Topic II.

Research Methods in developmental Psychology

Scientism in any field of study is preconditioned with the existence of research methods applied
to gain new knowledge and subsequently generate theories. When exploring the human
psyche, psychologists usually use one of two strategies.

With the correlational research strategy, psychologists usually observe a larger number of
persons. The data are often collected using the questionnaire method or through testing. The
results are subsequently transformed into numerical codes and analysed using mathematical
and statistical methods. The application of this research strategy provides information about the
mean values, which allows for making comparisons between various groups and expressing the
degree of consistency (correlation) between and among two or more phenomena. The
numerical values compared to a certain standard are decisive. This is also why this approach is
also called the quantitative research strategy.

The other possibility is the casuistic research strategy. In this approach, we work only with one
or a few persons (cases). Data collection is based on interviews combined with observation, an
analysis of activity results and an analysis of expert documentation. Observation of one or a few
cases makes it possible to capture the psyche in a wider and deeper context. The application of
this research strategy provides non-numerical data (e.g. verbal codes and categories and
prerequisites forming a basis for the development of new theories). This procedure is also called
the qualitative research strategy.

The specific procedures applied to acquire or further analyse the data collected are called
methods. The correct application of methods is an important condition for correct research. The
research methods in psychology are classified into methods of data collection and methods of
data analysis. The selection of the method depends on the target of research. A combination of
several methods is usually applied to prevent the shortcomings inherent in each method. The
methods used for psychological data collection include observation, experiment, interview,
anamnesis, analysis of activity results, tests andquestionnaires.

Observation is a purposeful, systematic, planned and methodical perception of certain

phenomena of which a record is usually made. It can be made as a visual record (video) or as a
written or computer record in a protocol. The observer adheres to the principle of respecting a
spontaneous course of the phenomenon observed and should endeavour to avoid certain errors
(prejudices, stereotypes, traditions, halo effect). This is why observation should be well-
considered and planned in advance. The benefits of observation include the easy availability of
the method; its disadvantages include a risk of biased results caused by the aforementioned
errors in the observer’sperception.

Experiment is the most exact method used to verify scientific theories. An experiment observes
the way a certain mental phenomenon changes (dependant variable) depending on the
changing conditions (independent variable), and the variables are intentionally manipulated for
this purpose. When carrying out an experiment, we also seek to control any undesired effects
as much as possible (undesired variables) which could distort the experimental results. The first
psychological experiments were performed in laboratories where it was possible to eliminate
any disturbing impacts. However, since it was hard to draw general conclusions in normal life
from the results of these investigations, the so-called natural experiment started to be used
under normal conditions. It is currently often used, for instance, to verify new educational
methods or psychological or psychotherapeutic interventions. Natural experiment is based on a
comparison of two groups of people, an experimental group subjected to the new method and a
control group educated or treated in a normalway.

Interview (dialogue) is another method that is commonly used not only as a research method (in
particular in the qualitative research approach), but also as a counselling or therapeutic method.
Its application provides not only data apparent from observation (various forms of behaviour),
but also information about an individual's internally lived experience and behavioural motives.
The quality of the data collected depends on the interviewer’s experience and skills. An
anamnestic interview is one of the frequently used types of interview, establishing the data from
an individual’s past (whether about health condition and previous diseases, mental development
in childhood or development of school attendance). An interview can also have different
structuring. An interview is structured if the questions are set in advance and in a standard
order. A partly structured interview has various defined thematic groups without the need to
stick to any order. A free interview has no predefined parts and is based on the current ideas
and needs of theresearcher.

An analysis of activity results is an analysis of an individual's work. This method is based on the
prerequisite that an individual’s entire personality is reflected in any product of human activities.
By analysing this product, we can therefore gain fairly distinctive information about the
personality’s unique qualities. In the case of school children, products of activities can include
drawings, poems, diaries, ways of managing school notebooks, creations or results from their
hobbies, or autographic texts. The drawbacks of this method include the polyvalence
(ambiguity) of the data collected, which makes it hard to interpret them. That is why this method
is typically used in combination with othermethods.

Questionnaires and tests are very widely used methods. What is the difference between them?
Questionnaires usually identify attitudes or various personality traits. There are no correct or
wrong answers. All results must be evaluated in relation to a certain criterion. For instance, if the
result says that you are not very communicative and like working in peace and alone, you will
apparently not be a suitable candidate to be a teacher. On the other hand, this result would be a
strength in a biology lab, forinstance.

The aim of tests, typically focusing on a certain performance, is to give correct answers and get
as many points as possible. IQ tests are apparently the most well- known representative of this
type. However, psychology also uses tests measuring a wide range of other mental functions
(memory, attention, imagination, creativity, frustration tolerance, etc.). Their structure can be
similar to the didactic tests used at school, but if a test is to be used as a research method, it
should meet the basic criteria: objectivity and standardisation. A test’s objectivity excludes the
impact of the researcher’s subjectivity. It is provided through adherence to thesame conditions
for all persons subject to the research (this is related to the instructions provided, time available
to design the test and the environment where the test takes place). Test standardisation is a
common name for three various test properties that guarantee its quality: validity, reliability, and
setting of standards (Svoboda, 1913). The validity of a test shows to what extent the test
actually measures what should be measured (Svoboda, 1913). However, if we take various
perspectives into account, there are various types of validity. For instance, prediction validity
expresses the likeliness of concordance between the test result and the behaviour of the person
subject to examination (e.g. the work success of a selected candidate). Conceptual validity
determines which psychological qualities are measured (if we actually measured intelligence, for
instance, or memory abilities only). The reliability of a test means the reliability of measurements
and expresses its stability over time and internal consistency (Svoboda, 1999). High test
reliability is shown, for instance, if the test is used twice with the same respondent and always
shows the same result. A standardised test must also include standards to which the results
obtained are compared during evaluation. Standards are created based on testing a
representative set ofpeople.

No research is over with the collection of data. Data must be analysed so that they can be
further utilised. In psychology, we differentiate two basic approaches to the analysis of research
data: quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative data analysis works with numerical data that are
analysed using mathematical and statistical methods. Currently, there are special programs that
help make these calculations easy (the simplest include MS Excel; the more sophisticated
include SPSS). Qualitative analysis uses non-numerical data (e.g. a transcript of an interview, a
video recording, or written medical documentation) that are analysed through description,
sorting, content analysis, etc.

Review Questions

1. Compare as many aspects of the observation and experiment methods as possible.