Lecture 3

Virtual Work Method

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Objective: To learn how to determine the deflection
(or rotation) of a structure.

Why? To make sure the structure not deflect/rotate

severely.

How? Double-integration methods;

Virtual Work Method

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 OUTLINE

1. Conservation of Energy Principle

2. Virtual Work Method
3. Calculation of Displacement
4. Maxwell’s Law
5. Summary

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 1.Conservation of Energy Principle
• The principle of work and energy is:
The total mechanical energy of a system is conserved i.e., the
energy can neither be created nor be destroyed; it can only
be internally converted from one form to another if the forces
doing work on the system are conservative in nature.

Work of Work of
External Loads Internal Loads

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 Work of Work of
External Loads Internal Loads

෍ 𝑃 𝛥𝑃  RdL
Work done is defined as the product of force (moment) and
the displacement (rotation angle) in the direction of the force.

P = real external load acting in the direction of p

R = internal load acting on the element in the direction of dL
𝛥𝑝 = external displacement in the direction of the external force
dL= internal deformation of the element caused by the real loads
Internal deformation

PL M
= d = dx
EA EI
Force-displacement Relationship Moment- rotation angle Relationship

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 F F
 

Freaction

Wexternel =F   Wexternel =F  

Winternel =Freaction   Winternel =   M i d

i

The vertical displacement can How about the horizontal

be calculated by Winternel =Winternel displacement? Wexternel ?
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Question:

How to calculate the displacement and slope at any

desired point on a structure in any desired direction?

Virtual Work Method !

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 2. Virtual Work Method

• The method was developed by John

Bernoulli in 1717.
• It provides a general means of obtaining
the displacement and slope at a specific
point on a structure that is under loading.

Energy Method
Conservation of Energy Principle

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 Suppose we need to determine the displacement  of point
A caused by real loads P1, P2 and P3

Imaginary and does not actually

exist as part of the real loads
1. Apply the real loading P1, P2, 2. Apply a “virtual” unit load
…Pn. This causes P=1, acts in the same
displacement and internal direction as . This cause
deformation dL. internal loading u.
 Virtual Work Equation
Virtual loadings

P'  =  udL
Real
displacements

P = 1 = external virtual unit load acting in the direction of 

(therefore, the method is also called as unit-load theorem)
u = internal virtual load acting on the element in the direction
of dL
∆ = external displacement caused by the real loads
dL= internal deformation of the element caused by the real
loads
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 1) Trusses
u = internal virtual load Nu;
dL= internal deformation due to real loads = NL/EA


N ui N i Li
P'  = udL   = i E A
i i

Procedures of analysis
• Apply a virtual load P = 1 on the structure acting at the point, in
the direction of the required deflection;
• Calculate the internal load, i.e., axial forces Nui in each member
due to the virtual load;
• Calculate the internal load, i.e.. axial forces Ni in each member
due to the real load; N ui N i Li
• Apply the equation of virtual work:  =
i
 EA
i i
• If the result is positive, the displacement is in the same direction
as the unit load. Otherwise,  is opposite to the unit load.
 Example 1

• The cross-sectional area of each member shown:

A = 400 mm2, E = 200 GPa
• Determine the vertical displacement of joint C

3 3

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• Applying a unit virtual force (downward)
– The support reactions at A & B are calculated;
– Force Nu in each member is calculated using the method of
joint.

Nu

Nu

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• Applying the real forces
– The support reactions at A & B are calculated;
– Force N in each member is calculated using the method of
joint.

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• Virtual-work equation
Virtual Real
forces forces
Nu Nu
0.667 2 8 10.67
−0.833 2.5 5 −10.41
−0.833 −2.5 5 10.41
10.67

N ui N i Li 10.67
= = −6
= 0.000133m = 0.133mm
i Ei Ai 200 10  400 10
6
Question: How to determine the horizontal displacement of C?

1 kN

Real forces N Virtual force Nu

Nu Nu
0.5 2 8 8
0.625 2.5 5 7.8125
−0.625 −2.5 5 7.8125
23.625

N ui N i Li 23.625
= = −6
= 0.000295m = 0.295mm
i Ei Ai 200 10  400 10
6
 Example 2
A plane truss is subjected to two concentrated forces at D and
F. Determine the vertical displacement of Point E. The cross-
sectional area of the upper chords CE and EG is A1 =120 cm2，
Young’s modulus E1 = 103 kN/cm2; for lower chords, A2 =
100 cm2, E2 = 2.1×104 kN/cm2; for web members, A3 = 64
cm2, E3= 2.1×104 kN/cm2.
Solution
Apply a unit
downward virtual
force at Point E. The
axial forces of the
truss due to the unit
virtual force and
actual forces are
plotted in the figure.
Due to the symmetry,
only half are plotted.

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 A N u Nl
Member N (kN) l (cm) E(kN/cm2) Nu (cm)
(cm2) EA

AD, FB 15 600 100 2.1×104 0.38 0.0016

AC, GB -25 500 64 2.1×104 -0.63 0.0058
CD, GF 25 500 64 2.1×104 0.63 0.0058
CE, EG -30 600 120 103 -0.75 0.1125
DE, EF 0 500 64 2.1×104 -0.63 0.0000
DF 30 600 100 2.1×104 1.13 0.0096
 0.261

The displacement of E is 0.261 cm (downward).

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 2) Beams and Frames
For beams and frames, axial and shear deformation are usually
small and thus neglected.
u = internal virtual load: moment Mu;
dL= internal deformation due to real loads M: rotation angle dθ
M
d = dx
EI

P'  =  udL
L
MuM
= dx
0
EI
 2) Beams and Frames

Procedures of analysis – bending effect (flexural deformation) only:

• Apply virtual load P=1 on the structure acting at the point, in the
direction of required deflection
• Calculate the internal load, i.e., moment Mu due to the virtual
load, expressed as a function of x
• Calculate the internal load, i.e. moment M due to the real load
• Apply the equation of virtual work:  = L M u M dx
0
EI

• If the result is positive, the displacement  is in the same

direction as the unit load. Otherwise,  is opposite to the unit
load.

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NOTE:

1) For a frame consisting of multiple beams,

L
M ui M i
 =  dx
i 0 Ei I i

2) Sometimes using diagram multiplication (next page) is

more convenient.

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Diagram multiplication:  MM dx
u
Example 3: Find the displacement at point B of the cantilever
beam AB under a UDL q.

M = −0.5q (l − x) 2 M u = −(l − x)
M Mu

Solution: Apply a unit downward point virtual load at B. The

bending moment diagrams of the beam under the actual load and
virtual load are:
M = −0.5q (l − x) ; M u = −(l − x)
2

l
Then the displacement at B is
l l
1  1 2 − (l − x) 4 ql 4
− q(l − x) − (l − x)dx =
MuM
  
q q
D= dx =  (l − x) dx =
3
 l
0 =
EI EI  2  2EI 2EI 4 8EI
0 0
Or using the diagram  MM udx (please note the direction of the shapes)

Mu

l
ql 4
 ( 0.5ql ) ( l ) l =
1 1
D= abl = 2

4 EI 4 EI 8 EI
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 Example 4

For a simply-supported beam AB under a uniformly

distributed load q, as shown below, find the vertical
displacement at the middle point C.

q
A B
C
C

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 Solution: Apply a unit downward point virtual load at C. The
bending moment diagrams of the beam under the actual load and
virtual load are:
ql2/8

l l/4

M Mu

Then the displacement at C is

1 abl
C =  (1 +  )
EI 3
 1 1  5ql
4
1 1 2 l
=  ql   l  1 +   =
3EI 8 4  2 2  384 EI
Displacement of prismatic beams
Disp at mid-span, rotation at right support

5ql 4 ql 3
f1 = , f5 =
384 EI 24 EI

Pl 3 Pl 2
f1 = , f5 =
48 EI 16 EI

Ml 2 Ml
f4 = , f1 =
16 EI 3EI

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 ql 4
f1 =
8 EI Disp at the free end
ql 3
f2 =
6 EI Rotation at the free end
17 ql 4
f3 = Disp at the mid-span
384 EI

Pl 3
f1 =
3EI Disp at the free end
Pl 2
f2 = Rotation at the free end
2 EI
5 Pl 3 Disp at the mid-span
f3 =
48 EI

Ml 2
f1 = Disp at the free end
2 EI
Ml
f2 = Rotation at the free end
EI
Ml 2 Disp at the mid-span
f3 =
8 EI

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 3. Calculation of Displacement
The displacement required can be the generalised displacement
(deflection or rotation), and the virtual force applied can be the
corresponding generalised force (point load or moment).

1. For calculation of the

translational displacement,
the virtual load is a
1
concentrated unit force A
acting at the point, in the
direction required;

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 1
2. For calculation of rotation of one B
point, the virtual load is a unit
couple moment acting at the
point, in the direction required;

3. If the relative translation of two 1

points is to be found, two unit
B
loads are applied in opposite
directions at the given points 1
along the line joining them; A

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 1
4. If the relative rotation is required,
two unit couples are applied in B
opposite directions at the two
1
points. A

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 Examples
For a cantilever beam AB under uniform distributed
load q, as shown below, find the rotation at point B.

A F=1

ql2/2

M Mu

3
1 1 1 ql
D=  abl =  0.5ql 2  1 l =
EI 3 3EI 6 EI
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Frame

10m
10 kN 2
C
B EI

10 m 1
EI

Find: Horizontal displacement at C:  CH

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Solution: Apply a unit horizontal virtual load at C. The bending
moment diagrams of the frame under the actual load and virtual
load are:
10 m
100kNm x2 1
0
10 m
100kNm
1
10kN
x1

1
10 kN
1
10kN
M Mu

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 10 M 1M u1 10 M M
  CH =  dx1 +  2 u2
dx2
0 EI 0 EI

=
10 (10 x1 )(x1 ) dx +
10 (10 x2 )(x2 ) dx
1 2
0 EI 0 EI
10 10 x12 10 10 x
2
= dx1 +  2
dx2
0 EI 0 EI
3 10 3 10
10  x  10  x 
= + 1 2
 
EI  3  0 EI  3  0

10 1000 6667
=  2 =
EI 3 EI

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Generally, to calculate the displacement at j, apply a unit virtual
force at point j along the direction required (Fj =1, others = 0):
Axial deformation bending deformation shear deformation
Nu N M M VV
 =  dx +   u dx +   u dx
EA EI GAr
t
+ t0  N u dx +   M dx
u
h
temperature change

N, M, V = axial force, bending moment and shear force due to

external forces;
Subscript ‘u’ = the internal forces due to the unit virtual force;
α = linear thermal expansion coefficient;
t0 = average temperature change of the section;
Δt = temperature change difference (or temperature gradient) of
the section (temperature at bottom – top)
 E,A t
Deformation caused by average t
temperature change: L

D1t =  Lt

∆T2
h
Deformation caused by A B C ∆T1
temperature difference:
The upward curvature is (h is the
height of the X-section)
 =  (T1 − T2 ) / h
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 Examples

Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the truss. Due

to radiant heating from the wall, member AD is subjected to an
increase in temperature of ΔT = +60°C. Take α = 1.08×10-5/°C
and E = 200 GPa. The cross-sectional area of each member is
indicated in the figure.
 Solution
Step 1: Virtual Force – apply a vertical 1 kN force at joint C and
calculate the virtual axial forces Nu of the truss by the method
of joint.
Step 2: Real Forces – calculate the axial forces N of the truss due to
the real forces

Nu
Step 3: Virtual Work Equation – Both loads and temperature
affect the deformation

N u NL
= +  N uTL
AE
0.75(600)(1.8) 1(400)(2.4)
= −6 6
+ −6 6
+
1200(10 )[200(10 )] 1200(10 )[200(10 )]
(−1.25)(−500)(3) −5
−6 6
+ (1)[1.08(10 )](60)(2.4)
900(10 )[200(10 )]

 = 0.00193m = 1.93mm

The positive sign means that the displacement is

downward, as assumed.
4. MAXWELL’S LAW OF RECIPROCAL
DISPLACEMENTS

P P




P = P

If P=P =

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Graphically

P P
A B A B

 BA  AB

The displacement at B due to a load at A =

the displacement at A due to the same load at B.

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If P =1,

1 1
i j i j

f ii f ji f ij f jj

f ij = f ji

fij = Displacement at i due to a unit load at j

f = Flexibility coefficient

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 5. Summary

Virtual Actual

Virtual force ×Real displacement =

Virtual internal force ×Real internal displacement
Force-disp relation
is required
Analyse the structure Analyse the structure
under virtual force under real force
 Summary
Step 1: Apply an appropriate unit virtual load to the
structure and calculate the corresponding
internal forces Nu, Vu and Mu. For truss
members, only axial force is required; for beam
members, only moment is required.
Step 2: Calculate the internal forces (N, V and M) due
to the external forces.
Step 3: Calculate the integral for each member.
Step 4: Sum up all members and obtain the
displacement required.

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