Structural Analysis II

Lesson 3

Strain energy and complementary strain

energy

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Energy based methods
A. Concepts
Energy methods are based on the conservation of energy principle:
The work done by all the external forces acting on a structure (U e), is transformed into

internal work or strain energy (Ui), which is developed when the structure deforms,
mathematically expressed as:
Ue = Ui (9-1)

External Work—caused by Force. When a force F causes a displacement, dx, in its

direction, the work done by this force, dUe is F.dx. Total work done becomes:

(9-2)

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Energy based methods - Concepts
Consider an axial force, P, gradually applied to a bar element as shown in Fig. 1a. The
force causes an elongation (displacement), ∆
Since the force is applied gradually, a Force-
displacement diagram is illustrated in Fig. 1b
Work done by this gradual forces, Ue, is represented
by the shaded are in Fig. 1b, expressed as :

(9-3)
Fig. 1a Fig. 1b
Suppose now that P is already applied to the bar and
that another force, F’, is now applied, so the bar
deflects further by ∆’ as shown in Fig. 1c.
The work done by P (not F’) when the bar
undergoes the further deflection is illustrated
by BDEG in Fig. 1d, expressed as:
(9-4)
Fig. 1c Fig. 1d 3
Energy based methods - Concepts
External Work—caused by Moment. The work done by a moment is defined by
the product of the magnitude of the moment, M, and the angle, dθ, through
which it rotates, i.e. dUe = Mdθ, as shown in Fig. 2a. If the total angle of
Rotation, θ, is radians, the work is expressed as:

(9-5)

As in the case of force, if the moment is applied gradually to a

Fig. 2
structure having linear elastic response from zero to M, then work
expressed as:
(9-6)
However, if the moment is already applied to the structure and other loadings further
distort the structure by an amount θ’, then M rotates θ’ and the work is
(9-7)

Next, let us consider the internal work done, also referred to as strain energy 4
Energy based methods - Concepts
Strain Energy—caused by Axial Force. When an axial force N is applied gradually
to the bar in Fig. 3a, it will strain the material such that the external work done by N
will be converted into strain energy, which is stored in the bar (Eq. 9–1). Provided the
material is linearly elastic, Hooke’s law, σ = Eɛ, is valid
If the bar has a constant cross-sectional area A and length L,
the normal stress is expressed as σ = N/A; the final strain is
expressed as ɛ = ∆/L
Consequently, N/A = E(∆/L), thus the final
deflection, ∆, is expressed as:

(9-8) Fig. 3

Substituting into Eq. 9–3, with P=N, the strain energy in the bar becomes:

(9-9)

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Energy based methods - Concepts
Strain Energy—caused by bending . Consider the beam in Fig. 4a, which is deflected
by a gradually applied loading P and w. These loads create an internal moment M in the
beam at a section located a distance x, from the left support . The resulting rotation dθ
of the differential element dx, shown in Fig. 4b, can be found from the relationship dθ
=[M/(EI)]dx (as can be recalled from the last lesson).

The strain energy, or work stored in the

element, dUi, can be determined using Eq.
9–6 (since the internal moment is
gradually developed) as follows:

Fig. 4a Fig. 4b
(9-10)

The strain energy for the beam is determined by integrating Eq. 9-10 over the
beam’s entire length L and is:

(9-11)

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Energy based methods - Concepts
Illustration of work and energy principles in the calculations of deflection
Consider finding the displacement at the point where the force P is applied to the
cantilever beam in Fig. 5.
From Eq. 9–3, the external work, Ue is as follows:

Fig. 5a
To obtain the resulting strain energy, we must first determine
the internal moment as a function of position x in the beam
and then apply Eq. 9–11. From Fig. 5b, M = -Px and Ui is as
follows:
Fig. 5b

Equating the external work to internal strain energy and solving for the unknown
displacement, ∆, we have

Thus, displacement, ∆, is as follows:

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Energy based methods - Concepts
Limitations of this application of energy method:
• Only one load may be applied to the structure, since if more than one load were
applied, there would be an unknown displacement under each load, and yet it is
possible to write only one “work” equation for the beam.
• Only the displacement under the force can be obtained, since the external work
depends upon both the force and its corresponding displacement.

One way to circumvent these limitations is to use the method of virtual work or
Castigliano’s theorem, both of which will be explained later.

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Energy based methods – Virtual work (unit load) method
Principle of virtual work method
• This method provides a general means of obtaining the displacement and slope
at a specific point on a structure, be it a beam, frame, or truss.
• Consider any deformable structure of any shape or size and apply a series of
external loads P to it, it will cause internal loads u at points throughout the structure.
• Relate the external and internal loads by the equations of equilibrium.
• As a consequence of these loadings, external displacements will occur at the P
loads and internal displacements will occur at each point of internal load u.
• The external and internal displacements must be related by the compatibility of the
displacements.
• If the external displacements are known, the corresponding internal displacements
are uniquely defined.

• The general principle of work and energy is expressed as:

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Energy based methods – Principle of Virtual work (unit load) method
Suppose it is necessary to determine the displacement of point A on the body caused
by the “real loads” P1, P2 and P3 in Fig. 6b
Since no external load acts on the body at A and in the direction of the displacement
can be determined by first placing on the body a “virtual” load such that this force P’
acts in the same direction as ∆ - see Fig. 6a
For convenience, which will be apparent later, we will choose to have a “unit”
magnitude, that is, P’ = 1.
P’ and u should be related by the equations of equilibrium

Fig. 6a
Fig. 6b 10
Energy based methods – Principle of Virtual work (unit load) method
• Once the virtual loadings are applied, then the body is subjected to the real loads
P1, P2 and P2 (Fig. 6b).
• Displacement of ∆ at A will cause an element deformation of dL
• The external virtual force and internal virtual load u “ride along” by ∆ and dL,
respectively, and therefore perform external virtual work of on the body and
internal virtual work of on the element.
• Now, considering that the external virtual work
is equal to the internal virtual work done on all
the elements of the body, the virtual-work
equation as:

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Energy based methods – Principle of virtual work (unit load) method
• In a similar manner, if the rotational displacement or slope of the tangent at a point
on a structure is to be determined, a virtual couple moment M’ having a “unit”
magnitude is applied at the point.
• The couple moment causes a virtual load uθ in one of the elements of the body.
• Assuming that the real loads deform the element an amount dL, the rotation θ can
be found from the virtual-work equation:

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Energy based methods
B. Application of Virtual work method: Deflections in trusses
• The method of virtual work is used to determine the displacement of a truss joint
when the truss is subjected to:
a) an external loading,
b) temperature change, and/or
c) fabrication errors.
a) External Loading. Let us consider the vertical displacement of joint B of the truss
in Fig. 7a. Here a typical element of the truss would be one of its members having a
length L (Fig. 7b). If the applied loadings P1 and P2 cause a linear elastic material
response, then this element deforms an amount ∆L = NL/(AE) where N is the axial
force in the member, caused by the loads. Applying Eq. 9–13, the virtual-work
equation for the truss is therefore

(9-15)

1= external virtual load in the direction of ∆
n = internal virtual axial force caused by
external virtual unit load
∆ = external joint displacement caused by
real loads
Fig. 7a
Fig. 7b
N= internal axial force caused by real loads
L= Length of member
A = Cross-sectional area of member
E = Modulus of elasticity of a member 13
Energy based methods: Application of Virtual work method in trusses
b) Temperature. Sometimes truss members may change their length due to
temperature. If α is the coefficient of thermal expansion for a member and ∆T is the
change in its temperature, the change in length of a member is ∆L = α ∆T L.
Using Eq. 9-13, the displacement of a selected truss joint due to this temperature
change is:

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Energy based methods: Application of Virtual work method in trusses
Fabrication Errors and Camber. Occasionally, errors in fabricating the lengths of the
members of a truss may occur. Also, in some cases truss members must be made
slightly longer or shorter in order to give the truss a camber. If a truss member is
shorter or longer than intended, the displacement of a truss joint from its expected
position can be determined from direct application of Eq. 9–13, written as:

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Energy based methods: Application of Virtual work method in trusses

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Energy based methods: Application of Virtual work method in trusses
Procedure for analysis
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Energy based methods: Application of Virtual work method in trusses
Example: The cross-sectional area of each member of the truss shown in
Fig. 9a is A = 400mm2 and E = 200GPa
(a) Determine the vertical displacement of joint C if a 4-kN
force is applied to the truss at C.
(b) If no loads act on the truss, what would be the vertical
displacement of joint C if member AB were 5 mm too
short?
Fig. 9 a

Fig. 9 b 18
Energy based methods: Application of Virtual work method in trusses
Real Forces N. The joint analysis of A and B when the real load of 4 kN is applied to
the truss is given in Fig. 9c.

Fig. 9c

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Energy based methods: Application of Virtual work method in trusses

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Energy based methods: Application of Virtual work method in trusses
Practicing questions

• FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS: F9-1, F9-2, F9-3, F9-7 and F9-9

• PROBLEMS 9-3,9-5,9-13 and 9-15

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