Comment.
The Muslim World is a term that
refers to the countries and regions
where Islam is the dominant or
official religion, or where Muslims
constitute a significant portion of the
population. According to a 2015
estimate, there are about 1.8 billion
Muslims in the world, representing
about 24% of the global population.
The Muslim World is diverse and
heterogeneous, with different
cultures, languages, ethnicities, sects,
 279

and political systems. However, the

Muslim World also shares some
common features, such as the belief
in the oneness of God, the
prophethood of Muhammad, and the
guidance of the Quran and the
Sunnah.
Western education is a term that
refers to the system of education that
originated and developed in Europe
and North America, and that was
influenced by the values and
principles of the Enlightenment, such
as rationalism, empiricism,
 280

secularism, and humanism. Western

education is based on the disciplines
and methods of the natural and social
sciences, the humanities, and the arts.
Western education also emphasizes
the goals of individualism, liberalism,
democracy, and progress.
The pursuit of Western education by
the Muslim World is a complex and
controversial issue, that involves
various paradoxes and anomalies. A
paradox is a statement or situation
that seems contradictory or absurd,
but that may be true or possible. An
 281

anomaly is a deviation or exception

from the normal or expected pattern
or rule. The pursuit of Western
education by the Muslim World is
filled with paradoxes and anomalies,
because it reflects the tensions and
challenges that the Muslim World
faces in its interaction and integration
with the modern and globalized
world.
Paradoxes
Some of the paradoxes that the
Muslim World faces in its pursuit of
Western education are:
 282

 The paradox of acceptance and

rejection: The Muslim World has
both accepted and rejected Western
education, depending on the
historical and political context. On
the one hand, the Muslim World has
recognized the value and necessity
of Western education, especially in
the fields of science, technology,
medicine, and engineering, and has
adopted and adapted it to suit its
needs and aspirations. Many
Muslim countries and institutions
have established and promoted
 283

Western-style education, and have

sent their students and scholars to
study and research in the West. On
the other hand, the Muslim World
has also resisted and criticized
Western education, especially in the
fields of philosophy, religion,
culture, and morality, and has
perceived it as a threat and a
challenge to its identity and values.
Many Muslim movements and
groups have opposed and rejected
Western education, and have
advocated for the revival and reform
 284

of Islamic education, and have

called for the Islamization of
knowledge and education.
 The paradox of imitation and
innovation: The Muslim World has
both imitated and innovated
Western education, depending on
the level and degree of adaptation
and integration. On the one hand,
the Muslim World has imitated
Western education, by copying and
reproducing its models, curricula,
methods, and standards, without
much modification or
 285

transformation. Many Muslim

countries and institutions have
followed and implemented the
Western system of education, and
have adopted its languages, degrees,
and accreditation. On the other
hand, the Muslim World has also
innovated Western education, by
creating and developing its own
approaches, perspectives,
contributions, and critiques, based
on its sources, traditions, and
experiences. Many Muslim scholars
and thinkers have engaged and
 286

interacted with Western education,

and have produced original and
influential works and ideas, in
various fields and disciplines.
 The paradox of unity and diversity:
The Muslim World has both unified
and diversified its pursuit of
Western education, depending on
the scope and scale of collaboration
and competition. On the one hand,
the Muslim World has unified its
pursuit of Western education, by
establishing and strengthening its
common and collective interests,
 287

goals, and initiatives, based on its

shared faith, culture, and history.
Many Muslim organizations and
networks have emerged and
expanded, to facilitate and enhance
the cooperation and exchange of
Western education among the
Muslim countries and institutions,
and to represent and advocate for
the Muslim voice and vision in the
global arena of education. On the
other hand, the Muslim World has
also diversified its pursuit of
Western education, by expressing
 288

and asserting its distinct and diverse

identities, aspirations, and
achievements, based on its varied
regions, sects, and politics. Many
Muslim countries and institutions
have competed and differentiated
themselves, in terms of the quality,
quantity, and impact of Western
education, and have sought to gain
and maintain their prestige,
influence, and recognition, in the
regional and international context of
education.
Anomalies
 289

Some of the anomalies that the

Muslim World faces in its pursuit of
Western education are:
 The anomaly of progress and
decline: The Muslim World has
experienced both progress and
decline in its pursuit of Western
education, depending on the
indicators and outcomes of
development and performance. On
the one hand, the Muslim World has
made significant progress in its
pursuit of Western education, by
increasing and improving its access,
 290

participation, and attainment of

Western education, at all levels and
sectors. Many Muslim countries and
institutions have expanded and
diversified their provision and
delivery of Western education, and
have invested and allocated more
resources and opportunities for
Western education. Many Muslim
students and scholars have enrolled
and graduated from Western
education, and have acquired and
demonstrated more skills and
competencies in Western education.
 291

On the other hand, the Muslim

World has also faced some decline
in its pursuit of Western education,
by lagging and falling behind its
potential and expectations of
Western education, in terms of the
quality, relevance, and impact of
Western education. Many Muslim
countries and institutions have faced
and suffered from various
challenges and problems, such as
the lack of infrastructure, funding,
governance, and accountability, the
low standards, efficiency, and
 292

effectiveness, and the high rates of

illiteracy, dropout, and
unemployment, in relation to
Western education. Many Muslim
students and scholars have also
encountered and endured various
difficulties and barriers, such as the
discrimination, marginalization, and
radicalization, the mismatch,
disconnection, and alienation, and
the loss, confusion, and crisis, in
relation to Western education.
 The anomaly of integration and
isolation: The Muslim World has
 293

pursued both integration and

isolation in its pursuit of Western
education, depending on the degree
and direction of openness and
interaction. On the one hand, the
Muslim World has pursued
integration in its pursuit of Western
education, by opening and
connecting itself to the wider and
diverse world of education, and by
embracing and benefiting from the
opportunities and advantages of
globalization and multiculturalism.
Many Muslim countries and
 294

institutions have established and

maintained various forms of
partnership and cooperation, such as
the exchange, mobility, and transfer
of students, scholars, and programs,
the joint, collaborative, and
comparative research and
publications, and the recognition,
harmonization, and standardization
of degrees and qualifications, with
other countries and institutions, both
within and outside the Muslim
World. Many Muslim students and
scholars have also participated and
 295

contributed to the global and

pluralistic community of education,
and have learned and appreciated
the values and practices of diversity
and dialogue, in relation to Western
education. On the other hand, the
Muslim World has also pursued
isolation in its pursuit of Western
education, by closing and distancing
itself from the wider and diverse
world of education, and by rejecting
and resisting the challenges and
threats of globalization and
multiculturalism. Many Muslim
 296

countries and institutions have

imposed and enforced various forms
of protection and separation, such as
the censorship, restriction, and
regulation of the content,
curriculum, and pedagogy of
Western education, the isolation,
insulation, and segregation of the
students, scholars, and institutions
of Western education, and the
exclusion, rejection, and opposition
of the influences and impacts of
Western education, on their
religious, cultural, and moral values
 297

and norms. Many Muslim students

and scholars have also withdrawn
and isolated themselves from the
global and pluralistic community of
education, and have adhered and
adhered to the values and practices
of uniformity and conformity, in
relation to Western education.
 The anomaly of continuity and
change: The Muslim World has
witnessed both continuity and
change in its pursuit of Western
education, depending on the balance
and tension between tradition and
 298

modernity. On the one hand, the

Muslim World has preserved and
maintained some continuity in its
pursuit of Western education, by
upholding and honoring its legacy
and heritage of Islamic education,
and by integrating and reconciling
its principles and practices with
those of Western education. Many
Muslim countries and institutions
have preserved and revitalized the
classical and traditional forms and
sources of Islamic education, such
as the Quran, the Sunnah, the Fiqh,
 299

and the Kalam, and the mosques,

the madrasas, the Sufi orders, and
the scholarly networks, and have
incorporated and adapted them to
the contemporary and modern
context and needs of Western
education. Many Muslim students
and scholars have also continued
and renewed their commitment and
attachment to the Islamic faith and
culture, and have expressed and
manifested them in their pursuit and
practice of Western education. On
the other hand, the Muslim World
 300

has also experienced and introduced

some change in its pursuit of
Western education, by adopting and
adapting to the new and emerging
trends and developments of Western
education, and by innovating and
transforming its approaches and
perspectives in relation to Western
education. Many Muslim countries
and institutions have adopted and
adapted the new and emerging
forms and sources of Western
education, such as the science,
technology, engineering, and
 301

mathematics (STEM), and the

humanities, social sciences, and arts
(HASS), and the universities,
colleges, schools, and online
platforms, and have innovated and
transformed them to suit their
Islamic vision and mission of
education. Many Muslim students
and scholars have also experienced
and embraced the new and emerging
opportunities and challenges of
Western education, and have
developed and demonstrated their
creativity and criticality in their
 302

pursuit and practice of Western

education.

On which 4 dars were Deoband

based?
The Deoband movement was based
on the four dars (courses) of the
Dars-i Nizami, a curriculum of
Islamic studies that was developed by
Mulla Nizamuddin Sahalvi in the
18th century. The four dars were:
 Dars-i Nizami Awwal (First
Course): This course covered the
 303

basic and elementary subjects of

Islamic education, such as Arabic
grammar, syntax, morphology,
rhetoric, logic, and literature.
 Dars-i Nizami Thani (Second
Course): This course covered the
intermediate and advanced subjects
of Islamic education, such as
Quranic exegesis, Hadith studies,
jurisprudence, theology, and
Sufism.
 Dars-i Nizami Salis (Third Course):
This course covered the specialized
and higher subjects of Islamic
 304

education, such as the principles of

jurisprudence, the principles of
Hadith, the comparative
jurisprudence, and the dialectical
theology.
 Dars-i Nizami Rabi (Fourth
Course): This course covered the
optional and supplementary subjects
of Islamic education, such as the
history, geography, mathematics,
astronomy, and medicine.
The Deoband movement followed the
Dars-i Nizami curriculum with some
modifications and additions, such as
 305

the inclusion of the modern sciences

and languages, and the emphasis on
the Hanafi school of law and the
Maturidi school of theology .

Write a note on Mysticism in

subcontinent.
Mysticism is the experience or
pursuit of direct and intimate
knowledge of God or ultimate reality.
Mysticism in the subcontinent refers
to the various forms and expressions
of mystical spirituality that have
emerged and developed among the
 306

people of India, Pakistan,

Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal,
influenced by the religious and
cultural diversity of the region. Some
of the main features of mysticism in
the subcontinent are:
 Mysticism in the subcontinent is
often associated with Sufism, the
mystical and spiritual dimension of
Islam, which has a rich and
profound history in the region.
Sufism in the subcontinent emerged
in the early spread of Islam in the
7th century, and was greatly
 307

influenced by the Persian Sufi

traditions, which emphasized the
love and devotion to God and the
Prophet Muhammad. Sufism in the
subcontinent also integrated
elements of Indian spirituality and
mysticism, such as the concepts of
karma, reincarnation, and bhakti
(devotional worship). Sufism in the
subcontinent also transcended
religious boundaries and resonated
with people of various backgrounds,
as it promoted the values of
tolerance, harmony, and service .
 308

 Mysticism in the subcontinent is

also influenced by the Hindu and
Buddhist traditions, which have
ancient and diverse roots in the
region. Hindu and Buddhist
mysticism share some common
themes, such as the belief in the
unity of all existence, the cycle of
birth and death, the law of cause and
effect, and the goal of liberation
from suffering and ignorance. Hindu
and Buddhist mysticism also have
different approaches and methods,
such as the paths of action,
 309

knowledge, and devotion in

Hinduism, and the schools of
Theravada, Mahayana, and
Vajrayana in Buddhism. Hindu and
Buddhist mysticism also have
various forms and expressions, such
as the Vedanta, Yoga, Tantra, and
Bhakti movements in Hinduism, and
the Zen, Pure Land, Tibetan, and
Theravada traditions in Buddhism .
 Mysticism in the subcontinent is
also manifested in the Sikh and Jain
traditions, which are indigenous and
unique to the region. Sikh and Jain
 310

mysticism are based on the

teachings and practices of their
respective founders, Guru Nanak
and Mahavira, who lived in the 15th
and 6th centuries BCE, respectively.
Sikh and Jain mysticism share some
similarities with Hindu and
Buddhist mysticism, such as the
belief in the oneness of God, the
cycle of birth and death, the law of
karma, and the goal of liberation.
Sikh and Jain mysticism also have
some distinctive features, such as
the emphasis on the Guru Granth
 311

Sahib, the holy scripture of Sikhism,

and the principle of ahimsa, or non-
violence, in Jainism .
Mysticism in the subcontinent has
played a significant role in shaping
the cultural and religious landscape
of the region, and has contributed to
the development and diversity of its
spiritual and intellectual heritage.
Mysticism in the subcontinent has
also faced various challenges and
transformations, such as the impact
of colonialism, modernity, and
globalization, and the emergence of
 312

new and contemporary forms and

movements of mysticism. Mysticism
in the subcontinent remains a vibrant
and relevant phenomenon, that
reflects the quest and aspiration of
the people for the ultimate truth and
reality.

What is the background of Aligarh

Movement?
The 1857 Sepoy Mutiny, also known
as the Indian Rebellion of 1857, was
a major uprising against British
colonial rule in India. It began when
 313

Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the British

army rebelled over the use of greased
cartridges that allegedly contained
cow and pig fat, which violated their
religious beliefs The rebellion spread
to several regions of India, where
local rulers and civilians joined the
sepoys in fighting against the British
The rebellion was eventually
suppressed by the British, who took
direct control of India from the East
India Company
The aftermath of the rebellion had a
profound impact on the Muslim
 314

community in India, who were

blamed by the British for instigating
the revolt Many Muslims lost their
lands, titles, and privileges, and were
marginalized from political and
administrative positions They also
faced a cultural and educational
crisis, as their traditional system of
education, which was based on
Islamic scriptures and classical
languages, was deemed outdated and
irrelevant by the British As a result,
many Muslims felt alienated and
inferior in the changing society.
 315

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was a

visionary leader who sought to
address the problems faced by the
Muslims. He was a loyal servant of
the British, who had saved many
lives during the rebellion He realized
that the only way for the Muslims to
regain their dignity and status was to
adopt Western education and
modernize their outlook He founded
the Aligarh Movement, a social and
educational reform movement that
aimed to revive the Muslim
community in India He established
 316

the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental

College in Aligarh in 1875, which
later became the Aligarh Muslim
University The college offered a
curriculum that combined Western
science and humanities with Islamic
studies and ethics The college also
produced a generation of Muslim
intellectuals, leaders, and activists
who contributed to the Indian society
and the nationalist movement The
Aligarh Movement was a significant
milestone in the history of Indian
Muslims, as it helped them to
 317

overcome their backwardness and

assert their identity

What were the 3 main objectives of

Aligarh Movement?
The movement had three main
objectives:
 Loyalty to the British government:
The movement sought to build
trust and cooperation between the
British government and the
Muslim community, and to dispel
the misunderstanding and hostility
 318

that arose after the failed Indian

Rebellion of 1857, in which many
Muslims participated and
suffered. The movement also
hoped to secure the political and
economic rights and interests of
the Muslims under the British rule,
and to avoid further conflicts and
confrontations .
 Modern Western education for the
Muslims to compete with Hindus:
The movement advocated for the
adoption and promotion of
Western-style scientific and
 319

secular education among the

Muslims, who were lagging behind
their Hindu counterparts in terms
of education and employment. The
movement believed that Western
education was essential for the
intellectual, social, and cultural
development of the Muslims, and
for their participation and
contribution in the modern and
progressive world. The movement
also tried to reconcile Western
education with Islamic teachings
 320

and values, and to create a

synthesis of the two .
 To keep away the Muslims from
politics: The movement advised
the Muslims to refrain from
engaging in political activities and
movements, and to focus on
education and social reform
instead. The movement argued that
political involvement would
distract and divide the Muslims,
and would jeopardize their
relationship with the British
government. The movement also
 321

feared that political agitation

would provoke the British
repression and retaliation, and
would endanger the Muslim
interests and causes .

What were the educational services

of Aligarh movement?
The educational services of the
Aligarh Movement were as follows:
1. School in Muradabad (1859):
Sir Syed set up a school in
Muradabad, where English, Persian,
 322

Islamiat, Arabic and Urdu were

compulsory subjects. The school was
one of the first attempts by Sir Syed
to introduce modern education to the
Muslims, and to make them familiar
with the English language and
literature. The school also taught the
students about the Islamic history and
civilization, and the achievements of
the Muslim scholars and scientists.
2. School in Ghazipur (1862):
Sir Syed established another school
in Ghazipur, where he introduced
modern subjects such as
 323

mathematics, physics, chemistry and

geography, along with the traditional
subjects. The school was an
improvement over the Muradabad
school, as it offered a more
comprehensive and balanced
curriculum. The school also had a
library, a laboratory and a museum,
where the students could access
various books and instruments. The
school aimed to produce well-
rounded and enlightened students,
who could excel in both religious and
secular knowledge.
 324

3. Scientific Society Ghazipur

(1864):
Sir Syed founded the Scientific
Society in Ghazipur, which was the
first of its kind in India. The society
aimed to promote scientific
knowledge and rational thinking
among the Muslims, and to translate
and publish scientific and literary
works from English and other
languages into Urdu. The society also
organized lectures, debates and
discussions on various topics of
interest, and invited eminent scholars
 325

and experts to share their views and

opinions. The society was a pioneer
in spreading modern ideas and
information among the Muslims, and
in challenging the superstitions and
prejudices that hindered their
progress.
4. Aligarh Institute Gazette (1866):
The Scientific Society issued a
journal named as Aligarh Institute
Gazette, which was the first bilingual
journal in India. The journal
published articles on science, history,
literature, culture and religion, and
 326

served as a platform for the

dissemination of modern ideas and
information among the Muslims. The
journal also advocated the need for
social and educational reforms, and
highlighted the issues and problems
faced by the Muslim community. The
journal was a powerful medium of
communication and education, and
influenced the minds and hearts of
many Muslims.
5. Mohammedan Anglo Oriental
School (1875):
 327

Sir Syed established the

Mohammedan Anglo Oriental
(MAO) School at Aligarh, which was
the most significant achievement of
the Aligarh Movement. The school
was modeled after the English public
schools, and offered a high-quality
education in both English and Urdu
mediums. The school aimed to
produce a new generation of Muslim
leaders, who would be well-versed in
both Islamic and Western knowledge,
and who would be loyal to the British
government. The school also
 328

provided the students with various

facilities and opportunities, such as
scholarships, sports, clubs, societies
and magazines. The school later
became the MAO College in 1877,
and eventually the Aligarh Muslim
University in 1920. The school was
the alma mater of many prominent
Muslim personalities, such as
Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar,
Allama Iqbal, Liaquat Ali Khan, and
Dr. Zakir Hussain.
6. Mohammedan Educational
Conference (1886):
 329

Sir Syed founded the Mohammedan

Educational Conference, which was
an annual gathering of Muslim
educators, reformers and leaders from
all over India. The conference aimed
to review the educational progress
and problems of the Muslims, and to
devise strategies and policies for their
improvement. The conference also
encouraged the establishment of
more schools and colleges for the
Muslims, and supported the cause of
Urdu as the language of education
and administration. The conference
 330

was a forum for the exchange of

ideas and experiences, and for the
coordination and cooperation among
the Muslim educational institutions.
The conference also played a role in
creating a sense of solidarity and
awareness among the Muslims, and
in fostering a national and cultural
identity.

What were the political services of

Aligarh movement?
 331

The political services of the Aligarh

Movement were as follows:
1. Bridging the Gap between the
Muslims and the British:
The movement tried to bridge the gap
between the Muslims and the British
government, which had grown hostile
after the 1857 Revolt. Sir Syed
advised the Muslims to avoid
confrontational politics and focus on
education and social reforms. He also
tried to convince the British that the
Muslims were loyal and progressive
citizens of India. He wrote a
pamphlet called Risala Asbab e
Baghawate Hind (The Causes of the
 332

Indian Revolt), in which he defended

the Muslims from the charges of
treason and explained the reasons for
their discontent. He also established
friendly relations with influential
British officials and advocated for the
rights and interests of the Muslims.
2. Promoting the Idea of a Separate
Muslim Identity and Nationalism:
The movement promoted the idea of
a separate Muslim identity and
nationalism, which later evolved into
the Two-Nation Theory. Sir Syed
realized that the Muslims had a
distinct culture, history, and religion
from the Hindus, and that they could
 333

not coexist peacefully under a

common system of government. He
argued that the Muslims were a
separate nation from the Hindus, and
that they deserved a separate
electorate and representation in the
legislative councils. He also opposed
the Indian National Congress, which
he saw as a Hindu-dominated
organization that did not care for the
Muslim interests. He urged the
Muslims to stay away from the
Congress and form their own political
platform.
3. Laying the Foundation for the
All India Muslim League:
 334

The movement laid the foundation

for the All India Muslim League,
which was the main political party of
the Muslims in the 20th century. The
Aligarh alumni, such as Nawab
Waqar-ul-Mulk, Nawab Mohsin-ul-
Mulk, Aga Khan III, and others,
played a vital role in the formation of
the Muslim League in 1906. The
Muslim League adopted the Aligarh
ideology of Muslim nationalism and
separatism, and demanded a separate
state for the Muslims of India. The
Muslim League also produced many
eminent leaders, such as Mohammad
Ali Jinnah, Allama Iqbal, Liaquat Ali
 335

Khan, and others, who led

the Pakistan Movement and
achieved the creation of Pakistan in
1947.
4. Contributing to the Urdu-Hindi
Controversy:
The movement also contributed to
the Urdu-Hindi controversy, which
was a linguistic and cultural conflict
between the Muslims and the Hindus
in the 19th century. The controversy
started when the Hindus demanded
that Hindi, written in Devanagari
script, should replace Urdu, written in
Persian script, as the official
language of the North-Western
 336

Provinces in 1867. The Muslims saw

this as an attack on their language
and culture, and resisted the change.
Sir Syed supported the cause of Urdu
and defended its status as a language
of education, administration, and
literature. He also established
the Scientific Society and the Urdu
Defence Association to promote and
protect the Urdu language. The
controversy intensified the communal
divide between the Muslims and the
Hindus, and highlighted the need for
a separate Muslim identity.
 337

What were the intellectual services

of Aligarh movement?
Some of these services were:
1. Tahzib ul Ikhlaq (Refinement of
Morals):
This was a monthly journal started by
Sir Syed in 1870, which aimed to
improve the moral character of the
Muslims and to remove their doubts
and prejudices about Western
education and culture. The journal
advocated for social reforms such as
female education, abolition of
polygamy, and eradication of
 338

superstitions. The journal also

published articles on history, science,
literature, and philosophy. The
journal was a platform for the
dissemination of modern and
progressive ideas among the Muslims
and for the criticism of the orthodox
and conservative elements. The
journal also fostered a spirit of
rationalism, liberalism, and
nationalism among the Muslims
2. Tabeen ul Kalam (Testimony of
the Word):
 339

This was a book written by Sir Syed

in 1860, which attempted to show the
similarities and commonalities
between Islam and Christianity. The
book argued that both religions were
based on the same divine revelation
and that the differences were due to
human interpretations and
interpolations. The book also
defended the rationality and
universality of Islam and criticized
the dogmatic and sectarian aspects of
Christianity. The book was intended
to foster a better understanding and
 340

dialogue between the two faiths and

to counter the missionary propaganda
against Islam. The book also
demonstrated Sir Syed’s mastery of
comparative religion and his respect
for other faiths
3. Khutbat e Ahmadiya (Ahmadiya
Lectures):
This was a series of lectures
delivered by Sir Syed in 1870, which
were later published as a book in
1875. The lectures were a response to
William Muir’s book “The Life of
Muhammad”, which contained highly
 341

derogatory and offensive remarks

about the Prophet Muhammad
(PBUH) and Islam. The lectures
refuted Muir’s allegations and
presented a positive and respectful
portrait of the Prophet (PBUH) and
his teachings. The lectures also
highlighted the achievements and
contributions of the Muslims in
various fields of knowledge and
civilization. The lectures helped to
remove the misconceptions and
prejudices about the Prophet (PBUH)
and Islam among the Westerners and
 342

to enhance the self-esteem and pride

of the Muslims. The lectures also
showed Sir Syed’s deep love and
reverence for the Prophet (PBUH)
and his loyalty to Islam .
ANJUMAN HIMAYAT – E –
ISLAM
Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam (The
Association for the Support of Islam)
was an Islamic intellectual and social
welfare organisation that was
founded in Lahore on 22 September
1884 by Khalifa Qazi Hameed-ud-
Din. The association was composed
of Muslim intellectuals and
 343

politicians who sought to reform

Muslim society and work on its
development
The main objectives of the Anjuman
were:
 Providing for the religious and
general education for male and
female for Muslims students. The
Anjuman established educational
institutions in arts, sciences and
technology for men and women as
well as orphanages for helpless
Muslims, to which widows’ homes
were later added. It started a
publishing house for appropriate
textbooks for Muslim girls’ and
 344

boys’ schools, and these textbooks

were used all over the Punjab and
beyond. In 1939, it founded the
Islamia College for Women in
Lahore, the only one of its kind in
the region, whose curriculum was
the standard Bachelor of Arts
program, supplemented by Islamic
education. It also founded Islamia
College Lahore in 1892
 Protection and propagation of
Islamic values against the Christian
missionaries and Hindu revivalists.
The Anjuman was set up in response
to a shocking incident in 1883,
when a Sayyed lady along with her
 345

three children converted to

Christianity. Although she re-
embarrassed Islam later, the incident
opened the eyes of Muslims of the
Punjab to the threat of Christian and
Hindu influences. The Anjuman
arranged a group of religious orators
who travelled to villages of the
Punjab to counter the poisonous
propaganda of the Christian
missionaries and to preach and
propagate Islamic teachings. Some
of these committed preachers were,
Molvi Sayyed Ahmed Ali, Munshi
Shams-ud-din, Molana Abdul Majid
Dehlvi, Muhammad Mubarak. They
 346

spread throughout the province and

rendered valuable service and
influence of Christian missionaries
and to preach and propagate Islamic
teaching
 To counteract the propaganda
against Islam through speeches and
publications. The Anjuman tried its
best to awaken the Muslim
community and defend Islam
against the attacks of its adversaries.
It started its monthly journal
Himayat-i-Islam in 1885, which
became a weekly in 1926. The
journal was a platform for Islamic
scholars, poets, and writers to
 347

express their views and opinions on

various issues related to Islam and
Muslims. The Anjuman also
published pamphlets, books, and
tracts on various topics of Islamic
interest and distributed them among
the masses. Molvi Dastgeen wrote a
pamphlet in defence of the Holy
Quran and donated it to the
Anjuman, similarly Sayyed
Muhammad Hussain donated 300
books, which were sold for
Rs.975. The rulers of different states
also made generous contributions to
the Anjuman’s publications
 348

The Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam was

a body that represented a spontaneous
desire on the part of middle-class
Muslims of Lahore to cooperate with
each other for common good. The
Anjuman also played a vital role to
provide a political platform for Indian
Muslims. Some of its most prominent
members included the famous poet
Sir Muhammad Iqbal (1877 – 1938),
who recited his first poems at the
sessions of the Anjuman. Its purpose
was the educational uplift of Muslims
of the Indian subcontinent
NADWAT-UL-ULOOM (1898)
 349

Nadwat-ul-Uloom (The Assembly of

Knowledge) was an Islamic
educational institution that was
established in Lucknow, India, on 26
September 1898 by the Nadwatul
Ulama, a council of Muslim scholars
that was formed in Kanpur in 1893
The main objectives of Nadwat-ul-
Uloom were:
 Remove sectarianism among the
ranks of the Muslims. The Nadwat-
ul-Uloom aimed to bring together
Muslims of different theological
schools and sects, such as Hanafis,
Shafi’is, and Ahl al-Hadith, under
the banner of Islam and to foster
 350

unity and harmony among them. It

also sought to promote dialogue and
cooperation with other religious
communities and to defend Islam
against the attacks of its adversaries
 Elimination of the prevailing
extremist educational ideas and to
make them coherent. The Nadwat-
ul-Uloom wanted to reform the
traditional Islamic curriculum and to
update it with modern sciences,
languages, and vocational training.
It also wanted to balance the
religious and secular aspects of
education and to produce well-
rounded scholars who could address
 351

the challenges of the contemporary

world. It introduced new subjects
such as history, geography,
mathematics, logic, and English,
and revised the old ones such as
Arabic, Persian, and Islamic studies.
It also adopted a flexible and
progressive approach to teaching
and learning, and encouraged
critical thinking and research among
its students
 Improvement of the educational
syllabus. The Nadwat-ul-Uloom
developed its own textbooks and
publications for its courses, which
were widely used by other Islamic
 352

institutions in India and beyond. It

also established a library, a printing
press, and a publishing house to
support its academic activities. It
published several journals and
magazines in Arabic, Urdu, and
Hindi, such as Al-Baas Al-Islami,
Al-Raid, Tameer e Hayat, and
Sachha raahi, which disseminated
Islamic knowledge and culture to
the masses. It also published books
and pamphlets on various topics of
Islamic interest and distributed them
among the people
 Elimination of social evils. The
Nadwat-ul-Uloom aimed to improve
 353

the moral and social conditions of

the Muslim community and to
eradicate the social evils that
plagued it, such as ignorance,
poverty, superstition, and
corruption. It established various
welfare and charitable institutions,
such as orphanages, widows’ homes,
hospitals, and dispensaries, to cater
to the needs of the poor and the
needy. It also organized campaigns
and movements to raise awareness
and to reform the society according
to Islamic principles and values
 Improvement of all aspects of
Muslims’ lives. The Nadwat-ul-
 354

Uloom sought to enhance the

intellectual, spiritual, and material
well-being of the Muslims and to
enable them to play an active and
constructive role in the society. It
trained its students in various fields
and professions, such as law,
medicine, engineering, journalism,
and politics, and produced many
eminent scholars, leaders, and
reformers who contributed to the
advancement of the Muslim
community and the nation. Some of
its notable alumni include Abul
Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi,
Mohammad Akram Nadwi, Rabey
 355

Hasani Nadwi, Sajjad Nomani,

Shihabuddin Nadvi, Abdur Rahman
Kashgari Nadwi, Sultan Zauq
Nadwi, Syed Sulaiman Nadvi, Syed
Ehtisham Ahmed Nadvi, Wali
Hasan Tonki, Yasin Mazhar Siddiqi,
Salman Husaini Nadwi, and
Shihabuddin Nadvi
 Muslim separation from politics.
The Nadwat-ul-Uloom adopted a
non-political and non-partisan
stance and focused on the
educational and religious aspects of
its mission. It avoided involvement
in the political affairs of the country
and did not align itself with any
 356

political party or movement. It

maintained a cordial and respectful
relationship with the British colonial
authorities and sought their
cooperation and patronage for its
educational endeavors. It also
refrained from participating in the
nationalist struggle for
independence and remained neutral
during the partition of India in 1947
Establishment of a grand educational
institution to impart all sorts of
education both, religious and secular.
The Nadwat-ul-Uloom was the main
educational body of the Nadwatul
 357

Ulama and was considered one of the

most prestigious and influential
Islamic institutions in India and the
world. It had a large and spacious
campus in Lucknow, which housed
several faculties, departments, and
colleges, such as the Faculty of
Theology, the Faculty of Arabic and
Islamic Studies, the Faculty of Arts
and Humanities, the Faculty of
Sciences and Technology, the Faculty
of Law and Shariah, the Faculty of
Education and Training, the College
of Engineering, the College of
 358

Medicine, the College of Journalism,

and the College of Commerce. It also
had branches and affiliates in other
cities and countries, such as Delhi,
Hyderabad, Karachi, Dhaka, Kabul,
and Mecca. It attracted thousands of
students from all over India and
abroad, who came to seek knowledge
and guidance from its distinguished
faculty and scholars. It also conferred
degrees and diplomas to its graduates
and awarded honorary degrees to
eminent personalities. It was
recognized and accredited by various
 359

national and international bodies and

organizations, such as the University
Grants Commission, the All India
Council for Technical Education, the
World Federation of Islamic
Universities, and the Organization of
Islamic Cooperation.
WHAT THE SERVICES OF
SHEIKH-UL-HIND?
Sheikh ul Hind was given the title to
Mahmud Hassan Deobandi. He was
a visionary and influential figure in
the Indian subcontinent. He dedicated
his life to the service of Islam and
 360

India. He died in 1920 in Delhi,

British India.
Some of his notable services are:
 He was the first student to study at
the Darul Uloom Deoband
seminary, where he later became the
principal and taught hadith. He also
wrote a translation of the Quran in
Urdu and authored books such as
Adilla-e-Kāmilah, Īzah al-adillah,
Ahsan al-Qirā and Juhd al-
Muqill. He trained many eminent
scholars and activists, such as
Ashraf Ali Thanwi, Anwar Shah
Kashmiri, Hussain Ahmad Madani,
 361

Kifayatullah Dehlawi, Sanaullah

Amritsari and Ubaidullah Sindhi
 He joined the Silk Letter
Conspiracy, a plan to overthrow the
British rule in India with the help of
foreign Muslim countries, especially
Afghanistan and Turkey. He became
the Foreign Minister of the
Provisional Government of India
formed in Kabul in 1915. He was
arrested by the British in 1916 and
imprisoned in Malta for four years
 He co-founded the Jamia Millia
Islamia, a university in Delhi, in
1920. He aimed to provide modern
and Islamic education to the Indian
 362

Muslims and to foster unity among

different religious and political
groups. He also founded the
Jamiatul Ansar and the Nizaratul
Maarif, organisations for social and
educational reform
 He wrote religious edicts in support
of the Non-cooperation movement
and the Khilafat movement, two
major campaigns for the freedom of
India and the restoration of the
Ottoman Caliphate. He traveled
various parts of India, to enroll
Muslims in the freedom movement.
He presided the second general
meeting of the Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind
 363

in November 1920 and was

appointed its president. He was
honoured with the title of “Shaykh
al-Hind” (The Leader of India) by
the Khilafat committee
WHAT THE SERVICES OF
UBAIDULLAH SINDHI?
Ubaidullah Sindhi was a visionary
and influential figure in the Indian
subcontinent. He dedicated his life to
the service of Islam and India. He
died in 1944 in Rahim Yar Khan,
Punjab, Pakistan.
Some of his notable services are:
 364

 He joined the Silk Letter

Conspiracy, a plan to overthrow the
British rule in India with the help of
foreign Muslim countries, especially
Afghanistan and Turkey. He became
the Home Minister of the
Provisional Government of India
formed in Kabul in 1915
 He traveled to Russia, Turkey, and
Hijaz (Saudi Arabia) to seek support
for the Indian freedom struggle and
to learn from the Islamic and
socialist movements in those
regions. He developed his own
interpretation of Shah Waliullah’s
 365

philosophy and applied it to the

contemporary issues of India
 He founded the Jamiat Ulema-e-
Hind, a political party of Indian
Muslim scholars, in 1919. He also
established the Jamia Millia Islamia,
a university in Delhi, in 1920. He
aimed to provide modern and
Islamic education to the Indian
Muslims and to foster unity among
different religious and political
groups
 He wrote many books and articles
on various topics, such as Islamic
history, law, politics, economics,
and culture. He also translated and
 366

commented on some of the works of

Shah Waliullah and his family. He
was a pioneer of Islamic socialism
and advocated for a democratic and
egalitarian society in India

SILK LETTER MOVEMENT

 The Silk Letter Movement was
inspired by the pan-Islamic ideology
of the Ottoman Caliphate, which
declared a jihad against the Allied
Powers during World War I. The
Deobandi leaders hoped to mobilize
the Muslim masses in India to join
 367

the jihad and overthrow the British

colonial rule3.
 The key leaders of the movement
had different roles and
responsibilities. Maulana Mahmud
Hasan was the mastermind and the
spiritual leader of the movement. He
travelled to Hejaz to seek support
from the Ottoman Empire and other
Muslim countries. Maulana Husain
Ahmed Madni was his close
associate and deputy. He
accompanied him to Hejaz and later
to Malta, where they were exiled by
the British. Maulana Ubaidullah
Sindhi was the political leader and
 368

the organizer of the movement. He

went to Kabul to persuade the Amir
of Afghanistan to declare war on
Britain and to establish a provisional
government of India in exile.
Maulana Shah Raheem was the
military leader and the trainer of the
volunteers. He set up camps in the
tribal areas of India and Afghanistan
to prepare the fighters for the armed
struggle. Muhammad Mian
Mansoor Ansari was the messenger
and the liaison of the movement. He
carried the silk letters from Hejaz to
India and then to Kabul, and also
 369

delivered funds and weapons to the

volunteers4.
 The silk letters were written in Urdu
using an ornamental font and a
secret code. They were sewn inside
the lining of coats or turbans to
avoid detection. They contained
detailed information about the
movement’s objectives, strategies,
allies, resources, and instructions.
They also expressed the vision of a
free and united India based on
Islamic principles and values5.
 The international support for the
movement came from various
sources. The Ottoman Empire,
 370

which was the leading Muslim

power at the time, provided moral
and religious support by issuing a
fatwa (religious decree) in favor of
the movement and granting
honorary titles to the Deobandi
leaders. The Emirate of Afghanistan,
which was a neighboring and
friendly country, provided political
and diplomatic support by allowing
the Deobandi leaders to operate
from its territory and by sending
emissaries to other countries. The
German Empire, which was an
enemy of Britain, provided material
and financial support by supplying
 371

arms, ammunition, and funds to the

movement through its agents and
networks. The Russian Empire,
which was also an enemy of Britain,
provided strategic and logistical
support by facilitating the transport
of arms and volunteers from Central
Asia to Afghanistan6.
 The outcome of the movement was
unfortunate and disappointing. The
movement was exposed by the
British intelligence in 1916, when
they intercepted and decoded the
silk letters. The British authorities
launched a massive crackdown on
the movement and arrested many of
 372

its leaders, supporters, and

volunteers. Some of the leaders,
such as Maulana Mahmud Hasan
and Maulana Husain Ahmed Madni,
were exiled to Malta and later
released after the end of World War
I. Some of the leaders, such as
Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi and
Maulana Shah Raheem, managed to
escape and continued their struggle
from abroad. Some of the leaders,
such as Muhammad Mian Mansoor
Ansari, were executed or died in
prison. The movement failed to
achieve its goal of liberating India
from British rule and was largely
 373

forgotten by the mainstream

history7.
 The legacy of the movement was
significant and inspiring. The
movement was one of the earliest
and most organized attempts to
challenge the British colonial rule in
India. The movement was also one
of the most inclusive and diverse
movements, as it involved people
from different regions, sects, and
backgrounds. The movement was
also one of the most visionary and
progressive movements, as it
envisaged a democratic and
egalitarian society for India. The
 374

movement influenced and inspired

many other freedom fighters and
movements, such as the Khilafat
Movement, the Non-Cooperation
Movement, the Indian National
Army, and the Pakistan Movement.
The movement also contributed to
the development and dissemination
of the Deobandi school of thought,
which became one of the most
influential and widespread Islamic
movements in South Asia and
beyond8.
WHAT WERE THE
DISCUSSIONS BETWEEN
 375

STALIN AND UBAIDULLAH

SINDHI?
Ubaidullah Sindhi met Stalin in
Moscow in 1922, where he sought
Soviet support for the liberation of
India from British colonialism. He
also presented Stalin with a draft of a
constitution for a free India, which
was inspired by the Soviet model of
socialism and federalism. Ubaidullah
Sindhi was impressed by the
communist ideology and the
achievements of the Soviet Union,
and he believed that socialism was
compatible with Islam. He also
formed a political party, the
 376

Mahabharat Svarajia Party, to

advance his vision of a united and
socialist India.
However, Stalin did not show much
interest in Ubaidullah Sindhi’s
proposals, and he did not offer any
concrete assistance to the Indian
revolutionaries. Stalin was more
concerned with the internal affairs of
the Soviet Union and the
international communist movement,
and he did not see India as a priority
in his foreign policy. Stalin also had
reservations about the feasibility and
desirability of a pan-Islamic
revolution in India, which Ubaidullah
 377

Sindhi advocated. Stalin preferred to

support the secular and nationalist
forces in India, such as the Indian
National Congress, rather than the
religious and communal ones, such as
the Muslim League.
Therefore, the discussions between
Stalin and Ubaidullah Sindhi did not
result in any significant outcome or
impact on the Indian independence
struggle. Ubaidullah Sindhi left
Moscow after nine months and
travelled to Turkey, where he
continued his political activities. He
returned to India in 1939, where he
remained a marginal voice in an
 378

increasingly divided society. He died

in 1944, before India achieved its
independence.
WHY DID THE DISCUSSIONS
BETWEEN STALIN AND
UBAIDULLAH SINDHI
HAPPENED?
The discussions between Stalin and
Ubaidullah Sindhi happened because
Ubaidullah Sindhi was seeking
Soviet support for the liberation of
India from British colonialism. He
was also interested in learning from
the communist ideology and the
achievements of the Soviet Union,
which he believed were compatible
 379

with Islam. He wanted to present his

vision of a united and socialist India
to Stalin, and to get his feedback and
assistance.

WHY DEOBANDS FOCUSED ON

ONLY RELIGIOUS
EDUCATION?
 Preservation of Islamic
Teachings: The Deobands aimed to
preserve traditional Islamic
teachings from colonial influence.
They were concerned about the
influx of modernist, secular, and
Western ideas that threatened
 380

Islam’s purity and authenticity. This

concern was influenced by the
historical and political context of
colonial India, which posed a threat
to Islam and the Muslim
community’s survival.
 Rejection of Unorthodox
Practices: The Deobands rejected
the unorthodox and innovative
practices of other Muslim groups.
They opposed popular Sunni
practices such as visiting shrines,
celebrating “urs”, and other Sufi
rituals, which they considered as
shirk and bidʿah. They also
criticized the Shiʿa and the Barelvi
 381

sects for their deviant beliefs and

practices. This stance was
influenced by the intellectual and
spiritual legacy of Shah Wali Allah
and the Indian Wahhabi movement.
 Preparation for Religious
Leadership and Social Reform:
The Deobands believed that the
Muslim community needed
qualified and pious scholars
(ʿulamāʾ) who could guide them in
matters of faith and law. They also
advocated for the revival of the
Islamic caliphate and the
establishment of the Sharia as the
basis of governance. This belief was
 382

influenced by the educational and

institutional model of the Darul
Uloom Deoband.
WHY DID THE DEOBANDS
FAIL AND HOW COULD HAVE
THE DEOBAND MOVEMENT
RESULTED IN SUCCESS?
The Deoband movement faced
several challenges and obstacles that
hindered its success. Some of the
reasons for its failure are:
 Colonial Suppression: The British
colonial authorities were hostile to
the Deoband movement, as they saw
it as a potential threat to their
 383

rule. They often arrested, exiled, or

executed the Deobandi leaders and
scholars, such as Mahmud Hasan
Deobandi, who was involved in the
Silk Letter Conspiracy. They also
imposed restrictions on the
Deobandi madrasas and
publications, and tried to undermine
their influence among the masses.
 Internal Divisions: The Deoband
movement was not a monolithic
entity, but rather a diverse and
complex network of scholars,
institutions, and
organizations. There were
differences of opinion and approach
 384

among the Deobandi ulama on

various issues, such as politics,
theology, law, and social
reform. Some of the prominent
factions within the Deoband
movement were the Ahl-i Hadith,
the Barelvis, the Tablighi Jamaat,
and the Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind. These
factions often clashed with each
other over doctrinal and practical
matters, leading to sectarianism and
fragmentation.
 Limited Socio-Political
Engagement: The Deoband
movement focused mainly on
religious education and revival, and
 385

neglected the socio-political aspects

of the Muslim community. They did
not have a clear vision or strategy
for dealing with the challenges of
colonialism, nationalism,
democracy, and modernity. They
also failed to address the issues of
poverty, illiteracy, oppression, and
discrimination faced by the Muslim
masses, especially the lower classes
and women. They were often aloof
and isolated from the mainstream
society and politics, and did not
form alliances or coalitions with
other groups or movements.
 386

 Lack of Adaptability: The

Deoband movement was rigid and
conservative in its interpretation and
application of Islamic law and
theology. They did not
accommodate the changing needs
and circumstances of the Muslim
community in the modern era. They
resisted any innovation or reform
that they perceived as deviating
from the Quran and Hadith, and
denounced any alternative or
pluralistic views as heretical or
corrupt. They also ignored or
rejected the contributions of other
schools of thought and disciplines,
 387

such as philosophy, science, and

culture.
 External Influences: The Deoband
movement was influenced by
various external factors and forces
that shaped its direction and
outcome. Some of these influences
were positive, such as the support
and patronage of the Ottoman
Empire, the Saudi Arabia, and the
Muslim diaspora. However, some of
these influences were negative, such
as the interference and manipulation
of the British colonial power, the
Indian National Congress, the
Pakistan Movement, and the Afghan
 388

Jihad. These influences often

compromised the autonomy and
integrity of the Deoband movement,
and exposed it to violence and
extremism.
On the other hand, the Deoband
movement could have achieved more
success if it had followed some of the
potential paths to success, such as:
 Socio-Political Engagement: The
Deoband movement could have
engaged more actively and
constructively with the socio-
political realities and challenges of
the Muslim community. They could
have developed a comprehensive
 389

and coherent vision and strategy for

the liberation and empowerment of
the Muslims, both in India and
abroad. They could have also
addressed the social and economic
problems and grievances of the
Muslim masses, and advocated for
their rights and interests. They could
have also participated more
effectively and democratically in the
political process, and formed
alliances and coalitions with other
groups and movements that shared
their goals and values.
 Interfaith Dialogue: The Deoband
movement could have fostered more
 390

dialogue and cooperation with other

faiths and sects, especially the
Hindus and the Shias, who
constituted the majority and the
minority of the Indian population,
respectively. They could have
promoted mutual understanding and
respect, and reduced hostility and
conflict. They could have also
recognized the commonalities and
diversity among the different
religious traditions, and appreciated
their contributions and
perspectives. They could have also
addressed the issues of communal
 391

violence and religious intolerance,

and worked for peace and harmony.
 Modernization and Reform: The
Deoband movement could have
adapted and reformed its religious
teachings and practices to suit the
changing needs and circumstances
of the Muslim community in the
modern era. They could have
adopted a more flexible and
dynamic approach to Islamic law
and theology, and accommodated
the diversity and complexity of the
Muslim reality. They could have
also embraced the positive aspects
of modernity, such as democracy,
 392

human rights, education, and

science, and integrated them with
their Islamic values and
principles. They could have also
revised and updated their
curriculum and pedagogy, and made
them more relevant and accessible
to the Muslim youth and women.
 Unity and Collaboration: The
Deoband movement could have
overcome its internal divisions and
conflicts, and fostered more unity
and collaboration among its various
factions and branches. They could
have resolved their differences of
opinion and approach through
 393

dialogue and consultation, and

respected their diversity and
plurality. They could have also
strengthened their ties and networks
with other Islamic schools and
movements, such as the Aligarh
Movement, the Ahmadiyya
Movement, and the Sufi orders, and
benefited from their insights and
experiences. They could have also
established a common platform and
leadership for the Deoband
movement, and coordinated their
efforts and resources.
 Global Outreach: The Deoband
movement could have expanded its
 394

reach and influence beyond the

Indian subcontinent, and connected
with the global Muslim community
and society. They could have
disseminated their religious
teachings and publications to other
regions and countries, and attracted
more students and followers. They
could have also engaged more with
the international issues and
challenges facing the Muslim world,
such as colonialism, imperialism,
Zionism, and Islamophobia, and
contributed to their solutions and
alternatives. They could have also
established more branches and
 395

affiliates of the Deoband movement,

and supported their development
and growth.
 Leadership Development: The
Deoband movement could have
developed and nurtured more
leaders and scholars for the Muslim
community, both in India and
abroad. They could have provided
more training and education for the
Deobandi ulama, and enhanced their
skills and competencies. They could
have also identified and mentored
more potential and promising
candidates for the Deoband
movement, and prepared them for
 396

the future challenges and

opportunities. They could have also
created more opportunities and
platforms for the Deobandi leaders
and scholars to showcase their
talents and achievements, and
inspire and motivate others.
Battle of Shamli:
The Battle of Shamli was a fight
between the local Muslim clergy and
the British East India Company on 10
May 1857. It was part of the Indian
Rebellion of 1857, which was a
revolt against the British rule by the
Indian soldiers and civilians. The
 397

battle took place at Thana Bhawan, a

small town in the Shamli district in
current-day Uttar Pradesh, around
120 km from Delhi.
The battle was led by Imdadullah
Muhajir Makki, a Sufi saint and
scholar who migrated from India to
Mecca. He was joined by his
followers, who were also prominent
scholars and leaders of the Deoband
movement, such as Rashid Ahmed
Gangohi, Muhammad Qasim
Nanotavi, and Muhammad Yaqub
Nanotawi. The Deoband movement
was a revivalist and puritanical
Islamic movement that aimed to
 398

preserve the Islamic identity and

learning of the Muslims in the face of
the British policies and the Christian
missionaries.
The Muslim clergy won the battle
and established a temporary
government in the Shamli district,
with Muhammad Qasim Nanotavi as
the commander-in-chief and Rashid
Ahmad Gangohi as the Qadi (judge)
of the state. However, their victory
was short-lived, as the British soon
regained control of the region and
arrested Bahadur Shah Zafar, one of
the main leaders of the rebellion. The
 399

town of Thana Bhawan was largely

destroyed by the British army.
The Battle of Shamli was a
significant event in the history of the
Deoband movement and the Indian
Rebellion of 1857, as it showed the
courage and resistance of the Muslim
clergy against the foreign invaders. It
also inspired other Islamic
movements, such as the Tablighi
Jamaat, the Jamaat-e-Islami, and the
Taliban.