CHAPTER 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA
1.1 INTRODUCTION
An antenna is a device that is designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves, usually
in the radio frequency (RF) range. Antennas come in a variety of shapes and sizes, and are
used in many applications, including radio and television broadcasting, wireless
communication systems, radar, and satellite communication.
The main purpose of an antenna is to convert electrical signals into electromagnetic waves
that can propagate through the air, and vice versa. The design of an antenna depends on the
specific application, and can be optimized for factors such as frequency range, bandwidth,
polarization, radiation pattern, and gain.
Some common types of antennas include dipole antennas, patch antennas, horn antennas,
parabolic antennas, and helical antennas. The choice of antenna depends on the specific
application, and the desired performance characteristics.

1.2 PARAMETERS OF ANTENNA

1.2.1 Radiation pattern

The radiation pattern of an antenna is defined as “a mathematical function or a graphical
representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space coordinates. In
most cases, the radiation pattern is determined in the far field region and is represented as a
function of the directional coordinates. Radiation properties include power flux density,
radiation intensity, field strength, directivity, phase or polarization.”

Fig.1.2.1. Radiation pattern

1.2.2 Gain

Antenna gain refers to the measure of an antenna's ability to direct or focus energy in a
particular direction. It is usually expressed in decibels (dB), and it compares the intensity of
the electromagnetic radiation emitted by an antenna in a particular direction to the intensity of
radiation that would be produced by an ideal isotropic radiator, which radiates equally in all
directions.

A high gain antenna is able to concentrate more of its radiation in a particular direction,
which makes it useful in applications such as long-range communication and radar systems.
However, it should be noted that antenna gain is not the same as the amount of energy an
antenna can emit or receive, but rather how efficiently it can direct the energy it emits or
receives.

Gain (G)=ηeD
 ηe is antenna gain
 D is directivity of the antenna.

1.2.3 Directivity

It is defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the
radiation intensity averaged over all directions. The average radiation intensity is equal to the
total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4π. If the direction is not specified, the
direction of maximum radiation is implied”.

Directivity = maximum radiation intensity / average radiation intensity

D=4 πU / Prad

Where D = Directivity

U = Radiation intensity

Prad = radiated power (W)

1.2.4 Polarization

Polarization of a radiated wave is defined as “the property of an electromagnetic wave

describing the time-varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric field vector.
specifically, the figure traced as a function of time by the extremity of the vector at a fixed
location in space and the sense in which it is traced, as observed along the direction of
propagation”.

The polarization of an antenna can be either linear or circular.Linear polarization refers to the
orientation of the electric field of the electromagnetic wave in a single direction, which can
be vertical, horizontal, or at some angle in between. An antenna that radiates or receives
linearly polarized waves will only be efficient in transmitting or receiving waves that have
the same polarization.

Circular polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field of the electromagnetic wave
in a circular motion, either clockwise or counter clockwise. An antenna that radiates or
receives circularly polarized waves will be able to transmit or receive waves with any linear
polarization, as long as they have the same circular polarization. The polarization of an
antenna is an important consideration when designing wireless communication systems, as
the antenna polarization must match that of the transmitter or receiver for optimal
performance.

Fig.1.2.4. Polarization

1.2.5 Field Regions

The field region of an antenna refers to the region in space where the electromagnetic fields
generated by the antenna are significant enough to be detected or utilized for communication
purposes. The field region is usually divided into two regions: the reactive near-field region
and the radiating far-field region.

The reactive near-field region is the region immediately surrounding the antenna where the
electromagnetic fields are predominantly reactive in nature and do not propagate as
electromagnetic waves. The size of this region is typically proportional to the square of the
operating frequency and the physical size of the antenna. In this region, the electric and
magnetic fields are not in phase and the energy is stored primarily in the near-field region.
2
R=(2 D )/()

Where R= distance from antenna ,

D= larger dimension of antenna and

 = wavelength in free space

1.2.6 Radiation Intensity

The radiation intensity of an antenna is the power per unit solid angle radiated by the antenna
in a particular direction. It is a measure of the antenna's ability to direct energy in a specific
direction, and it is related to the antenna gain and radiation pattern. In mathematical form it is
expressed as
2
U =r W rad

Where U = radiation intensity and

W rad = radiation density

1.2.7 Return Loss

Return loss is a measure of the mismatch between the impedance of an antenna or

transmission line and the impedance of the load it is connected to. It is defined as the ratio
of the power of the reflected wave to the power of the incident wave, expressed in decibels
(dB).

Return loss is an important parameter in antenna and transmission line design because it
indicates how well the antenna or transmission line is matched to the load, and therefore,
how much of the incident power is being reflected back towards the source.

Return Loss=10 〖 log 〗10(P ¿ / Pref )dB

1.2.8 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) is a measure of how well an antenna or transmission
line is matched to the impedance of the load. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum
voltage amplitude to the minimum voltage amplitude on the transmission line, and it is
expressed as a ratio or in decibels (dB).

VSWR=¿
Where, Γ is voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminals of the antenna.

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF ANTENNA

Antennas are used in a variety of applications, from communication systems to scientific
research. Some of the applications are
1.3.1 Communication Systems
Communication systems are one of the most common applications of antennas. Antennas are
used in radio, television, cellular phones, and satellite communication. In a communication
system, antennas convert electrical signals into electromagnetic waves that can be transmit
through air. The receiver antenna then converts the electromagnetic waves back into
electrical signals that can be processed by the receiver.
1.3.2 Radar Systems
Radar systems use antennas to detect the location of objects. The radar antenna transmits a
signal that is reflected off an object and returned to the antenna. The time it takes for the
signal to travel to the object and back is used to calculate the distance of the object from the
antenna. The Doppler effect is also used to measure the speed and direction of the object.
Radar systems are used in air traffic control, weather forecasting, and military surveillance.
1.3.3 Wireless Power Transfer
 It is a technology that uses antennas to transmit power wirelessly. The transmitter antenna
generates an electromagnetic field that is received by the receiver antenna. The
electromagnetic field induces an electrical current in the receiver antenna, which can be used
to power electronic devices. Wireless power transfer has many potential applications,
including charging electric vehicles, powering medical implants, and powering electronic
devices in remote locations.
1.3.4 Radio Astronomy
Radio astronomy is a field of astronomy that studies celestial objects using radio waves.
Radio telescopes use antennas to detect and analyze radio waves emitted by celestial objects.
The antennas are typically large parabolic dishes that can be directed towards the object
being studied. Radio astronomy has contributed to our understanding of the universe,
including the discovery of pulsars, quasars, and the cosmic microwave background radiation.
1.3.5 Scientific Research
Antennas are used in scientific research to study electromagnetic waves and their properties..
Antennas are also used in the field of plasma physics to study the behaviour of
electromagnetic waves in plasmas.
1.3.6 Satellite Communication
Satellite communication is an important application of antennas. Satellites in orbit around the
Earth use antennas to transmit and receive signals to and from ground-based stations. The
antennas on the ground and in the satellite must be carefully designed to ensure efficient and
reliable communication. Satellites are used for a variety of applications, including television
broadcasting, global positioning, and weather forecasting.
1.3.7 Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the process of gathering information about the Earth's surface from a
distance. Antennas are used in remote sensing to transmit and receive signals that can be used
to create images and maps of the Earth's surface. Active remote sensing, on the other hand,
uses antennas to transmit a signal that is reflected off the Earth's surface and returned to the
antenna.
1.3.8 Automotive Applications
Antennas are also used in automotive applications, such as in-car entertainment systems and
navigation systems. Antennas are used to receive signals from radio and television stations,
as well as signals from GPS satellites. The antennas used in automotive applications must be
compact and designed to operate in a harsh environment.
1.3.9 Medical Applications
Antennas are used in medical applications, such as in MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
machines. MRI machines use antennas to transmit and receive radio waves that are used to
create images of the body's internal organs and tissues. The antennas used in MRI machines
must be carefully designed to ensure the safety of the patient and to produce high-quality
images.
The design and use of antennas are critical to the success of these applications, and
careful attention must be paid to factors such as frequency, polarization, and environmental
conditions.
1.4. TYPES OF ANTENNAS

1.4.1 Dipole Antenna

A dipole antenna is a type of radio antenna that is made up of two conductive elements,
typically wires, which are aligned parallel and are separated by a small gap. The dipole
antenna is a fundamental form of radio antenna that is widely used in radio communication
and broadcasting systems.

The antenna works by converting electrical energy into electromagnetic waves that are
radiated out into space. When an alternating current flows through the dipole, it causes the
electrons in the wires to oscillate back and forth, creating a changing electric field around the
antenna. This electric field then generates a corresponding magnetic field that propagates
outwards from the antenna, forming an electromagnetic wave.
Dipole antennas can be designed to operate at specific frequencies, and their performance is
influenced by factors such as their length, the distance between the two elements, and their
orientation relative to the direction of the electromagnetic wave.

Fig.1.4.1. Dipole Antenna

1.4.2 Monopole Antenna

A monopole antenna is a type of radio antenna that consists of a single conductive element,
usually a metal rod or wire, that is used to transmit or receive radio frequency signals. The
monopole antenna is a half of a dipole antenna and operates in the same way as a dipole
antenna, but with one element instead of two rephrase it.
The monopole antenna works by creating a quarter-wavelength antenna, where the ground
plane or the surface that the antenna is mounted on acts as the other half of the antenna. The
length of the antenna element is typically one-quarter of the wavelength of the radio
frequency that is being transmitted or received.
Monopole antennas are commonly used in radio and television broadcasting, mobile
communication systems, and wireless networks. They are preferred over dipole antennas for
portable devices due to their compact size and ease of installation. The monopole antenna can
be designed to operate at specific frequencies, and their performance is influenced by factors
such as the length of the antenna element and the size of the ground plane.
 Fig.1.4.2. Monopole antenna

1.4.3 Helix antenna

A helix antenna is a type of radio antenna that consists of a conductive wire wound in a spiral
shape around a central axis. The wire is typically wound in a helical pattern with a uniform
pitch or spacing between turns, resulting in a three-dimensional shape that resembles a
spring.
The helix antenna operates by creating a rotating electrical field around the antenna, which in
turn generates a circularly polarized electromagnetic wave. The direction of the circular
polarization is determined by the direction of the helix winding, which can be either right-
handed or left-handed.
Helix antennas are commonly used in satellite communication systems, particularly in the
VHF and UHF frequency bands. They are also used in applications where a circularly
polarized signal is required, such as in GPS systems and amateur radio. The performance of a
helix antenna is influenced by factors such as the diameter and length of the helix, the pitch
or spacing between turns, and the frequency of the radio signal being transmitted or received.

Fig.1.4.3.Helix Antenna
1.4.4 Loop antenna
A loop antenna is a type of radio antenna that consists of a conductive loop or coil of wire,
often with a small gap or break in the loop. The loop can be circular, rectangular, or any other
shape, and the size of the loop determines the frequency range over which the antenna
operates.
The loop antenna operates by creating a magnetic field around the loop, which in turn
generates an electromagnetic wave. The direction of the magnetic field and the resulting
polarization of the electromagnetic wave depend on the orientation of the loop relative to the
direction of the radio signal.
Loop antennas are commonly used in radio communication and broadcasting systems,
particularly in the lower frequency bands. They are also used in applications where a compact
antenna is required, such as in portable radio devices. The performance of a loop antenna is
influenced by factors such as the size and shape of the loop, the distance between the loop
and the ground plane, and the frequency of the radio signal being transmitted or received.
Loop antennas can be designed to operate in different modes, such as the electrically small
loop or the magnetic loop, depending on the size and shape of the loop and the desired
operating frequency range.

Fig.1.4.4. Loop Antenna

1.4.5 Parabolic reflectors

A reflector antenna is a type of radio antenna that uses a curved or flat surface, called a
reflector, to reflect radio waves in a specific direction. The reflector is typically made of
metal and is placed behind or above the main antenna element to focus and direct the radio
waves.
The reflector antenna operates by using the reflector to create a phased array of radio waves,
which produces a highly directional beam that can be aimed at a specific target. The direction
of the beam and the width of the beam can be adjusted by changing the size and shape of the
reflector and the distance between the reflector and the main antenna element.
Reflector antennas are commonly used in radar systems, satellite communication systems,
and point-to-point microwave communication systems. They are preferred over other types of
antennas in applications that require high gain and directional control, such as long-range
communication and radar imaging. The performance of a reflector antenna is influenced by
factors such as the size and shape of the reflector, the distance between the reflector and the
main antenna element, and the frequency of the radio waves being transmitted or received.
 Fig.1.4.5. Parabolic Reflector

1.4.6 Microstrip patch antenna

A microstrip antenna is a type of radio antenna that is composed of a thin metallic patch
placed on a dielectric substrate that is usually mounted on a ground plane. The patch and
substrate are typically square, rectangular, or circular in shape, and the antenna can be
designed to operate at a specific frequency range.
The microstrip antenna operates by creating a resonant electromagnetic field between the
metallic patch and the ground plane. The size and shape of the patch and substrate, as well as
the distance between them, determine the operating frequency of the antenna. The patch can
also be shaped to produce various radiation patterns and polarization states.
Microstrip antennas are commonly used in mobile communication devices, such as cell
phones, as well as in satellite communication systems and wireless networks. They are
preferred over other types of antennas in applications where size and weight are critical
factors, such as in portable devices and on small satellites. The performance of a microstrip
antenna is influenced by factors such as the size and shape of the patch and substrate, the
dielectric constant of the substrate material, and the frequency of the radio waves being
transmitted or received.
Fig.1.4.6. Patch Antenna

CHAPTER 2
MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA

2.1 MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA

A microstrip patch antenna is a type of directional antenna that is commonly used in wireless
communication systems. It consists of a thin, flat metal patch placed over a ground plane with
a dielectric substrate between them. The metal patch is typically made of copper or some
other conductive material and is usually a few millimeters to a few centimeters in size,
depending on the desired operating frequency.

When a radio frequency signal is applied to the patch, it creates an electric field that causes
the patch to radiate energy as electromagnetic waves. The shape and size of the patch, as well
as its location on the substrate, determine the frequency range and radiation pattern of the
antenna.
Microstrip patch antennas are popular for a variety of reasons, including their low profile,
lightweight, and ease of fabrication. They are also relatively inexpensive to manufacture and
can be integrated into a wide range of electronic devices, such as mobile phones, laptops, and
GPS receivers. However, they have some limitations, including narrow bandwidth, low gain,
and sensitivity to the proximity of other objects.
 Fig.2.1. Microstrip Patch Antenna
Characteristics of Patch antenna:
• Capability of adopting modern printed-circuit technology

The microstrip antenna approach has become rather popular and widely used because of
the fact that they can be easily fabricated by photolithographic processes. This idea is
similar to printed circuits operating at high microwave frequency in terms of Giga hertz
as compared to a simple printed circuit board for electronics at low frequency. Microstrip
feed lines and radiating patch elements can thus be photoetched with ease on the
dielectric substrate.

• Compatible with modular design

Research and development over the years have led to many variations for ease of
integration with solid state devices like amplifiers, oscillators, modulators, attenuators,
switches, mixer etc. These elements can be added to the substrate board without any
difficulties. The microstrip antennas are also conformable to planar and non-planar
surfaces.

• Attractive features

They are smaller in size and volume having lower weight and low profile. Furthermore,
manufacturing cost is low, as their construction does not require machining. Therefore,
fabrication is relatively simple and inexpensive. This is part of the reason for the
replacement of bulky and cumbersome wave-guide components and related assemblies.

2.2 CONFIGURATIONS OF PATCH ANTENNA

There are a large number of shapes of microstrip patch antennas. They have been designed to
match specific characteristics. The most common types are rectangular, square, circular,
triangular, trapezoidal and elliptical patches.
 Fig.2.2. Configuration of Patch Antenna
Microstrip patch antennas are widely used in various applications due to their compact size,
low profile, lightweight, low cost, and ease of integration with other electronic components.
Some of the common applications of microstrip patch antennas are:
1. Wireless communication systems: Microstrip patch antennas are extensively used in
wireless communication systems such as mobile phones, wireless local area networks
(WLAN), Bluetooth, and global positioning systems (GPS). They provide good
radiation efficiency, gain, and wide bandwidth, making them suitable for
communication applications.
2. Satellite communication: Microstrip patch antennas are used in satellite
communication systems due to their lightweight and low profile. They are used as
earth station antennas, on-board antennas, and as feed elements for reflector antennas.
3. Radar systems: Microstrip patch antennas are used in radar systems for detecting and
tracking objects. They can be used in applications such as weather radar, air traffic
control radar, and military radar systems.
4. Radio frequency identification (RFID) systems: Microstrip patch antennas are used in
RFID systems for tracking and identifying objects. They are used in applications such
as inventory management, asset tracking, and security systems.
5. Medical applications: Microstrip patch antennas are used in medical applications such
as wireless body area networks (WBAN) for monitoring physiological parameters of
patients. They are also used in wireless medical implants for telemetry and
monitoring.
6. Automotive applications: Microstrip patch antennas are used in automotive
applications for wireless communication systems, such as GPS, entertainment
systems, and vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication.
7. Aerospace applications: Microstrip patch antennas are used in aerospace applications
such as spacecraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and drones. They are used for
communication, navigation, and sensing applications.
 8. Military applications: Microstrip patch antennas are used in military applications such
as communication, radar, and electronic warfare systems. They are used in ground-
based, air-based, and sea-based applications.
Overall, microstrip patch antennas have a wide range of applications, making them an
essential component in many modern electronic systems.

2.3 FEED METHODS

There are several feed methods for microstrip patch antennas, including:

2.3.1 Microstrip Line Feed

Fig.2.3.1. Line feed

The inset-fed or inset microstrip feed is a type of feed method for microstrip patch antennas
where a conducting strip is connected directly to the edge of the patch, which is wider than
the strip. This creates a planar structure that allows the feed to be etched on the same
substrate, providing a compact and low-profile design. The inset-fed technique is useful for
achieving wide bandwidth and maintaining high radiation efficiency and can be used with
various types of patch antennas.

2.3.2 Coaxial Feed (Coplanar Feed)

Fig.2.3.2. Coaxial Feed

It is one of the commonly used methods for feeding the antenna. Coaxial feeding is
provided to the antenna in such a way that the inner conductor is connected to the patch.
While the outer conductor is attached to the ground plane.

2.3.3 Proximity Coupling

Fig.2.3.3 Proximity Coupling

The proposed antenna uses two layered substrates, such as the patch antenna on upper layer
and the microstrip feedline on the lower layer. The study is made using the thickness of the
substrate material.

2.3.4 Aperture Coupling

Fig2.3.4 Aperture Coupling

An aperture coupled antenna eliminates the direct electrical connection between the feed and
radiating conductors by employing two dielectric substrates separated by a ground plane.
This allows independent optimization of both the microstrip transmission line feed and
radiating patch.

2.4 MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA APPLICATIONS

Patch antennas are widely used in various applications due to their compact size, low profile,
lightweight, low cost, and ease of integration. Some of the common applications of
microstrip patch antennas are:
 Wireless communication systems: Microstrip patch antennas are extensively used in
wireless communication systems such as mobile phones, wireless local area networks
(WLAN), Bluetooth, and global positioning systems (GPS). They provide good
radiation efficiency, gain, and wide bandwidth, making them suitable for
communication applications.
 Satellite communication: Microstrip patch antennas are used in satellite
communication systems due to their lightweight and low profile. They are used as
earth station antennas, on-board antennas, and as feed elements for reflector antennas.
 Radar systems: Microstrip patch antennas are used in radar systems for detecting and
tracking objects. They can be used in applications such as weather radar, air traffic
control radar, and military radar systems.
 Radio frequency identification (RFID) systems: Microstrip patch antennas are used in
RFID systems for tracking and identifying objects. They are used in applications such
as inventory management, asset tracking, and security systems.
 Medical applications: Microstrip patch antennas are used in medical applications such
as wireless body area networks (WBAN) for monitoring physiological parameters of
patients. They are also used in wireless medical implants for telemetry and
monitoring.
 Automotive applications: Microstrip patch antennas are used in automotive
applications for wireless communication systems, such as GPS, entertainment
systems, and vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication.
 Aerospace applications: Microstrip patch antennas are used in aerospace applications
such as spacecraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and drones. They are used for
communication, navigation, and sensing applications.
 Military applications: Microstrip patch antennas are used in military applications such
as communication, radar, and electronic warfare systems. They are used in ground-
based, air-based, and sea-based applications.

2.5 INTRODUCTION TO M SHAPED MONOPOLE ANTENNA

The M-shaped monopole is a lightweight, wideband antenna suitable for integration. The
original antenna, using a substrate with a relative dielectric constant of 4.4 and a height of 0.4
mm, was measured to cover the band up to 2.45GHz with a VSWR<3:1. The size of the
substrate was chosen to represent the typical size of a mobile phone. The wide bandwidth and
reduced size of this antenna makes it desirable for use in various mobile communication
systems.
Integrated, lightweight, wideband antennas have received much attention following the
development of wireless communications. Wireless devices, such as laptops and cell phones,
require antennas operating over various frequency bands to meet the demands of the ever-
growing wireless services. An M-shaped omnidirectional antenna is used for wireless
communication along with the reduction in the size of the Bluetooth communication antenna.
It is an integrated, portable wideband antenna that operates between 0.8 GHz and 2.45 GHz.
The antenna has a gain of 2dBi to 5dBi. It is an Integrated, lightweight, wideband antenna.
The triangular, rectangular, trapezoidal, and rectangular sections combined to form the M
shape of the M-shaped monopole antenna. To achieve the desired characteristics of the
antenna, the ground plane is divided into two sections and placed on the opposite side of a
dielectric substrate. The first section of the ground plane is located below the feedline and
extends the width of the antenna from the feed point to the point where the isosceles triangle
connects to the feedline.

CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE SURVEY

3.1 M. Salim and L. Taan, “Design and Construction of a Circular Microstrip Patch
Antenna for Bluetooth Band Applications”, IEEE, Antenna and Propagation, (Oct 2022)

The microstrip patch antenna is a popular choice for many applications due to its unique
characteristics, which include its small size, light weight, low profile, and affordability. The
antenna is also adaptable to various shapes and can be easily integrated with printed circuit
boards, making it an attractive option for many designers. The name of the microstrip patch
antenna is based on the shape of its radiating patch, which can take on various forms,
including square, rectangle, circle, ellipse, triangle, circular ring, and ring sector. However,
the square, rectangular, and circular patches are the most commonly used due to their ease of
design and assessment of the antenna's properties.
An example of a proposed microstrip patch antenna is shown in the design, which consists of
a circular conducting patch with a thickness (t<< λ) and radius placed on one side of a
dielectric substrate with a thickness (h) in the range of 0.003λ≤ℎ≥0.05λ. The ground is placed
on the other side of the substrate, and the operating wavelength is λ. This design is efficient
and provides a directional radiation pattern, making it suitable for many different situations.
3.2 M. Salim and L. Taan, “Performances comparison study between circular and
rectangular patch antennas at 2.4 GHz using CST”, IEEE, Antenna and Propagation, (July
2022).
The microstrip patch antenna has a radiating patch on one side of the dielectric substrate and
a ground plane on the other side. The radiation is generated from the fringing fields between
the periphery of the patch and the ground plane. There are many substrates available with
varying dielectric constants that can be used with this type of antenna.
The microstrip patch antenna is named based on the shape of its radiating patch. Available
patch shapes include square, rectangular, circular, elliptical, triangular, circular ring, and ring
sector. The square, rectangular, and circular patch antennas are the easiest to design and
analyze, which is why they are the most commonly used.
The circular and rectangular microstrip patch antennas have several advantages over
conventional microwave antennas, including being lightweight, low volume, and low profile.
Due to its low profile characteristics, the microstrip antenna is widely used in defense,
aerospace, military, and satellite communication applications.
3.3 Ayush Arora, Arprit Rana “Design of microstrip patch antenna at 2.4 GHz for Wi-Fi
and Bluetooth applications”. Journal of Physics Conference Series, (May 2021)
The Microstrip Patch Antenna (MSA) is a popular choice in the field of wireless
communication due to its easy fabrication and direct printing on circuit boards. However, this
antenna also has some drawbacks, such as low gain and low bandwidth. To overcome these
limitations, the authors of a research paper proposed various types of MSAs.

The paper first designed an MSA with a single layer of substrate and then calculated its
parameters such as return loss, voltage standing wave ratio, gain, and directivity. Next,
another MSA was designed with two layers of substrate, where the second layer was stacked
over the first layer of the same material. The authors also cut diagonal slots and slots at all
corners on the MSA in subsequent attempts to improve its performance, and then compared
the performance parameters of all antennas.

The main aim of the research paper was to meet the increasing demands of wireless
communication in various applications. To achieve this, the authors used FR-4 Epoxy
material as a substrate, which is widely used in the fabrication of printed circuit boards due to
its low cost and good electrical properties. The proposed designs and modifications made in
the paper can enhance the performance of the MSA and increase its usefulness in wireless
communication applications.
4. K. P. Lad, K. Mhapsekar and S. Baudha, "A Compact Circular Patch Antenna for 2.4 GHz
Wi-Fi and Other WLAN Applications," 2022 IEEE.
The objective of the study is to design and evaluate the performance of a circular patch
antenna with multiple rectangular slots and circular parasitic element in the ground plane,
along with a simple rectangular ground patch, for specific applications at 2.4 GHz frequency.
The proposed antenna has a compact size of 25mm20mm1.5mm, and uses Annealed copper
as a conductor of 0.018 mm thickness, along with an FR-4 substrate having electrical
permittivity of 4.3 and loss tangent of 0.025. The design of the antenna and its simulated
results are presented in the paper. The antenna's compact size and frequency of operation
make it suitable for various wireless applications such as Wi-Fi, WiMAX, Bluetooth, and
ISM Radio band. The simulated results show that the proposed antenna provides good
radiation characteristics, including a high gain of 5.6 dBi and a narrow beamwidth of 42.6
degrees. The antenna also exhibits good impedance matching with a return loss of -23.8 dB
and a voltage standing wave ratio of 1.2. The study concludes that the proposed antenna is a
good candidate for wireless communication systems operating at 2.4 GHz frequency.
CHAPTER 4

IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

CST Studio Suite is a high-performance 3D EM analysis software package for designing,
analyzing and optimizing electromagnetic (EM) components and systems. CST Studio Suite
is a powerful electromagnetic simulation software suite developed by Computer Simulation
Technology (CST) that allows engineers and researchers to design, analyze, and optimize
electromagnetic systems. It is widely used in various fields such as aerospace, defense,
automotive, healthcare, and telecommunications.

CST Studio Suite provides a range of simulation tools including electromagnetic simulation,
circuit simulation, thermal simulation, and mechanical simulation. The electromagnetic
simulation capabilities of CST Studio Suite include a range of solvers for high-frequency,
time-domain, and Multiphysics simulations. These solvers include the Finite Integration
Technique (FIT), the Time Domain Integral Equation (TDIE) solver, the Frequency Domain
Integral Equation (FDIE) solver, and the Method of Moments (MoM) solver.
CST Studio Suite also includes a variety of post-processing tools that enable engineers and
researchers to visualize and analyze the simulation results. These tools include 2D and 3D
visualization tools, radiation pattern and S-parameter analysis tools, and far-field and near-
field analysis tools.
One of the major advantages of CST Studio Suite is its user-friendly interface, which makes
it easy for engineers and researchers to set up and run simulations. The software also offers a
range of customization options that allow users to tailor the software to their specific needs.
CST Studio Suite supports a wide range of applications, from the design of microwave
components such as antennas, filters, and couplers to the simulation of complex
electromagnetic systems such as radar systems, satellite communication systems, and
wireless communication systems. It is also used in the design of medical devices such as MRI
coils and pacemakers, as well as in the analysis of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and
electromagnetic interference (EMI) issues.
CST Studio Suite is constantly updated with new features and improvements to keep up with
the latest advancements in electromagnetic simulation. The software is widely used by
academic researchers and industry professionals alike, and is recognized as a leading
electromagnetic simulation software suite in the industry.
 Fig.4.1.1.3D EM Simulation

Fig.4.1.2. Results of a Simulated antenna in CST

4.2 ANTENNA DESIGN IN CST

The following steps can be used to design our antenna in CST.
Step 1: Create the project
Step 2: Choose MW and RF and Optical

Step 3: Choose Antennas

Step 4: Select Planar (Patch, slot etc.)

Step 5: Choose Time Domain

Step 6: Select the Units

Step 7: Select the frequency range and monitor farfield at resonant frequency or any
frequency needed to monitor

Step 8: Finish
Step 9: Modelling

Step 10: Create Ground plane

Step 11: Create the Substrate

Step 12: Create the Rectangular Patch

Step 13: Create the Trapezoidal Patches

Step 14: Create the Triangular Patch

Step 15: Create the T Arm Patch and it’s feedline

Step 16: Create the main Feed Line
Step 18: Antenna is ready to be Simulated

Fig.4.2.1. Designed M-shaped Antenna

4.3 ANALYSIS OF M SHAPED MONOPOLE ANTENNA

4.3.1 Physical Description

The triangular component of the monopole antenna is joined with a rectangular section and
two trapezoidal sections to form the M shape. For the antenna to have the desired properties,
the ground plane is divided into two halves and placed on reverse side of the dielectric
substrate. The ground plane traverses the width of antenna and located below the feedline is
the first section. It stretches from feed point to feedline's isosceles triangle connection point.
The other portion of the ground plane is like a letter T and is made up of a horizontal strip
combined with a strip that vertically extends in the direction of feedline. With the width that
is equal to feedline, from the ground plane's end the vertical strip reaches upward to the start
of horizontal strip (whose length is determined by a specific design objective). The T shaped
horizontal strip reaches a few wavelengths past the top of antenna’s vertical strip end. It
spans the breadth of antenna.

Fig.4.3.1. Physical Description

4.3.2 Design Guidelines

The M-shaped monopole is designed to have a 50 Ω input impedance.
• The length of the solid ground plane has a significant impact on the input impedance and
performance of the antenna.
• Increasing the triangle height can improve the impedance match over the band, at the
expense of bandwidth at the upper part of the band.
• Increasing the triangle width can improve the impedance match at the lower part of the
band, at the expense of bandwidth at the upper part of the band.
• The bandwidth and impedance match can be improved by increasing the bottom part of the
horizontal part of the T-arm, at the expense of a higher mismatch in the band between the
first two resonances.
• Increasing the rectangular element length generally improves the impedance match over the
band between the lower two resonances at the expense of a greater impedance mismatch at
the upper band.
• The lower frequency can be decreased, without affecting the rest of the band, by
considerably increasing the top part of the horizontal part of the T arm
Designing for electrically thick substrates might result in a negative frequency shift from the
design value.

4.3.2 Operational Mechanism

For optimum performance, the antenna's size has been adjusted, and together with the
emitting or radiating element at top, ground plane’s shape is constructed.
The lower operating frequency is decreased by T-shape ground plane section without
growing the construction size overall.
There is a significant current density in the region on the M-shape section opposite to the T-
shape ground plane, also on trapezoids and on the border of isosceles triangle. T-shaped
ground plane appears to be implicated in radiation because of the high current density present
there.

4.3.4 Parameter Analysis

The Calculation Process for Microstrip Patch Antennas:

1: Finding the Width (W )

The input impedance is regulated by width W. By increasing the width of antenna, we can
increase the bandwidth and also at the same time reduce the impedance.

W =c /(2 f o √((( 〖 1+ ε 〗r ))/2))(1)

2: Finding εreff (Effective Dielectric Constant)

It is dependent on calculated width and height as well as the dielectric material's dielectric
constant. In the case of patch antennas, the air above the substrate will result in 1 < ε reff < εr.
εreff comes closer to the true value of the substrate's dielectric constant εr for εr >> 1.
(−1 /2)
ε eff =(ε r −1)/ 2[1+12 h/ W ] +(ε r +1)/2(2)
3: Effective length calculation ( Leff )

Adding the length L to the extension of the length ∆L yields the effective length, which is
then calculated.

Leff =L+ 2 ∆ L eff (3)

〖 L 〗eff =c /(2 f o √(ε eff ))(4)

4: Calculating the ∆L-length extension's

Because of the effect of fringe, the microstrip patch antenna seems longer than its actual
length. As a result, the effective length is ∆L shorter than the actual length. An extremely
common approach for determining the extension of the patch's length is

〖 ∆ L 〗 eff /h=0.412(w /h+0.264)(ε reff + 0.3)/(w /h+0.8)(ε reff −0.258)(5)

5: Measurement of patch actual length ( L)

By deducting effective length from the length of ∆ L's extension, we may determine the real
length.

L=Leff −2 ∆ L(6)

When using the aforementioned variables, the resonance frequency is f0, W is the patch's
width, L is the length, h is the thickness, r is relative permittivity, and c is speed of light
which is 3 x 108.

4.3.5 Parameters used in CST Design

Name Value
Wire diameter 0.0531
Wavelength center 44.6626395689032
T arm width top 1.25
T arm width bottom 1.25
T arm height 16.1261463361997
Triangle width 20
Triangle height 5
Trapezoid top width 5.625
Trapezoid length 3.75
Trapezoid base width 3.125
Trapezoid angle 56.3099324740202
 Tan delta 0
Substrate width 31.25
Substrate length 55.7811165113583
Substrate height 0.285714
Stub length 28.0016
Short length 2.39844
Relative permittivity 4.4
Rectangular element length 12.376143361997
M element length 17.376143361997
Metal thickness 4.46626395689032e-02
Frequency minimum 1.6
Frequency centre 3
Feed wire diameter 0.00531
Feed spacing 4.70109
Feed line width 0.546244986420118
Feed line length 37.1549701751586
Driven element length 75.2772
C0 299.792458
Boom length 17.7632

4.4 OBJECTIVES

4.4.1 To reduce the size of patch

Size of patch depends on dielectric constant substrate and resonance frequency. The use of a
substrate with a higher dielectric constant will produce in a smaller antenna size for a given
frequency. This is because the wavelength of the signal will be shorter on a high dielectric
constant substrate. A thinner substrate will also result in a smaller antenna size for a given
frequency. However, using a thinner substrate can affect the antenna's radiation pattern and
bandwidth.

4.4.2 Improve Performance

Length of solid ground plane has a major impact on performance of antenna. Performance of
antenna depends on gain, stable radiation pattern, return loss and efficiency. Gain of antenna
is 2dBi–5dBi and a frequency range of 0.8GHZ–2.45GHZ and stable radiation pattern over
operating band, resulting in an omnidirectional pattern. A 0.4mm substrate height and 4.4
relative dielectric constant was found to have a VSWR< 3:1.

4.4.3 Decrease Overall cost

Weight for weight, outside of precious metals, copper is the best conductor of electricity and
heat. Industrial copper plates cost a lot. Since we anyway need to cut it and process it to get
our desired shapes it adds to the cost. We need to use less material and achieve the desired
performance. Dielectric substrates cost is the same for both.

4.4.4 Stable Radiation pattern over operating frequency

A stable radiation pattern of an antenna refers to a consistent and predictable distribution of

electromagnetic energy that the antenna emits or receives. The radiation pattern is a graphical
representation of the antenna's directional properties, which is a function of its design,
operating frequency, and environment. A stable radiation pattern means that the antenna's
pattern remains consistent over time, regardless of any changes in the antenna's operating
conditions or surroundings. This is particularly important in applications such as
communication systems, where reliable and predictable signal transmission and reception are
critical.

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS & CONCLUSION
5.1 RESULTS
The Fractional Bandwidth, or FBW, of a frequency range is calculated by deducting the
highest frequency from its lowest frequency and dividing the result by the center frequency.
The M-shaped monopole antenna has minimum and maximum performance bandwidth of
2.4:1 and 2.8:1 respectively.
The polarization is the way electric field lines are oriented in the electromagnetic field that
the antenna emits or receives. These fields control the direction of energy leaving and
entering the antenna. The M-shaped monopole antenna has a linear polarization, in which all
the waves have a same alignment in space, either vertically or horizontally.
The signal reflected back in a transmission line is the same parameter that is measured by
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) and Return Loss. Maximum to minimum voltage
ratio on a transmission line with no loss is known as VSWR (expressed as 3.0:1, 2.0:1). The
VSWR of the antenna we used is less than 3.0:1(VSWR<3:1), which means more than 75%
of power is delivered to the antenna.
The results of simulation of M-Shaped monopole patch antenna made by software CST
design suite are shown in Fig [1,2,3,4].
Fig.5.1.1. S-Parameters

Fig.5.1.2. Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

Fig.5.1.3.3D Radiation ABS

Fig.5.1.4.3D Phi Phase

The summary of the antenna can be found below:

5.2 CONCLUSION
 In this paper we have come up with a monopole antenna design, and its working
features have been analyzed in detail. Analysis results shows that the antenna has a
smaller size, and covers the bandwidth of 0.8 – 2.45 GHz with a VSWR<3:1.
 M shaped monopole antennas are being used increasingly for applications of
Bluetooth and mobile communication because of their features.
 The design guidelines of the antenna have been discussed in this paper.
5.3 REFERNCES

1. S. Malisuwan, M. Charoenwattanapom, S. Huvanandana and K. Rosesukon, "Design

of microstrip antenna for Bluetooth and WLAN applications by applying modified
Smith-chart representation," Asia-Pacific Conference on Applied Electromagnetics,
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10.1109/APACE.2003.1234463.

2. A.Srivastva, S. Chandra, A. Kumar, P. Kumar and J. Sekhar, "Design of PLUS-slot

microstrip patch antenna for Bluetooth and Wi-MAX applications," 2017 2nd IEEE
International Conference on Recent Trends in Electronics, Information &
Communication Technology (RTEICT), Bangalore, India, 2017, pp. 2154-2156, doi:
10.1109/RTEICT.2017.8256981.

3. E. Sidhu, D. Mittal, S. S. Saini, C. Singh and R. Kaur, "Flexible microstrip patch

antenna designs for Bluetooth, IMT, WLAN and WiMAX applications," 2017
Progress In Electromagnetics Research Symposium - Spring (PIERS), St. Petersburg,
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4. Kaustubh Prashant Lad, Kaushal Mhapsekar, Sudeep Baudha, "A Compact Circular
Patch Antenna for 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi and Other WLAN Applications", 2022 IEEE
Microwaves, Antennas, and Propagation Conference (MAPCON), pp.716-718, 2022.

5. M. Kalpana, K. Lalith Kishore, R. Ramana Reddy, "Circular Patch Antenna with

Rectangular Slots and DGS for UWB and Multiband Applications", 2022
International Conference on Computing, Communication and Power Technology
(IC3P), pp.157-160, 2022.

6. Rakhi and Sonam Thakur, "Performance Analysis of Different Shapes Patch

Antennas at 2.45 GHz", International Journal of Engineering Research and
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7. P. K. Rao, K. Jyoti Singh and R. Mishra, "A Circular Shaped Microstrip patch
Antenna for Bluetooth/Wi-Fi/UWB/X-band Applications," 2018 International
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8. Arora, Ayush & Rana, Arpit & Yadav, Abhimanyu & Yadava, R.L.. (2021). Design
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