When Sources

analyzing ,

① Analyse the topic question of the SBCS .

↳
Try to make this the main base of all

your arguments.(especially in Comparision [CONTENT criterion])

② Identify AUTHOR
↳ motive ?
↳
likely intentions
↳ look for hints of lun realiability
reliability
↳ enhanced
reliability
↳ or are they likely to be
unbiased/ impartial/objective?
-
credible scholars / experts in their fields .

Cno connection to Gov. )

③ Identify SWIH +
Purpose ,
Intended Audience , Tone

* Are there any

⑦ Identify stakeholders CONDITIONAL

responsibility ?
circumstances ?
↳ If more than 2
, who has more ↳ some or a ?

Traina
⑤ Is the source biased/one-sided ?

(
,
or balanced

·meneca ne,
-

ream
6 when out evidence ,
pick out evidence
picking
↳ that clearly supports your stand . Source C tells me that

integration in mainstream
↳ has more specific examples , rather than
schools is not beneficial
certain

generalised descriptions of what happened. for special

children
.
needs

When ,
explaining
① Unpack evidence

2 Draw a dear link between evidence & stand/inference

↳ how does the evidence support your inference/stand
↳ So WHAT ?
Biology
Cells
Movement of Substances
Nutrients
Enzymes
Nutrition in Plants
Photosynthesis basics:
Glucose is first formed from carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
→ The simplest energy-rich organic molecules are carbohydrates, and the
simplest stable form of carbohydrates are monosaccharides.
Presence of starch in leaves suggests that photosynthesis has taken
place.
→ When glucose is formed more quickly than it is used up, the excess
glucose is converted into starch for storage.
→ However, the presence of starch does not indicate that photosynthesis
has occurred in specifically that region of the plant
- starch can be found even in the roots or underground storage organs of
plants.
→ test for starch using iodine test.
Destarching (removal of starch) must be done on plants before
experiments.
→ Put the plants in the dark for two days.
→ In the darkness, photosynthesis stops and the enzymes in the leaves
convert starch into sucrose, which is transported to other parts of the
plant.
→ Ensures that starch is absent in leaves of plant prior to experiment,
and that all starch present in leaves after the experiment was formed
during the experiment. Conditions required:
Sunlight
What is Photosynthesis? Carbon dioxide
Chlorophyll
Photosynthesis is the process in which light A suitable temperature
energy absorbed by chlorophyll is transformed → Photosynthesis depends
into chemical energy which is then used to on enzyme reactions in
synthesise carbohydrates from water and chloroplasts. ( enzymes
denature at temperatures
carbon dioxide. Water and carbon dioxide are beyond their optimal
the raw materials used, and oxygen is released. temperature )
Water
Uses of Glucose

1) Used immediately
In Cellular respiration to provide energy for cellular activities
To form the cellulose of cellular cell walls

2) Converted
a) in daylight → rate of photosynthesis is higher than the rate that they
can be removed → excess glucose is converted into starch
b) in darkness → photosynthesis stops → and starch is converted by
enzymes back into glucose

3) Converted to sucrose, which may be

transported to other parts of the plant or to storage organs via the
phloem
converted to starch or other forms of storage organs, depending on
the plant
converted back into glucose

4) Reacts with Nitrates and other mineral salts absorbed from the soil to
form amino acids
Used to form proteins → synthesis of new protoplasm in leaves
Excess is transported to other parts of the plant
For the synthesis of new protoplasm
For storage as proteins

5) Forms fats
For storage
Used in cellular respiration
For synthesis of new protoplasm
External features

Lamina
Large, flat surface compared to its volume
→ enabling it to obtain the maximum amount of sunlight for
photosynthesis
→ carbon dioxide can rapidly reach the inner cells of the leaf

Network of veins (basically consists of the vascular bundles in the leaf)

Carry water in mineral salts to the cells in the lamina
Carry manufactured food substances from the lamina cells to the other
parts of the plant

Leaf arrangement
Leaves organised around the stem in a regular pattern
Leafs grow either in…
pairs
singly in an alternate arrangement
ensuring that the leaves are not blocking one another from sunlight
and that each leaf
receives sufficient sunlight

Petiole
Holds the lamina away from the stem
→ lamina can obtain sufficient sunlight and air
Internal features
Transport in plants
Nutrition in Humans
Nutrition is the process by which organisms in the body obtain food & energy
for growth, repair & maintenance of the body

Nutrition processes in humans

• feeding / ingestion —> food is taken into the body
• digestion —> large food molecules are broken down into smaller, soluble
molecules that can be absorbed into the body cells
• absorption —> digested food substances are absorbed into the body cells
• assimilation —> some absorbed food substances are converted into new
protoplasm or used to provide energy

Human digestive system

• well-developed
• consists of the gut / alimentary canal and the organs (liver & pancreas)
associated with it
• gut…
• is a 9m long tube extending from the mouth to the anus, with most of its
length coiled in the abdomen / abdominal cavity
• makes up a larger part of the organ system for nutrition

Mouth & busy cal cavity

• food enters body via mouth, which leads into the buccaneers cavity
• In the mouth are…
• Teeth —> chewing action of teeth breaks down large pieces of food into
smaller pieces, increasing SA of food so enzymes can act on it more
efficiently
• Salivary glands —> secrete saliva into the mouth, which flows into the
buccaneers cavity via tubes called salivary ducts
• Tongue —> mixes food with saliva. Has taste buds on it which help identify &
select suitable foods.
Pharynx
• part of the gut
• connects the buccal cavity to the oesophagus and larynx (voice box)
• leads to the trachea (windpipe), which leads to the lungs
• has a slit-like opening called the glottis
• both food & air must pass through the pharynx when they enter the body
• normally, air passes into the trachea while food passes into the oesophagus

Epiglottis
• when swallowing, food could pass into the trachea instead of the
oesophagus
• a flap-like tissue above the larynx & just behind the root of the tongue,
called the epiglottis, prevents this.
• when swallowing, the larynx moves up & the epiglottis moves downwards
so that the larynx is covered by the epiglottis, preventing food particles
from entering the trachea.
• During breathing, the larynx is lowered & the glottis is open
• During swallowing, the larynx is raised & the glottis is covered by the
epiglottis

Oesophagus / Gullet
• narrow, muscular tube
• passes through the thorax (chest) and the diaphragm, a sheet of muscle
separating the thorax from the abdomen that plays a part in breathing, to
join the stomach.
• It’s wall contains 2 layers of muscles present along the whole gut from
the oesophagus to the rectum
• Longitudinal muscles —> on the outer side of the gut wall
• Circular muscles —> on the inner side of the gut wall
• both sets of muscles produce long, slow contractions, which move food
along the gut via peristalsis
Peristalsis
• is the rhythmic, wave-like muscular contractions in the wall of the
alimentary canal that enables food to be mixed with digestive juices and
be pushed or propelled along the gut.
• The circular and longitudinal muscles are an antagonistic muscles,
meaning that when one set of muscles contracts, the other set relaxes.
• circular muscles constrict the lumen while the longitudinal muscles
shorten & widen the lumen
• When circular muscles contract, longitudinal muscles relax —> wall of
gut constricts —> gut becomes narrower & longer —> food is squeezed
or pushed forward
• Longitudinal muscles contract, circular muscles relax —> wall of gut
dilates —> becomes wider & shorter —> widens the lumpen for the food
to enter

Stomach
• distensible (can be stretched or expanded) muscular bag with thick &
well-developed muscular walls
• when fully distended, sends signals to the brain that it is full or sated.
• has numerous pits, which lead to gastric glands that secrete gastric juice
into the stomach cavity, that play an important role in digestion
• is able to store food for a few hours
• a ring of muscle called the pyloric sphincter is located at the the place
where the stomach joins the small intestine
• when it contracts, the entrance to the small intestine closes —> ensures
food is sufficiently digested before it leaves the stomach
• when it relaxes, the entrance tot he small intestine opens —> allowing
food to pass from the stomach into the small intestine.

Small intestine
• consists of the U-shaped duodenum, jejunum and much-coiled ileum
• in humans, it is about 6m long
• lining of its walls contains glands which secrete digestive enzymes
• its wall is adapted to absorb digested food products and water
Large intestine
• much shorter and broader than the large intestine
• about 1.5m long
• no digestion occurs in it
• consists of the colon and rectum
• colon absorbs water and mineral salts from undigested food material
• at the junction between the colon & small intestine are the caecum &
appendix
• attached to the sac-like caecum is the tubular appendix, both of which have
no specific function
• appendix can become infected and inflamed, causing appendicitis
• faces is temporarily stored in the rectum, and is expelled through the annum
when the rectum contracts
Liver
• is dark & red
• made up of 5 lobes, 3 on the right 2 lobes on the left
• attached to its lower surface are 3 blood vessels, the hepatic portal vein, the
hepatic vein, and hepatic artery
• secretes & produces bile, an alkaline greenish-yellow liquid containing bile
salts & pigments, which give it its colour & are removed with the faeces as
waste matter

Pancreas
• gland connected to the duodenum by the pancreatic duct
• bile duct joins the pancreatic duct just before it opens into the duodenum
• produces pancreatic juice, which contains digestive enzymes
• secretes the hormones insulin & glucagon, which play an important role in
controlling the concentration of glucose in the blood & carbohydrate
metabolism

Gall bladder
• is a greenish-yellow bag attached to the liver
• temporarily stored bile
• when it contracts, bile flows from the duodenum via the bile duct
Digestion
• the process whereby large food molecules are broken down into smaller,
soluble food molecules that can be absorbed into the body cells
• involves 2 digestive processes; physical & chemical digestion
• physical —> involves the mechanical break-up of food into small particles
—> increases the SA to V ratio of the ingested food so that digestive
enzymes can act on the food more efficiently
• chemical —> involves hydrolysis reactions catalyses by digestive enzymes
—> for the breaking down of the large molecules in foods, such as proteins,
starch and fats, into small, soluble molecules which can be absorbed

In Mouth (neutral pH of around 7)

• food in the mouth stimulates salivary glands to secrete saliva, which is mixed
with the food, allowing the mucus in the saliva to better soften the food.
• salivary amylase, an enzyme in saliva, digests starch into maltose
• chewing breaks the food up into small, slippery, round masses or boil
• The boil are swallowed & passed down into the oesophagus via the pharynx
• peristalsis in its walls pushes each bolts of food down the stomach

In stomach (pH of about 2)

• presence of food in stomach stimulates gastric glands to secrete gastric
juice into the stomach cavity
• peristalsis in the stomach wall churns and breaks up the foo, and mixes it
well with gastric juice,
• which is a dilute solution of HCl (about pH 2), mucus, and the enzyme,
pepsin.
• The dilute HCl…
• stops the action of the salivary amylase by denaturing it
• changes the inactive form of the enzyme pepsinogen, in the gastric juice, to
an active from called pepsin
• provides a slightly acidic medium suitable for the action of pepsin, &
• kills certain potentially harmful microorganisms in food
• The proteases, pepsin digests proteins to polypeptides
• the partially digested food is liquified to form chyme, & remains in the
stomach for 3-4 hrs before passing in small amounts into the duodenum
when the pyloric sphincter relaxes & opens
In small intestine
• presence of chyme in small intestine stimulates…
• pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice containing the enzymes pancreatic
amylase, trypsin (a protease), & pancreatic lipase, which passes through the
pancreatic duct into the duodenum
• gall bladder to release bile which passes through the bile duct into the
duodenum, and cannot digest food as it does not contain any enzymes, but
its salts can speed up the digestion of fats
• epithelial cells in the small intestine to produce the enzymes Maltese,
peptides, & lipase
• the 3 alkaline fluids consisting of the pancreatic juice, bile, & intestinal juice
come into contact with the food,…
• neutralising the acidic chyme, &
• providing a suitable alkaline medium for the action of the pancreat
Digestion of different nutrients

Carbohydrates
• food that we eat may contain starch & other carbs such as lactose,
sucrose, & cellulose
• starch is digested by amylases

• thus, end-products of carbs digestion are simple sugars (glucose,

fructose, galactose) which are small enough to be absorbed into the
bloodstream.
• Cellulose is not digested at all in humans

Proteins
• are digested by proteases
• some protein digestion begins in the stomach, where pepsin digests the
proteins to polypeptides
• The undigested proteins which enter the small intestine are digested by
trypsin to polypeptides
• The polypeptides produced are further digested to amino acids by peptidases.
• Thus, the end product of protein digestion are amino acids which are small
enough to be absorbed into the
 Fat digestion
• in the small intestine,…
• bile salts emulsify fats
• they lower the surface tension of fats, reducing the attractive forces between the fat molecules
• causes fats to break into tiny fat droplets suspended in water, forming an emulsion
• this is just physical breakup / digestion, no chemical digestion of fats has occured
• emulsification increases the SA to V ratio of the fats, speeding up their digestion by lipase
• emulsified fats are digested by pancreatic & intestinal lipases to fatty acids & glycerol.
• Thus, the end-products of fat digestion are fatty acids & glycerol.
pancreatic &
bilesalts emulsified intestinal
big fats lipases
fatty acids
fat > t
droplet C tiny fat
glycerol
droplets)
-> helps soften
-mucus food

in saliva
>
-
pH : 7
salivary amylase maltose
I salivary
amylase
starch * as food doesn't
stay in the mouth
for long and
,
>
salivary amylase
mouth a is onlyactive until it is denatured in stomach by HCe ,
onlya little

Starch is digested by it into maltose > .., need for pancreatic .

amylase
-

salivary HCl denatured

amylase >
in mixed with
9 salivary
amylase
Stomach 2 food
↓ :
HCe
gastric juice
>
-

↓
-
>

L
↓ 'kills) dead no
sinogen
potentially
,
D ep
Hce
conserpotential a
mucus
,
Cinactivel
↓
activated narmful
into
mucus
on
layer pepsin microorganisms microorganisms
was in food in food
·
prevent damage by

·
HCe on inner walls
as long as there are
lacts as an activator) >
-
(provides
proteases , mucus is HCC optimum plt
needed to prevent
of organ's pepsinogen > pepsin for action of
damage
inner walls
-
(inactive) Cactive pepsin
made
primarily
↳
of proteine
pepsin
proteins
>
polypeptides

pancreatic intestinal
in small maltase
starch amylase
intestine > maltose > glucose

lactose
lactose > glucose + galactose
sucrase
sucrose > glucose + fructose
pancreatic

proteins trypsin >

polypeptides
intestinal
peptidases pancreatic &
polypeptides > amino acids
intestinal
bile safts emulsified fats lip as es fatty acids
big fat
droplet
S
Ctiny fat droplets
>
glycerol
Absorption
• process whereby digested food substances are absorbed into the body cells.
• small products of digestion such as simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol are absorbed
throughout the small intestine, especially in the ileum
• absorbed nutrients pass from the small intestine into the bloodstream
• water & mineral salts are absorbed by the small intestine & the colon
• the small intestine absorbs most of the water that enters the alimentary canal
• from the small intestine, about 1-1.5 litres of the water pass into the large intestine daily, & the colon
absorbs 90% of that amount

Adaptations of Small intestine for absorption:

The rate of absorption of digested food substances depends on…
1.Surface area of the small intestine —> the larger the surface area, the greater the area for absorption
of digested food substances, & the faster the rate of their absorption.
• the inner surface of the small intestine is folded,
• & these folds bear numerous minute finger-like projections called villi
• the epithelial cells of the villi also have numerous microvilli,
• increasing the surface area of the small intestine, & increasing the absorption of digested food
substances, & increasing the rate of absorption.

2.Thickness of the membrane that separates the food substances from the blood capillaries —> the
thinner the membrane that separates the food substances from the blood capillaries, the shorter the
time taken by the digested food substances to pass through it, & the faster the rate of their absorption
• the epithelium of the microvilli that make up the wall of the villi are only one-cell thick, providing a
short diffusion distance for the digested food substances, reducing the time taken by them to pass
through it, increasing the rate of their absorption

3.The maintained concentration gradients of individual food substances —> the steeper the
concentration gradients of the individual substances, the faster the rate of their absorption
• in each villus is a lacteal or lymphatic capillary that transport fats surrounded by blood capillaries,
that transport sugars away from the intestine. This continual transport of digested food
substances maintains a steep concentration gradient for the absorption of digestion substances,
increasing the rate of their absorption.

The small intestine is also strong to provide sufficient time for absorption, allowing more nutrients to
be absorbed (note: this DOES NOT increase the rate of absorption!)
Assimilation
• is the process whereby some of the absorbed food substances are converted into new protoplasm or
used to provide energy
• post-absorption, the blood is rich in nutrients
• the blood capillaries unite to form larger blood vessels, which in turn unite to form a large vein, the
hepatic portal vein, which transports nutrients to the liver,
• where most absorbed sugars are converted into glycogen & stored, while the some glucose is
transported by the blood leaving the liver to be distributed around the body.

• Glucose is assimilated & then oxidised during tissue reparation to release energy for the vital activities
of all cells,
• while excess glucose is returned to the liver & stored as glycogen
• The hormones insulin produced by the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas stimulates the liver cells to
convert excess glucose into glycogen, which is converted back into glucose when the body needs
energy.

1) Some amino acids enter the cells are converted into new protoplasm that is used for growth and repair
of worn-out parts of the body,
2) while others may be used to form enzymes & hormones.
3) Others may be deaminated
• sugars and amino acids are transported from the small intestine via the hepatic portal vein to the liver,
where excess glucose is changed to glycogen, and excess amino are converted into urea
• The hepatic artery transports oxygenated blood from the heart to the liver, while the hepatic vein
transports the remaining glucose & amino acids from the liver to be distributed round the body.

• Fats are absorbed into the lymphatic capillaries, which join to form larger lymphatic vessels, which
discharge fats into the bloodstream,
• via which they are carried to all parts of the body, especially the liver,
• where they are converted into forms that can either be broken down or stored.
• under normal conditions when there is a sufficient supply of glucose, fats aren’t broken down, but
instead used to build protoplasm, such as cell membranes.
• under conditions when there is short supply of glucose, fats are broken down to provide the energy
needed for the vital activities of the body
• Excess fats are stored as adipose tissues, which occur beneath the skin & around the heart & kidneys,
acting as shock absorbers that protect these organs.
Liver’s functions
1)Regulation of blood glucose concentration
• plays a key role in carbohydrate metabolism by keeping the amount of glucose in the blood constant
• after a heavy meal (activity) —> too much glucose in blood —> hormone insulin is secreted
—> stimulates liver to convert glucose into glycogen for storage —> blood glucose conc. decreases
• during fasting (activity) —> too little glucose in blood —> hormone glucagon is secreted—> stimulates
liver to convert glycogen into glucose X-> blood glucose conc. increases

2) Bile production
• helps in the digestion of fats by secreting bile,
• which is temporarily stored in the gal bladder before use
• bile pigments are formed during the breaking down of haemoglobin by the liver

3) Iron storage
• red blood cells of the body become worn out after some time.
• in mammals, these cells do not have nuclei & are destroyed in the spleen, a gland found near the liver
• the haemoglobin is then brought to the live , which breaks it down and stores the iron released in the
process along with the bile pigments

4) Protein synthesis
• liver synthesises protein found in the blood plasma,
• such as prothrombin & fibrinogen, which are essential in blood clotting, from amino acids in the diet

5) Deamination of Amino acids

• excess amino acids are transported to the liver,
• where their amino groups are removed and converted to urea in a process called deamination
• deamination is the process by which amino groups are removed from amino acids converted to urea,
which is removed from the body as urine
• the remains of the deaminated amino acids are converted into glucose in the liver,
• and any excess glucose formed this way is converted into glycogen

6) Detoxification
• detoxification is the process whereby harmful substances that may have been absorbed into the blood
from the gut are converted into harmless ones.
• such harmful substances include the food preservative benzodiazepines acid and alcohol.
• Alcohol is broken down in the liver by alcohol dehydrogenase, an enzyme found in liver cells, into a
compound called acetaldehyde, which can be broken down further into compounds that can be used in
respiration to provide energy for cell activities.
Negative effects of excessive alcohol consumption

On Digestive System

1)
• alcohol stimulates acid secretion in the stomach,
• increasing the risk of gastric ulcers
• prolonged alcohol abuse may lead to cirrhosis of the liver, a disease in which the liver cells are
destroyed & replaced with fibrous tissue, reducing the liver’s ability to function
• affected individuals may haemorrhage or have bleeding in the liver,
• leading to liver failure, & subsequently death.

On Nervous System

1) Depressant
• alcohol is a depressant
• it slows down some brain functions
• effects vary from one person to another

2) Reduced self-control
• under the influence of alcohol
• a person becomes carefree as he it takes away his inhibitions
• sled-control is reduced
• some may take personal & social liberties which they may regret after the effects of alcohol have
worn off

3) Effect in reaction times

• as the person drinks more alcohol, other observable effects of intoxication, such as slurred speech,
occur.
• Blurred vision & poor muscle coordination make him clumsy & unable to walk steadily
• judgement deteriorates & he tends to underestimate speed
• as a driver, he may drive faster & with less caution
• reactions become slower
• hence, many traffic accidents are cause

Socials implications
• when someone drinks alcohol frequently, he can become addicted to it,
• & is unable to stop drinking until he is drunk & his body becomes dependent on alcohol
• and he becomes an alcoholic, which are liabilities to society
• they may neglect their work & families, & exhibit violent behaviour, especially to family members
• many crimes have been committed by people under the influence of alcohol
Transport in Human's
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment
• eg. blood & tissue fluids (ensures that the composition of body fluids is
kept within narrow limits)
• by ensures a relatively stable internal environment,
• homeostasis allows an organism to be independent from changes in the
external environment in which it lives

Why body temperature has to be kept constant

• environmental conditions outside the body are continuously changing
• body cells have to be kept at a constant temperature, one of the reasons
being
• the enzymes in the body cells of an organisms only being able to work
within a certain range of temperatures
• changes in body temperature may therefore result in enzyme inactivation
or even denaturation,
• explaining why people suffering from high fevers must consult a doctor, as
they can be fatal.

Why tissue fluid must be kept at constant pH & potential

• drastic change in the PH of tissue fluid will affect the enzyme reactions in
cells & harm your body
• Drastic changes in water potential will also affect the water potential of
body cells
• therefore, the composition of of tissue fluid must be kept within very
narrow limits to ensure that the tissue fluid is kept at a constant pH &
water potential
Process of Negative Feedback in Homeostasis
• negative feedback process is the process in homeostatic control whereby
your body reacts to being about an opposite effect to the changes detected
• if the system (body) is disturbed, the disturbance sets in motion a sequence
of events that tends to restore the system to its original state.

Effector
Control centre
Corrective mechanism
• brings about the
Receptor as condition reverse effect of
increases, a the stimulus
• detects stimulus & feedback is sent to
send signal to the receptor
control centre
Condition
as condition
decreases, a increases /decreases
Stimulus feedback is sent to
(condition the receptor
decreases/rises
above/below Normal condition /
normal) set point (norm)
• change in reached
internal • to be maintained
environment
Regulating blood glucose conc.
• blood cells need glucose for cellular respiration,
• which provides cells with energy to perform their vital activities
• therefore, a drastic change in blood glucose concentration can be dangerous
• blood glucose levels increase:
after a heavy / sugary meal
• blood glucose levels decrease: Corrective mechanism
• Islets of Langerhans secrete
during exercise, fasting insulin into the bloodstream,
• which transports it to the
liver & muscles
• insulin increases the
permeability if the cell
surface membrane to
glucose,
• which becomes more quickly
absorbed by the cells
• insulin therefore causes the
Receptor, control centre, effector
liver & muscles to convert
• Islets of Langerhans
excess glucose to glycogen,
• in the pancreas are stimulated
which is stored in the liver &
muscles.

Stimulus
Blood glucose
• Blood glucose
concentration
concentration rises
decreases,
above normal
• providing feedback
to the receptor,
Normal set point of
the islets of
blood glucose
Langerhans, to
concentration
reduce insulin
Stimulus production
• blood glucose
concentration falls
below normal
Blood glucose concentration increases
• provides a feedback to the receptor
Receptor, control centre, effector to increase glucagon production
• Islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas are stimulated
Corrective mechanism
• Islets of Langerhans secrete
glucagon into the bloodstream,
• which transports the glucagon
to the liver & muscles,
• which causes the conversion of
stored glycogen back to
glucose,
• which enters the bloodstream
from the liver
Regulating blood water potential
•
Excretion
What is Excretion?
Excretion is the process by which the body removes metabolic waste
products and toxic materials.

Importance of Excretion:
Important process because metabolic waste products can be harmful to the
body if they are not removed and accumulate in the body

Metabolic processes
-

Catabolic processes Anabolic processes

reaction that build reaction that break down

small molecules to complex molecule to
complex molecules smaller molecules
Ultra filtration
1. Blood flows from renal artery and enters the
glomerulus through afferent arteriole.
2. Afferent arterioles have a larger diameter than
the efferent arteriole, where blood leaves
glomerulus, creating high blood pressure or high
hydrostatic pressure
3. This forces water, urea, salts and other small
solutes such as glucose, amino acids into the
Bowman’s capsule, while blood cells and large
molecules such as protein remain in the
capillaries.
4. The glomerular filtrate passes from the
Bowman’s capsule into the proximal convoluted
tubule.
*The endothelium of the glomerular capillaries
and the basement membrane of the Bowman’s
capsule that wraps around the glomerular
capillaries are partially permeable —> only small
soluble substances are able to pass through.
Selective reabsorption
1. At proximal convoluted tube, most of the
mineral salts and all of the glucose and
amino acids are absorbed through active
transport or diffusion. Water is reabsorbed
by osmosis.
2. Reabsorption of water continues in the
loop of Henlé.
3. Water and salts are reabsorbed in the
distal convoluted tubule.
4. Water is reabsorbed from the collecting
duct (not part of nephron).
5. Excess salts, nitrogenous waste
products, excess water enter the renal
pelvis as urine and are excreted out of the

1.Osmoreceptors in
hypothalamus
detects the decrease in
water potential
2. Hypothalamus sends
signal to the pituitary
gland, which is
stimulated to secrete
more ADH into the
blood. Normal
WP
3. ADH makes the kidney
tubules and the
collecting ducts more
permeable to water.
4. This causes more
water to be reabsorbed,
producing a smaller
volume of more
concentrated urine.
5. Water potential of
blood increases and
returns to regular levels.
dehydration.
1.Osmoreceptors in
hypothalamus
detects the increase in
—> could lead to stroke.
water
the cells to swell and burst.
potential
2. Hypothalamus sends
signal to the
pituitary gland, which is
stimulated
to secrete less ADH into
• essential for proper functioning of the body.
the blood.
3. The kidney tubules and
collecting
ducts are less permeable
to water.
4. Less water is reabsorbed
resulting in a larger volume
of diluted urine.
5. The water potential of
blood
returns to normal levels.
• Osmoregulation is the maintenance of constant water potential in the body.
• Too little water would cause water to move out of the cells into tissue fluid causing
• Osmoregulation is a homeostatic process, controlled by a hormone called antidiuretic
hormone (ADH). ADH is produced by the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland
• Excess water can cause water to move into cells from tissue fluid by osmosis —> causing
• Excess water can also lead to an increase in blood pressure due to an increase in its volume
Kidney Dialysis: How it works
• The kidneys function to remove waste products, excess water and excess
mineral salts.
• When kidneys fail to fulfil the function, a dialysis machine is needed to perform
the functions of a kidney.
1. Blood is drawn from the vein in patient’s arm and is passed through in dialysis
machine.
2. The tubing is bathed in dialysis fluid which contains the same concentration of
essential substances as the blood plasma and with no waste products.
3. The tubing is partially permeable thus small molecules such as urea and other
metabolic waste products diffuse out of the tubing into the dialysis fluid. Blood
cells, platelets and other large molecules remain in the tubing.
4. Blood is then returned to the vein in the patient’s arm.

Countercurrent Flow
Conc. of Solute Blood

15 20 25 30

0 5 10 15

Dialysate
Adaptations:
1. Tubing is narrow, long and coiled. This increases surface area to volume ratio
for the diffusion of waste material into the dialysis fluid
2. There is countercurrent flow which is the direction of blood flow is opposite
to the flow of dialysis machine. This maintains the same concentration
gradient along the entire exchange.
3. Dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of essential substances as
blood. This ensures no essential substances will diffuse out of the blood to the
dialysis fluid.
4. Dialysis fluid does not contain metabolic waste products. This maintains the
steep concentration gradient for waste products to diffuse out of the tubing
into the dialysis fluid.
Nervous system
Types of Nervous Tissue:

Motor Neurone:

Cell Body:
• contains a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell surface membrane, and
organelles
• Irregular in shape

Dendron:
• nerve fibres that transmit impulses towards the cell body
• motor neurone has many dendrons

Axon:
• nerve fibres that transmit impulses away from the cell body.
• In motor neurone, they are usually long.

Myelin Sheath:
• layer of fatty substances enclosing the many nerve fibres
• insulates the axon

Node of Ranvier:
• regions where the myelin sheath is absent
• Nerve impulses cannot be transmitted through the myelin
sheath, so they jump from one node to the next
• This speeds up the transmission of impulses along the nerve
fibre

Axon Terminal:
• axon terminals of a motor neurone transmit nerve
impulses to the effector.

Motor End Plate:

• is the junction between the axon terminal and the muscles
fibre
• nerve impulses are transmitted along the muscle end plate
by chemicals which stimulate the muscles.
Synapse
• a junction between two neurones, or a junction between a neurone and an
effector (such as a muscle /gland)
• impulses are transmitted from the axon of neurone to the dendron of
another neurone (or the cells of another effector) across a tiny space
• These impulses are transmitted by certain chemicals released by the
neurones, called neurotransmitters.

What are nerves?

• a nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres enclosed in a sheath of connective tissue
• they may emerge from the brain as a cranial nerve or the spinal chord (spinal
nerve)
• They may contain
- sensory nerve fibres only —> conduct impulses from sensory organs.
- motor nerve neurones —> conduct nerve impulses to effectors
- both sensory & motor nerve fibres —> eg. spinal nerves
Spinal cord & nerves
• Spinal nerves emerge at intervals along the length of the spinal cord.
• As the spinal nerve leaves the cord, it progressively subdivides into branches
supporting nerve fibres to various parts of the body
• Just before it joins the spinal cord, each spinal nerve divides into two roots -
the dorsal root and the ventral root.
Grey Matter Relay neurones
• consists mainly of the cell • may synapse with the
bodies of neurones sensory neurones in the
• forms the outer layers of the grey matter
brain and The Central parts of • and then transmit
the spinal chord Dorsal Root impulses up the white
• The dorsal root and matter
ventral root joins the • and then transmit
dorsal part (back) of the impulses up the white
spinal cord. matter of the spinal
• Contains only nerve fibres chord to the brain
of sensory neurones that (sensation)
transmit impulses to the • may transmit impulses
spinal chord from the brain, down the
white matter of the
Dorsal root ganglion
Cell body of spinal chord to the grey
• is a small swelling in
sensory matter
the dorsal root
• contains cell bodies neurones Sensory neurone
of sensory neurones.
Receptor

Effector
Receptor
Spinal nerve
The dorsal root and ventral root
Effector join to form the spinal nerve.
Ventral root Contains both motor and
Central canal Motor neurone sensory neurone, and is
• joins the ventral part
• contains a fluid called therefore a ‘mixed nerve’.
(back) of the spinal
cerebrospinal fluid
chord White matter
brings nutrients to the
• contains only the • consists mainly of
spinal chord
nerve fibres of motor nerve fibres and the
neurones that outer layers of the
transmit impulses spinal chord
from the spinal chord
• The piercing of the object stimulates the nerve endings (receptors) in the
skin. Impulses are produced.
Sensory neurone -
• The nerve impulses travel along the sensory neurone to the spinal chord
Spinal chord -
• In the spinal chord, the nerve impulses are transmitted first across a
synapse to the relay neurone , and then across another synapse to the
motor neurone. Nerve impulses are also sent to the brain. The brain
interprets these impulses, and pain is felt.
Motor Neurone
• The motor neurone transmits the impulses from the spinal chord to the
effector
• The biceps muscle (effector) contracts and causes your hand to withdraw
suddenly.
The Eye
Parts of an eye:

Orbit
A hollow in the skull in which each eyeball lies in.

Iris
Circular sheet of muscles
Contains a pigment which gives The Eye its colour
Amount of light entering The Eye is controlled by two sets of muscles;
- circular muscles
- radial muscles

Pupil
Hole in the centre of the iris
Allows light to enter the eye

Conjunctiva
Thin, transparent membrane
Covers the sclera in front
Mucous membranes to keep the front of the eyeball moist

Sclera
Tough, white outer covering of the eyeball
Continuous with the cornea
Protects the eyeball from mechanical damage

Eyelashes
Shields the eye from dust particles
Eyelids
Protect the Cornea from mechanical damage
Can be partly closed —> for squinting
- prevents excessive light from entering The Eye and damaging the
light-sensitive tissues (such as retina) inside The Eye.
Blinking
- spreads tears over the cornea & conjunctiva
- wipes dust particles off the cornea

Tears
Gland
Lies at the upper corner of the upper eyelid
Secrets tears, which
- washes away dust particles
- keeps the cornea moist for the dissolving of atmospheric oxygen,
so that oxygen can diffuse into the cornea
Lubricates the conjunctiva
- to reduce friction due to movement of eyelids

Ciliary body
Thickened region at the front end of the choroid
Contains ciliary muscles
- control the curvature / thickness of the lens

Suspensory ligament
Connective tissues that
attaches the edge of the lens to the ciliary body

Cornea
Dome shaped, transparent layer
Continuous with the sclera
Refracts light rays into The Eye
- causes most of the refraction that occurs in The Eye
Aqueous chamber
Space between the lens and the cornea
Filled with aqueous humour
- transparent, watery liquid
- keeps the front of the eyeball firm
- refracts light into the pupil

Lens
Transparent, circular, & biconcave in structure
Elastic —> changes it’s shape / thickness to focus light onto the retina

Choroid
Middle layer of the eyeball (btw no the sclera & retina)
Pigmented black
- prevent internal refraction of light
Contains blood vessels
- bring oxygen & nutrients to the eyeball & remove metabolic waste
products.

Vitreous chamber
Space behind the lens
Filled with vitreous humor,
- transparent, jelly-like substance
- keeps the eyeball firm
- helps refracts light onto the retina

Fovea
Small, yellow depression in the retina
Situated directly behind the lens
Where images are normally focused
Contains the highest concentration of cones, & has no rods
Enables a person to have detailed colour vision in bright light
Optic nerve
Nerve that transmits nerve impulses to the brain, when the
photoreceptors in the retina are stimulated

Blind spot
Region where the optic nerve leaves The Eye
Does not contain any rods or cones
- is not light-sensitive

Retina
Innermost layer of the eyeball
Light-sensitive
Layer on which images are formed
Contains light-sensitive cells called photoreceptors

Photoreceptors

Cones
Enable us to see a wide variety of colours in bright light
3 types: red, blue, green
- each contains different pigments that absorb light at different
wavelengths
- do not work well in dim light

Rods
Enable us to see in dim light, but only in black & white
More light-sensitive than cones as the contain visual purple
In bright light, the visual purple is bleached,
and must be reformed for a person to see in dim light
Formation of visual purple requires Vitamin A
Pupil reflex

Iris’ control of light entering the eye

• size of pupil is controlled by 2 sets of antagonistic muscles in the iris;
- circular muscles
- radial muscles
• size of pupils determines how much light enters The Eye
• for a person to see clearly, only the right amount of light should enter the
eye
- prevent excessive light from entering The Eye & damaging the retina

In BRIGHT light,

1 CIRCULAR muscles contract

2 RADIAL muscles relax
3 PUPIL constricts
4 the amt. of light entering The Eye.

In DIM light,

1 CIRCULAR muscles contract

2 RADIAL muscles relax
3 PUPIL constricts
4 the amt. of light entering The Eye
 1. STIMULUS: 2. RECEPTOR
Change in light intensity Receptor in retina
stimulated
3. Sensory
neurone in optic
nerve transmits
impulses with
5. Motor neurone
brain
transmits impulses
from brain to iris
4. Relay neurone in brain
6. EFFECTOR
in iris
• circular muscles
7. EFFECTOR muscles
radial muscles
in eyelids
(In cases where the light is • eyelids come closer
so bright that the size of together to screen
the pupil is not enough) off part of the light

How do we see?
1. Light rays are refracted through the cornea and aqueous humor onto the
lens
2. Lens causes further refraction and the rays are brought to focus on the
retina
3. Image on the retina stimulates either the rods or cones, depending ont the
light intensity
• Image is
- Upside down
- Laterally inverted
- Diminished
4. Nerve impulses are produced when the light falls on the roads & cones
5. Optic nerve transmits the nerve impulses to the brain
6. Brain interprets the impulses so that we see the object
- Right way up
- Front to back
- the Right Size
Focusing / Accommodation
• is the adjustment of the lens so that clear images of objects, regardless of
the distance, are formed on the retina

Distant object (d>=7m)

1. Light Rays are almost parallel when they reach The Eye
2. Ciliary muscles relax, pulling on suspensory ligaments
3. Suspensory ligaments become taut, pulling on edge of lens
4. Lens becomes thinner & less convex, its focal length
5. Photoreceptors are stimulated
6. Nerve impulses are transmitted to the optic nerve to the brain
7. Brain interprets the impulses & the person sees the distant object.

Distant object (d<7m)

1. Light Rays are almost diverging when they reach The Eye
2. Ciliary muscles contract, pulling on suspensory ligaments
3. Suspensory ligaments become taut, pulling on edge of lens
4. Lens becomes thinner & less convex, its focal length
5. Photoreceptors are stimulated
6. Nerve impulses are transmitted to the optic nerve to the brain
7. Brain interprets the impulses & the person sees the distant object.
hormones
What are hormones?
Hormones are chemical substances that are transported via the
bloodstream to their respective target organs to exert their effects.
They...
Influence the growth, development and activity of an organism
Are chemical ‘messengers’ that help various parts of the body to
respond, work together, and develop smoothly.
Production must be controlled to prevent disastrous results

Where are hormones produced?

Produced by glands
Exocrine glands
Have a duct/tube to carry away their secretions.
Endocrine glands
Ductless
Hormones are secreted directly into the
bloodstream → which then distributes them
around the body

How is the production of hormones controlled?

Hormone production must be balanced → adequate amounts
of each hormones must be produced to ensure that the body
functions normally → excess production of certain hormones
may be harmful.
Hormone production of some endocrine glands is controlled
by hormones from other endocrine glands.
 Secretes a number of
Contains the islets of langerhans, hormones which control
which secrete the hormones the secretion of
insulin & glucagon, which hormones of several
play a role in the homeostatic other endocrine glands
control of blood glucose levels ADH (antidiruetic
hormone)
Pancreas
Pituitary
gland
Testis (in males)

Glands
Testosterone in the
Human Body
Hypothalamus

Ovary (in females) Endocrine gland

Adrenal gland (medulla) Regulates the secretion of
some pituitary hormones
Oestrogen &
Progesterone
Secretes adrenaline,which is
a hormone that has wide-
ranging effects on the
human body
Respiration
What is respiration?
Respiration is the breakdown of food molecules with
the release of energy in living cells

Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of food molecules in the
presence of oxygen with the release of large amounts of energy,
and carbon dioxide as a waste product.
Equation:

Anaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of food molecules in the
absence of oxygen, it releases less energy than aerobic
respiration
It is mainly used byorgomisms that livein areas where there is
little to no oxygen
However, many organisms that respire aerobically can respire
anderobically as well.
Equation:

Glucose molecule is only partially broken down during anaerobic

respiration, as the lactic add produced still contains energy,
explaining why only a small amount of energy released during
deacorobic respiration.
What is gaseous exchange?
Gaseous exchange is the exchange of gases between an
organism and the environment
The Nose
Air usually enters the body through external
nostrils! which walls bear a fringe
They lead into 2 nasal passages lined with a
moist mucous membrane.
Dust & foreign particles, including bacteria in
the air, are trapped by both the hairs in the
nostrils & the moist mucous membrane
As air passes through the nasal passage, it is
warmed by the capillaries in the nasal passage
and moistened by the mucous membrane
Harmful chemicals may be defected the by
small sensory lens in the mucous membrane

Pharynx & Larynx

Air in the nasal passages enters the pharynx,
and then passes from there to the larynx,
and then into the trachea through an
opening called the glottis.

Trachea
Supported by C-shaped rings of
cartilage to keep the lumen of the
trachea open.
Membrane on the inner surface of the
trachea is the epithelium, which
consists of two types of cells-
Gland cells that secrete mucus to trap
dust particles and bacteria
Ciliated cells, which have hair-like
structures called cilia on their surfaces
that sweep the dust-trapped mucus up
the trachea.
Bronchi and bronchioles
Trachea divides into 2 tubes called bronchi
(singular: bronchus)
Each bronchi carries air into the lungs
Similar in structure to the trachea
Each bronchus branches repeatedly, giving
rise to bronchioles, which are very fine tubes
that end in a cluster of air sacs called alveoli
(singular: alveolus)

Alveoli
Gaseous exchange takes place through
the walls of the alveoli
Numerous alveoli are found in the lungs,
providing a large surface area for gaseous
exchange
The wall of the alveolus is one cell thick,
providing a short diffusion distance for
gases → faster rate of diffusion
Thin film of moisture covering the
surface area of the alveolus, allowing
oxygen to dissolve in it.
Walls of alveoli are richly supplied with
blood capillaries, which allows for the flow
of blood that maintains the
concentration gradient of gases.
Ribs
Supports the chest wall
Attached dorsally to the vertebral column and ventrally to the
sternum in such a way that they can move up and down

External and Intercostal muscles

Two sets of muscles that are found between the ribs
Antagonistic muscles, meaning that when one contracts, the other
relaxes

Diaphragm
Dome-shaped sheet that separates the thorax from the abdomen
Made of muscle and elastic tissue
Contracts → flattens downwards
Relaxes → arches upwards
Inspiration/Inhalation
Diaphragm muscles contracts and
diaphragm flattens downwards
External intercostal muscles contract,
Internal intercostal muscles relax
Ribs and sternum moves upwards and
outwards
Volume of thoracic cavity increases
Lungs expand and air pressure inside
them decreases as the volume
increases
Atmospheric pressure is now higher
than the pressure with the lungs, hence
forcing atmospheric air into them.

Expiration/Exhalation
Diaphragm muscles relaxes and
diaphragm arches upwards
External intercostal muscles relax,
Internal intercostal muscles
contract
Ribs move downwards and inwards,
and sternum moves down to its
original position
Volume of thoracic cavity decreases
Lungs compress and air pressure
inside them increases as the volume
decreases
Pressure within the lungs is now
higher than the atmospheric
pressure, hence forcing air out of it
and into the exterior environment.
Absorption of oxygen into the Lungs
The one-cell thick wall separating the blood capillaries from the alveolar
air is permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide
Since the alveolar air contains a higher concentration of oxygen than the
blood, oxygen dissolves in the moisture ling the alveolar walls and then
diffuses into the blood capillaries
Oxygen combines with the haemoglobin in red blood cells to form
oxyhaemoglobin, a reaction that is reversible.
The direction of the reaction depends on the concentration of oxygen in
the surroundings. Therefore, in the lungs where the oxygen concentration
is high, oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin.
When blood passes through the oxygen-poor tissues, the oxyhaemoglobin
releases oxygen, which then diffuses through the walls of the blood
capillaries and into the cells of the tissues.

Removal of Carbon Dioxide from the Lungs

Tissue cells produce a large amount of carbon dioxide as a result of
aerobic respiration
As blood passes through these tissues via the blood capillaries, carbon
dioxide diffuses into the blood and enters the red blood cells
The carbon dioxide then reacts with the water in the red blood cells to
form carbonic acid, a reaction catalysed by the enzyme, carbonic
anhydrase, which is present in red blood cells.
Carbonic acid is then converted into carbonic hydrogencarbonate ions
which diffuse out of the red blood cells. → therefore, most of the carbon
dioxide in the blood is carried as hydrogencarbonate ions in the plasma. A
small amount of carbon dioxide is also carried and dissolved in the red
blood cells.
In the lungs, hydrogencarbonate ions diffuse back into the red blood cells
where there are converted into carbonic acid and then into the water and
carbon dioxide.
The carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood capillaries and into the
alveoli, where it is expelled when you breathe out.
Chronic bronchitis
Caused by the prolonged exposure to irritant
particles found in tobacco smoke
Epithelium epithelium lining of air passages (eg.
bronchi) becomes inflamed
Excessive mucus secreted by the epithelium
Cilia on the epithelium become paralysed, →
resulting mucus and dust particles not being able
to be removed
Air passages become blocked → making
breathing difficult
Persistent coughing to clear air passages in order
to breathe, → increasing the risk of lung
infections

Emphysema
Caused by persistent and violent coughing as a
result of chronic bronchitis
Partition walls between the alveoli breaks down
due to the persistent, violent coughing →
results in a decreased surface area for gaseous
exchange
Lungs lose their elasticity and become inflated
with air
Breathing becomes difficult, resulting in
wheezing and severe breathlessness

Lung cancer
Cancer is the uncontrolled division of cells, producing outgrowths
or lumps of tissues.
Studies have shown that the risk of lung cancer increases when a
person smokes tobacco
Apart from lung cancer, smoking also increases the risk of
cancers of the mouth, throat, pancreas, kidneys, and urinary
bladders.
Ideological conflict between the USA and USSR
•
Reproduction in Plants
Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the production of
genetically identical offspring from one parent, without the fusion of
gametes.

Sexual reproduction is a process resulting in the production of genetically

dissimilar offspring from 2 parents, with the fusion of 2 gametes to form a
zygote.

Asexual Sexual
Does not involve fusion of Involves fusion of gametes
gametes

One parent required 2 parents required

Genetically identical offspring Genetically dissimilar offspring

Quicker method Slower method

Asexual reproduction
+ only one parent req
+ fusion of gametes not required
+ all benefits passed on to the offspring
+ faster
+ organisms are already in a suitable habitat, so they can colonies the area
rapidly
-no genetic variation in the offspring, and the species may not be well -
adapted to changes in the environment

Sexual reproduction
+ offspring may inherit beneficial qualities from both parents
+ greater genetic variation in offspring —> species are better adapted to
changes in the environment
-two parents are req.
-fusion of gametes req
-slower
 Stigma
Anther
Petal
Style

Filament
Ovule
Sepal
Receptacle
Pedicel
Petals
• Petals are modified leaves that form the most obvious part of the flower.
• All the petals together form the Corolla.
In insect pollinated flowers, petals
• are brightly coloured to attract insects for pollination.
• provide a platform for insects to land.

Sepals
• Sepals are modified leaves which enclose and protect the other parts of
the flower in the bud stage.
• They usually form the outermost layer of floral leaves
• All the sepals together make up the calyx.

Epicalyx
• Some flowers have another layer of floral leaves outside the sepals, which
make up the epicalyx of the flower.

Receptacle
• The receptacle is the enlarged end of the flower stalk which bears the
other parts of the flowers.

Pedicel
• The pedicel is the flower stalk
 Vascular bundle
Anther

Pollen grains

Filament

Anther lobes

Stamen
• Consists of the anther and a filament

Anther
• Consists of two lobes, each of which contains two pollen sacs
• In the pollen sacs are the pollen grains.
• When the anther matures, it splits open to release the pollen grains.
• The anther also contains a vascular bundle.

Pollen grains
• are produced by meiosis, and are hence haploid.
• Each pollen grain contains a male gamete
• The male gamete in flowering plants is the nucleus in the pollen grain.

Filament
• is the stalk that holds the anther in a suitable position to disperse the
pollen
 Stigma

Style

Ovary wall
Ovary
Ovule
Ovum
Funicle
Placenta

Carpel (pistil)
Consists of…
1) any ovary
• structure that develops into a fruit after fertilisation
• Produces and protects one or more ovules
• OVULE
• develops into a seed after fertilisation
• If the carpel contains more than one ovule, more than one seed will
be produced.
• produces an ovum, the female gamete, by meiosis, and is therefore
haploid
• is attached to a region in the ovary called the placenta, by a stalk
called the funicular.

2) style
• stalk that connects the stigma to the ovary
• Holds the stigma in a suitable position to trap pollen grains

3) stigma
• a swollen structure at the end of the style
• Receives the pollen grains
Mature stigma secretes a sugary fluid that stimulates the pollen grains to
germinate
Pollination
• is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
• in order for flowering plants to reproduce sexually, pollen grains must be
transferred from the anther to the stigma so that the male & female gametes
can be brought together
• there are 2 types of pollination; self-pollination and cross-pollination

Self-pollination
• is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same
flower or a different flower on the same plant.
• flowers may be bisexual with mothers and stigmas maturing at the same time.
• stigma may be situated directly beneath the anthers
• certain self-pollinated plants have closed flowers, hence allowing only self-
pollination to occur.

Cross-pollination
• is the transfer of pollen grains from one plant to the stigma of a flower from
another plant of the same species.
• Usually, anthers and stigmas mature at different times
• Stigmas in plants with bisexual flowers may be a situated some distance away
from the anthers so that self-pollination is unlikely
• May be dioecious plants, meaning that they bear either male or female flowers,
hence allowing only cross-pollination
Advantages & Benefits

Cross pollination
• offspring may have inherited beneficial qualities from both parents
• Greater genetic variation, increasing the chance of the species surviving
changes in the environment as any change in the environment is unlikely
to destroy all the genetic variations in the species.
• Increased probability of the species being heterozygous

• Two parent plants are req.

• depends on external factors, such as insect or wind for pollination
• Since the pollen grains have to be transferred from the anther of one
plant to the stigma of another plant, there is a lower probability that
pollination will occur, as compared with self-pollination.
• More energy and pollen are wasted as compared with self-pollination.

Self-pollination
• only one parent plant is required
• May not depend on external factors such as insects or wind of pollination
• Anthers are close to the stigma of the same flower—> higher chance that
pollination will occur, as compared to cross-pollination
• Less pollen and energy is wasted in self-pollination as compared to
cross-pollination
• Offspring inherits its genes from the parent plant —> beneficial qualities are
hence more likely to be passed down to the offspring

• Less genetic variation in offspring as compared to cross-pollination

—> species is hence less adapted to changes in the environment
• probability of harmful recessive alleles being expressed in the offspring is
higher compared to in cross-pollination.
• Continued self-pollination may lead to the offspring becoming weaker,
smaller and less resistant to diseases,
Characteristics of insect and wind pollinated flowers

Insect - pollinated Wind - pollinated

Petals Flowers are usually large Flowers are usually small, dull-
with bright-coloured coloured, and without petals
petals to attract insects

Nectar Nectar is present Nectar is absent

Scent Flowers are fragrant & Flowers are odourless

sweet-smelling

Stigma Stigmas are usually small, Stigmas are large, feathery & usually
compact, and do not protrude out of the flower to provide a
protrude out of the flower large surface area to trap pollen

Stamen Stamens are not pendulous Stamens have long,

and usually do not protrude pendulous filaments and
out of the flower protruding anthers, allowing
pollen grains to be easily
shaken out from the anthers

Pollen Pollen grains are fairly Pollen is more abundant, and

abundant & usually larger have smooth surfaces, & are tiny
with rough sour faces so & light so that they are easily
that they can readily cling blown about by the wind
onto the bodies of insects

Nectar Nectar guide may be Nectar guide is absent

guide present on the petals to
guide insects towards the
nectar
An INSECT-pollinated flower - Clitoria
Pedicel

Epicalyx

Calyx

Standard Petal

Nectar guide
Corolla

Wing petals

Keel petals

Calyx
• consists of five green sepals
Epicalyx
• consists of 2 green leaves
• encloses the base of the calyx
Corolla
• consists of five brightly-coloured petals of different shapes and sizes
Standard petal
• large, deep blue
• on it are nectar guides, which are lines that guide insects to where the nectar
is located
Wing petals
• 2 deep blue wing petals that are enclosed by the standard petal
Keel petals
• 2 small, yellowish-green petals
• enclosed by the wing petals
• encloses the reproductive organs
Stamen
• The filaments of nine of the stamens are fused along most of their length
to form a trough (hollow tube), which encloses the carpel.
• Nectar, is secreted at the bottom of the stamen trough.
• Thus, nectar can only be reached by an insect with a proboscis
• The tenth stamen is free

Carpel
Stigma
• is small and compact & located at the end of the style
Style
• long, curved, hairy structure
• long and narrow with a so;blue row of ovules
Pollination
• When an insect, such as a bee visits the flower, it lands on the standard
petal.
• The insect follows the nectar guide into the flower.
• The insect finds its way between the two wing petals and moves in to
collect the nectar
• The insect’s back forces the keel petal upwards to expose the stigma and
the anthers.
• The stigma and the anthers brush against the hairy back of the insect, while
the pollen grains on the insect’s back are transferred onto the sticky stigma.
• When the insect leaves the flower, the keel petal springs back to its original
position to enclose the stamens and stigma again.
• Although the flower is well-adapted for animal pollination, self-pollination
can still occur.
Ischaemum muticum
Pair of flowers
Upper flower (bisexual)

Spikelet

Lower flower (male)

Lodicule

Pair of flowers
• occur in pairs
• Each is Ischaemum Muticum flower is enclosed by two transparent flowering
bracts
Upper flower (bisexual)
• consists of an ovary with two long, feathery stigmas, three stamens and two
tiny structures called lodicules at the base of the ovary
• When the ischaemum muticum is ready is ready to reproduce, the lodicules
will swell and force the 2 flowering bracts slightly apart so that the anthers
can emerge.
Lower bract (male)
• is unisexual
• consists of only 3 stamens with long filaments & two lodicules
Spikelet
• each pair of flowers, together with a short stalk, forms a spikelet
• At the base of each spikelet is a pair of empty or no-flowering bracts that
protect the flowers in the spikelet.
 Feathery stigmas protrude out of
the bracts

Long filaments hang out

of the bracts

A few pairs of spikelets make up an inflorescence.

Pollination of Ischaemum muticum

1. The mature stamens have long filaments that are hang downwards and
swing freely (pendulous)
2. The filaments hang out of the bracts, exposing the mature anthers to the
wind.
3. When the filaments sway in the wind, the dust-like pollen is shaken free and
dispersed by the wind.
4. The mature stigmas do not hang freely but project out of the bracts,
—> therefore providing a large surface area to receive any pollen floating
around in the wind.
Fertilisation
1. After pollination, the mature stigma secretes a sugary fluid, in resulting
in the pollen grain that came into contact with it germinating.
2. A pollen tube grows out of each pollen grain, and the male gametes
enter the pollen tube
3. As the pollen tube grows, it secretes enzymes to digest the surrounding
tissue of the stigma and the style, allowing the pollen tube to grow down
the style and into the ovary
4. The pollen tube enters the ovule through an opening in the ovule wall
called the micropyle.
5. Within the ovule, the tip of the pollen tube absorbs sap & bursts, releasing
the 2 male gametes
6. The nucleus of one of the male gametes fuses with the nucleus of the
ovum to form the zygote.
Reproduction in Humans
Male reproductive system:

Testis ( plural: testes)

• there are 2 testes.
• produces sperms
• also produces male sex hormones such as testosterone, which are responsible for the
development and maintenance of the secondary sexual characters in males.
• Each testes receives blood from blood vessels in a spermatic cord.
• Leading from each testis is a narrow, much-coiled tube called the epididymis, which stores inactive
sperms from the testis before they enter the sperm duct.

Scrotum
• the pair of pouch-like sacs in which the testes lie in between the thighs
• are outside the main body cavity and thus are at a slightly lower temperature than body
temperature
• The lower temperature is essential for the sperms to develop properly

Sperm duct (vas deferens)

• each loops over a ureter and opens into the urethra
• after sperms are released from a testis, they travel through the sperm duct

Prostate gland
• is at the base of the urinary bladder, where the two sperm ducts join the urethra

Glands and their secretions

• the prostate gland is at the base of the urinary bladder, where the two sperm ducts join the urethra
• beneath the prostate gland is the Cowper’s gland
• The seminal vesicle is a gland that opens into each sperm duct
• The prostate gland, seminal vesicles and Cowper’s gland secrete a fluid which mixes with the
sperms.
• This fluid contains nutrients and enzymes which nourish the sperms and stimulate them to swim
actively
• The mixture of this fluid and sperm is called semen

Urethra
• is a tube which passes from the bladder through the centre of the penis to the outside of the body
• Both semen and urine pass out of the body through the urethra
• however, semen and urine do not pass through the urethra at the same time
• A circular band of muscle called the sphincter muscle at the base of the urinary bladder can be
controlled to prevent urine from coming out of the bladder during ejactulation

Penis
• is an erectile organ
• When the spaces in the penis are filled with blood, it becomes erect and hard
• enters the vagina of a woman during sexual intercourse to deposit sperm-containing semen
Sperm
• numerous sperms are produced throughout the life of a male human after he has become physically
mature
• Sperms are also called spermatozoa (singular: spermatozoon)
• It is about 60 Mm long

Head
• head is about 2.5 Mm wide
• Contains a large nucleus with small amount of cytoplasm
• Nucleus Carrie’s a haploid set of chromosomes
• acrosome is also present
• acrosome is a vesicle containing enzymes, which break down part of the egg membranes so that the
sperm can penetrate the egg during fertilisation

Middle piece
• contains numerous mitochondria,
• which provide energy for the sperm to swim towards the egg.

Tail
• beating movement of the tail or flagellum enables the sperm to swim towards the egg
• The sperm is motile [can move on its own)

Movement of sperm in male body:

testis —> epididymis —> sperm duct —> urethra —> outside
Female reproductive system:

Ovary
• 2 ovaries
• produce eggs
• also produce hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone
• The female sex hormones are also responsible for the de development and maintenance of the
secondary sexual characteristics in females
• when the eggs mature, they are released from the ovaries

Uterus (womb)
• is where the fetus or unborn baby develops during pregnancy
• Is shaped upside down like a pear
• Has elastic, muscular walls.
• the smooth muscle tissue in the walls of the uterus contract to push the fetus out during birth
• Soft, smooth inner lining of the uterus is called the uterine lining or endometrium, and is where the
embryo implants

Oviduct (Fallopian tube)

• each ovary releases mature eggs into an oviduct
• each oviduct is a narrow, muscular tube leading from the ovary to the uterus
• has a funnel-like opening lying close to the ovary, making it easier for the egg to enter the oviduct
• The egg is usually fertilised in the oviduct

Cervix
• the lower portion of the uterus where it joins the vagina
• Opening of the cervix allows menstrual blood to flow out into the vagina during mensturation

Vagina (birth canal)

• leading from the cervix to the outside is the vagina or birth canal
• Semen is deposited in the vagina during sexual intercourse
• Opening of the vagina is the vulva

Ovum (ova / egg)

• is the female gamete
• A female is born with all the potential eggs she will ever have
• At birth, about 70 000 potential egg cells are already present in the ovaries, but only 500 will ever
become mature
• Usually, only one mature egg is released every month from about the time a female becomes
physically mature until 45-55 years of age
• The egg is spherical and about 120 Mm to 150 Mm wide
• has a large nucleus containing one haploid set of chromosomes
• abundant cytoplasm which may contain a small amount of yolk
• is surrounded by a cell surface membrane which in turn is surrounded by an outer membrane
 Male gamete Female gamete

Structure • has a head, middle piece, and tail • spherical in shape

• Contains either X or Y • Nucleus has one X chromosome
chromosome • Diameter of 120 Mm to 150 Mm
• About 60 Mm long with a
diameter of 2.5 Mm for the head

• Non-motile
Motility • Motile • Passive movement of egg along
• Has a tail that enables it to swim oviduct is due to the action of cilia
towards the oviduct on oviduct and peristalsis of
oviduct wall

Numbers • Numerous sperms are produced • number of eggs is determined

throughout life from puberty at birth
onwards • Only one is released per month
• Large number of sperms • both ovaries together produce
released per ejactualtion about 500 mature eggs

Puberty
• stage of human growth and development in which a person becomes
physically mature
• during puberty, the body becomes to change from that of a child to that of
an adult
• the reproductive system of a young person begins to function
• sex organs begin to mature and produce gametes
• many other changes, known as secondary sexual characteristics, are
brought about by sex hormones and appear in a young person’s body at
puberty.
• Female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone are produced by the
ovaries, while
• The male sex hormone, testosterone is produced by the testes

In males In females

Facial hair starts to grow and Hair appears in the

hair appears in the pubic regions pubic region and
and under the armpits under the armpits

The penis and testicles Breast and

increase in size uterus enlarge

Larynx enlargers and Hips broaden

voice deepens

Production of Menstruation and

sperms starts ovulation start
Menstrual cycle
• Menstruation is the monthly discharge of blood or menses from the uterus via the vagina, which is
usually the first sign of puberty in females.
• Menstrual period or the time of menstruating usually lasts for about 5 days, but its length and
amount of blood lost may vary from female to female.
• Menstruation is part of the cycle of events, known as the menstrual cycle, that takes place in the
female reproductive organs every month.
• On average, the cycle lasts 28 days. However, there is a natural variation in the length of the
menstrual cycle, with some cycles lasting 21 to 33 days.
• Factors such as stress, tiredness, illness, unbalanced diet or malnutrition may alter or stop the
menstrual cycle and change the interval between periods.
• As a female ages, the ovaries will eventually stop releasing eggs and the menstrual cycle will stop.
This is called menopause, which usually takes place between 45 and 55 years of age.

Changes in the follicle during the menstrual cycle

• the ovaries contain many developing follicles
• The cycle of events taking place in the ovaries are controlled by hormones secreted by the pitituary
gland
• The follicles in the ovaries and the corpus luteum in turn secrete hormones that control the changes
taking place in the uterus
• Thus, the menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones.

1. Primary follicles
• young follicles are called primary follicles
• Each consists of a potential egg cell surrounded by a layer of smaller cells known as follicle cells

2. Graafian follicle
• a primary follicle may develop into a Graafian follicle
• Contains an egg surrounded by follicle cells and a fluid-filled space
• Egg has a haploid number of chromosomes
• Usually, the ovaries take turns to release only one egg every month

3. Ovulation
• on day 14 of a 28-day cycle, the Graafian follicle ruptures and releases the egg into the oviduct
through the funnel-like opening
• Ovulation is the release of the egg from the ovary.

4. Corpus luteum
• after ovulation, the Graafian follicle develops into a corpus luteum,
• which produces hormones that prepare the body for pregnancy.

5. Corpus luteum breaks down

• if no fertilisation occurs, the corpus luteum will persist for some time before eventually breaking
down
Menstrual flow stage ( 1 - 5 )
• first day of menstruation is the first day of the menstrual cycle
• uterine lining breaks down & flows from the uterus out of the body via the vagina
• the pituitary gland secretes follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) into the bloodstream

Follicle stage ( 6 - 13 )
1. Effects of FSH
• stimulates the development of follicles in the ovaries
• usually, one follicle will develop into a Graafian follicle in one of the ovaries during each cycle
• stimulates the follicles in the ovaries to secrete oestrogen
2. Effects of Oestrogen
• causes the repair and growth of the uterine lining, resulting in the uterine lining becoming thick and
spongy with blood vessels
• In high concentrations, inhibits the FSH production, hence preventing the maturation and
development of more follicles
• In high concentrations, it also stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete luteinising hormone (LH)

Ovulation
3. Effects if LH
• causes ovulation
• causes the formation of the corpus luteum from the remains of the Graafian follicle, which in turn
secretes progesterone and some oestrogen

Corpus luteum stage ( 13 - 28 )

4. Effects of progesterone
• maintains the uterine lining by causing it to thicken further and be richly supplied with blood
capillaries, preparing it for the implantation of the embryo
• Inhibits ovulation
• Inhibits FSH production, and hence inhibits oestrogen production as well
What happens if no fertilisation occurs?
1. The egg will break down
2. Eventually, LH production is inhibited by the high concentration of progesterone in the bloo, resulting
in the breaking down of the corpus luteum
3. When the corpus luteum breaks down, progesterone is no longer being secreted
4. Without progesterone, the thickened uterine lining cannot be maintained, and hence breaks down
5. The lining flows down from the uterus together with some blood through the vagina, marking the
beginning of menstruation, which occurs around the 28th day from the beginning of the previous
menstruation.
6. FSH is once again produced by the pituitary gland and the whole cycle is repeated.

What happens if fertilisation occurs?

1. The fertilised egg becomes a zygote, which develops into an embryo
2. The embryo embeds itself in the uterine lining
3. The embryo secretes a hormone, which prevents the corpus luteum from breaking down until a
structure called the placenta is formed
4. The corpus luteum continues to secrete progesterone and oestrogen until the placenta is able to
take over the production of progesterone and oestrogen.

What are the fertile and infertile periods of the menstrual cycle?
• after it’s release from the ovary, an egg can survive for up to 24 hours in the female reproductive
system
• In a 28-day cycle, ovulation occurs around day 14. Hence, an egg can survive from day 15 to
approximately day 15, during which it travels along the oviduct.
• Sperms can live in the female reproductive system for approximately 3 days, meaning that sperms
released in the vagina around day 11 can fertilised the ovum and bring about pregnancy.
• Hence, fertilisation is possible from around day 11 to day 15.
• this period is therefore known as the fertile period.
• The rest of the days make up the infertile period of the menstrual cycle
• during this period, sperms released into the vagina are less likely to fertilised the ovum
• However, all this is under the assumption that the menstrual cycle is highly regular.
• Factors such as emotional stress, illness and malnutrition may affect the menstrual cycle.
• As soon as the sperm has entered the egg, the membrane of the egg changes so that no other sperms
can enter.
• The remaining sperms, which do not fertilised the egg, eventually die.
• The haploid egg nucleus fuses with the haploid egg nucleus, and a fertilised egg, or diploid zygote, is
formed.

Development of embryo

1. Implantation
• the cilia lining the inner surface of the oviduct sweep the zygote along the oviduct. Peristaltic
movements in the wall of the oviduct also help move the zygote to the uterus.
• The zygote divides by mitosis to form a ball of cells called the embryo.
• It takes about five days for the embryo to reach the uterus
• The embryo may float freely in the uterus for about two days
• Implantation is the process of the eventual sinking and embedding of the embryo in the uterine lining,
which usually occurs 7 days after fertilisation.

2. Development of the placenta

• soon after implantation, finger-like projections containing the blood capillaries of the embryo called
villi begin to grow from the embryo into the uterine lining
• The villi and uterine lining in which they are embedded make up the placenta
• Hence, the placenta is formed partly from embryonic tissue and partly from the uterine lining
• A tube known as the umbilical cord attaches the embryo to the placenta

3. Development of the amniotic sac (ie. amnion)

• a membrane called the amniotic sac begins to develop at about the same time as the placenta
• This sac encloses the embryo in a fluid-filled space known as the amniotic cavity
• The fluid in the amniotic cavity is called the amniotic fluid
• The embryo continues to develop.
• In humans, about 10-12 weeks after fertilisation, all major organs are formed.
• From this stage onwards, the embryo is known as a fetus.
The fetal blood system is separated from the maternal blood system
• The fetal blood capillaries are surrounded by the maternal blood spaces, that is, the blood spaces
belonging to the mother.
• In the placenta, the blood capillaries of the fetus are separated from the mother’s blood system
only by a think layer of tissue, across which diffusion of dissolved substances can occur.
• The fetal blood system is separated from and not continuous with the maternal blood system, as…
• The blood pressure of the mother would kill the fetus as it is much higher than that of the fetus
• The blood group of the fetus may not be the same as the mother’s. If the fetus and the mother
have different blood groups and the two blood systems were allowed to mix, antibodies in the
mother’s blood may cause the fetal blood cells to agglutinate, which would be dangerous to both
the mother and fetus.

Functions of the Placenta

• allows oxygen and dissolved food substances such as glucose, amino acids, and mineral salts to
diffuse from the maternal blood into the fetal blood
• Allows metabolic waste or excretory products such as urea or carbon dioxide to diffuse from the
fetal blood into the maternal blood.
• Allows protective antibodies, which protect the fetus against certain diseases such as German
measles, to diffuse from the mother’s blood into the fetal blood
• It produces progesterone which maintains the uterine lining in a healthy state during pregnancy.

Functions of the Umbilical cord

• attaches the fetus to the placenta , such as the
• contains the blood vessels of the fetus
• umbilical arteries that transport deoxygenated blood and metabolic waste products from the fetus
to the placenta
• one umbilical vein that transports oxygenated blood and food substances from the placenta to the
fetus

Functions of the amniotic fluid

• The amniotic sac encloses the fetus in the amniotic cavity, which contains amniotic fluid
• supports and cushions the fetus before birth
• is a shock absorber
• as it cannot be compressed, it protects the fetus against physical injury
• allows the fetus a certain degree of movement, which promotes muscular development
• lubricates and reduces friction in the vagina (ie. birth canal) during birth

The fetus continues to grow in the uterus. At the end of nine months of pregnancy, the fetus is fully
formed and ready to be born.
Sexually transmitted infections (STI)
• Diseases that are spread through sexual intercourse
• Can result in irreversible physical damage and even death
• Causes by bacteria or viruses
• These bacteria and viruses in the bloodstream of the infected person may be transmitted to an uninflected
person…
• Through the semen when it comes into contact with the mucous membrane of the vagina
• Through the fluid in the vagina when it comes into contact with the mucous membrane of the urethra
• When blood from an infected person gets into the bloodstream of an uninflected person

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

• AIDS is an STI case by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), which destroys the body’s immune
system, which protects a person against infection
• AIDS refers to the most advanced stages of HIV infection
• Normally, when foreign particles such as bacteria or viruses enter our bloodstream, our white blood cells
(lymphocytes) are able to identify them.
• The lymphocytes are then stimulated to produce antibodies to destroy the bacteria and viruses
• In this way, our immune systems protect our bodies against many diseases.
• HIV destroys a person’s immune system by destroying lymphocytes.
• The body is hence unable to produce sufficient antibodies to protect the person against many other
diseases.
• Therefore, infections which are normally mild may prove to be fatal to a person with AIDS.

Signs and symptoms

• it may take years before HIV infection develops into AIDS. Signs and symptoms include…
• chronic or persistent fever
• severe diarrhoea lasting for months
• pneumonia
• cancer of the blood vessels (Kaposi’s sarcoma)
• Brain infection
• Widespread tuberculosis (a lung disease) affecting many organs at the same

Modes of Transmission
• sexual intercourse with an infected person
• sharing of hypodermic needles with an infected person, like when drug addicts share needles, or when
needles are used for tattooing, acupuncture, ear-piercing may also transmit the disease if they are not
sterilised properly
• Blood transfusion with blood from an infected person. In Singapore, however, this is not a problem as all
donated blood is carefully screened before use.
• During pregnancy, the virus may pass from the infected other to the fetus
• HIV IS NOT SPREAD THROUGH TOILET SEATS, DOORKNOBS, COUGHS, SWIMMING POOLS, OR
MOSQUITOES

Prevention and control

• keep to one sex partner or practice abstinence (do not have sex)
• Males should wear a condom if they are not sure whether their partners or themselves are infected with
AIDS, reducing the risk of infection
• Do not abuse drugs. Drug addicts tend to share needles
• Do not share instruments that are likely to break the skin and be contaminated with blood, such as razors
and toothbrushes.
• Go to reliable operators if you require acupuncture treatment, ear-piercing or tattooing, and ensure that
the needles are sterilised or insist on using disposable instruments. Sterilisation removes living
microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses from the instruments.
Cell Division
Growth
• growth is a characteristic of all living things. It is a permanent increases in size, that is
accompanied by cell division and differentiation to form tissues and organs.
• Growth in plants is restricted to the growing points, the tips of the shoots and roots, which
continue to grow throughout the life of the plant.
• Growth in animals occurs throughout the body, and stops after a certain age when the animal
reaches maturity
• For a multicellular organism to grow normally, it cell must first divide via mitosis.

Mitosis
• Mitosis is a form of nuclear division that produces genetically identical daughter nuclei containing
the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.

Chromosomes, DNA, & Genes

• Chromosomes are made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• DNA stores all the information that a cell needs to grow and carry out vital activities
• This information is stored as sections of DNA known as Genes
• The daughter cells produced by mitosis are genetically identical to the parent cell

Importance of the production of genetically identical daughter cells

• DNA replication copies all the information stored within the chromosomes
• This ensures that daughter cells produced by mitosis contain all the sections of DNA (genes)
needed for subsequent cell division and differentiation
• Hence, the resulting daughter cells are genetically identical
• A zygote (cell) divides to form an embryo
• The cells formed as the zygote divides must be genetically identical for the embryo to develop
normally
• If an error occurs during DNA replication or mitosis, the new DNA strand formed would be
different from the original.
• This is known as gene mutation, and it will be transmitted to the daughter cells
• This may lead to harmful changes to the genes and affect how the cells function, and the embryo
may not develop normally
• Changes in the genes during DNA replication may cause the production of abnormal proteins.
Cells containing such abnormal proteins may be rejected or destroyed by the body’s immune
system
• In adult humans, some forms of gene mutation may cause the uncontrolled division of cells
(cancer), in which most cases, is fatal as the cells lose the ability to control the way they divide
and cannot perform their normal functions.
Interphase
• cells spend very little time of their lives in cell division, and instead spend most of their time in a
stage called the interphase
• interphase is the ‘resting’ or non-dividing stage of a cell
• However, the cells are still carrying out activities such as absorbing nutrients and building up
protoplasm
• In this stage, cells are…
• absorbing nutrients
• building up protoplasm
• synthesising new organelle
• replicating DNA
• In the interphase, chromosomes appear as long, thin threads known as chromatin, which at this
stage, cannot be distinguished individually
• It is at this stage that the centrioles divide in an animal cell
• just before the cell divides, each chromatin thread (contains one DNA molecule) replicates,
producing 2 identical chromatin threads (2 identical DNA molecules) joined at a part called the
centromere
• Since the 2 chromatin threads are attached to the same centromere, they are called sister
chromatids.
• These chromatin threads coil and shorten to form chromosomes

Stages of mitosis
*For convenience, the process of mitosis can be divided into 4 stages, but it should be noted that such division is arbitrary and that the
whole process of mitosis is continuous.

The four stages of mitosis are

1) Prophase
2) Metaphase
3) Anaphase
4) Telophase
1) Early Prophase
• In an animal cell, asters form around the
centrioles.
• The two pairs of centrioles move apart to
opposite poles of the cell.
• The nucleolus disappears.
• Chromatin condense, coil and shorten to
become chromosomes.
• Each chromosome consists of two sister
chromatids attached at the centromere.
• Chromosomes appear as X-shaped structures
under the microscope

2) Late Prophase
• The nuclear envelope disappears.
• A spindle forms with the spindle fibres
extending from one pole of the cell to the
other

3) Metaphase
• Chromosomes line up singly along the
equator of the spindle.
• The centromere of each chromosome is
attached to a spindle fibre.

4) Anaphase
• Each centromere splits.
• The spindle fibres pull the sister chromatids
apart to opposite poles of the cell.
• Once the sister chromatids are separated, they
are known as daughter chromosomes.

5) Telophase
• Spindle fibres disintegrate.
• A nuclear envelope forms around each set of
chromosomes.
• A nucleolus reforms inside each nucleus.
• Chromosomes uncoil and lengthen into
thread-like structures (chromatin).

6) Cytokinesis
• It is the division of the cytoplasm.
• In animal cells, furrows form, deepen and.
eventually split the cell into two identical daughter
cells.
Mitosis in PLANTS vs Mitosis in ANIMALS
• both are similar except that

Plant cells Animal cells

Centrioles are absent Centrioles are present

Cleavage of cytoplasm does not

occur during cytokinesis. Instead, a
cell plate, formed by the fusion of Cleavage of cytoplasm
small, fluid-filled resides produced by (formation of furrows)
the Golgi apparatus, is formed occurs during cytokinesis
between the 2 daughter nuclei,
dividing the cell into 2.

Importance of Mitosis

Enables the growth of an organism

• new cells must be produced by mitosis for the growth of multicellular organisms

Needed for the repair of worn-out parts of the body

• the process of mitosis constantly replaces dead cells , and helps us heal wounds
• For example, when we get cut, the skin produces new cells to help seal the cut

Allows asexual reproduction to occur

• in plants such as the development of shoots and roots in storage organs (e.g.,
rhizomes and bulbs)
Gametes
• reproductive cells that contain half the number of cells as normal body cells. (daughter cells
produced contain half the number of cells as their parent cell)
• male gamete — sperm, female gamete — ovum
• normal cells — diploid number (2n — 46), gamete cells — haploid number (n — 23)
• Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes during fertilisation,
• Which is the process during which the nuclei of the male & female gamete fuse to form a zygote,
the fertilised egg
• This restores the normal number of chromosomes in the zygote, which then divides via mitosis to
form an embryo

Meiosis
• is a form of nuclear division that produces daughter nuclei containing half the number of
chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
• Consists of 10 parts;

Importance of Meiosis:
• produces haploid gametes
When the nucleus of the male gamete fuses with the nucleus of a female gamete, the diploid number
of chromosomes is restored in the zygote, maintaining the normal diploid number of chromosomes in
the species.
• meiosis results in variations in the gametes produced
variations occur due to the crossing over and independent assortment of chromosomes,
which means one chromosome from each pair,
which results in 4 different gametes being produced from 2 chromosomes.
Since fertilisation is random, such variations produce variations in the offspring.
Variations increase the chances of survival of the species during changes in the environment.
When these changes occur, nature ‘selects” those organisms with favourable characteristics to survive,
while others to die.
The survivor ps pass on their favourable genes to their offspring, making the offspring, and therefore the
species, more adapted for survival in their environment.
 Herdity
• Inheritance is the process by which genetic information is passed on from parent to child
• Hereditary traits Can be passed down to the offspring by their parents.
• Variations are differences in traits between individuals of the same species

Discontinuous variation Continuous variation

Few clear-cut phenotypes Range of phenotypes

Phenotype
with no intermediate

Environmental Rarely affected by Greatly affected by

influence environmental conditions environmental conditions

Controlled by one or Controlled by many genes

Genes
a few genes

Effect of many genes and

Additive effect Not present together and contribute to
the phenotype

Graph Discrete groups Normal distribution

Examples Blood group Height, skin colour

Gene
Gene is sequence of DNA nucleotides that stores information used to make a polypeptide, therefore
gene is a unit of inheritance passed from parents to offspring
Chromosome
• Chromosome is a compact structure visible in the nucleus during cell division and it is made up of
DNA • The place on the chromosome where the gene is located is called the gene locus.
Allele
• Alleles are different forms of a gene.
• Alleles of a gene occupy the same locus on a pair of homologous chromosomes. • For example, eye
colour gene has brown allele and blue allele
Dominant
A dominant allele is the allele that is always expressed in the phenotype, no matter under homozygous
or heterozygous condition.
Recessive
A recessive allele is the allele that is only expressed under homozygous recessive condition.
Codominant
••
When both alleles have an equal effect on the phenotype of the offspring. Both alleles are expressed in
the phenotype.
Homozygous
Organisms having two identical alleles of a particular gene. Allele can be either both dominant or both
recessive.
Heterozygous
Organisms having two different alleles of a particular gene.
Phenotype
• Phenotype refers to the expressed trait in an organism.
• The phenotype of an organism is the result of its genes and the effects of its environment.
Genotype
• A genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism.
• An organism’s genotype is homozygous for a trait if the two alleles controlling the trait are identical,
heterozygous for a trait if
the alleles controlling the trait are different.

Monohybrid inheritance
• The gene for flower colour of pea plant has two alleles: dominant purple allele (P) and
recessive white allele (p’)
• When a homozygous purple plants (PP) is crossed with a homozygous white plant (p’p’), each
organism inherits one allele from the mother and one allele from the father during sexual
reproduction
• The offspring generation consisted of all purple-flowered plants even though their genotype
is heterozygous (Pp’) as the dominant purple allele (P) is expressed over recessive white allele
Self-pollination in the F1 generation produced a F2 generation where the phenotypic ratio of
purple-flowered to white-flowered plants is 3:1
Mutation
• is a random change in the structure of a gene or in the
chromosome number
• those that take place in body cells other than gametes are called somatic mutations, which will not be
passed on to the next generation
• is spontaneous and can occur during replication of DNA • Mutagen increase the rate of mutation
Ultraviolet radiation, x rays, gamma rays Chemicals such as benzene, ethidium bromide

Sickle-cell Anemia
• caused by a change in the sequence of nucleotides coding for haemoglobin
• is a recessive condition, which means mutated allele only expresses in homozygous recessive condition
• individual with one normal allele, one mutated allele are healthy but are carrier
• Normal red blood cells are flexible and can change their shape in order to pass through capillaries.
• Mutated gene produces Haemoglobin S (HbS) that tend to clump together, which result in sickle-shaped
red blood cells that can block capillaries
• When oxygen concentration in the blood drops, the red blood cells become sickled-shaped and this
lowers their surface area to volume ratio for diffusion of oxygen.
• Hence, they cannot transport oxygen as effectively as the normal red blood cells.

Chromosomal mutation
• Down syndrome is a condition caused by a chromosome mutation during meiosis (gamete production)
• The gamete has 2 copies of chromosome 21, thus upon fertilisation, the zygote inherits 3 copies of
chromosome 21 and a total of 47 chromosomes
• This mutation is present in all body cells due to mitosis during zygote development.
• This chromosome mutation is far more likely to occur during ovum production than during sperm
production.
• Women above 30 have a higher risk of carrying babies with Down syndrome.

Natural selection
• There are variation among individuals within the population such as giraffe with short and long neck
• Factors that contribute to variation includes mutation, crossing over of homologous chromosomes
and independent assortment during meiosis and random fusion of gametes during fertilisation
• There is limited resources eg limited food, water resulting in competition for scarce resources
• Only individuals with favourable characteristics that are best adapted to the environment
• can survive
• have a higher chance of reproducing and passing down their favourable alleles to their offspring
• offspring increase in proportion in the population thus the proportion of favourable allele also increases
• This is known as natural selection which is the survival of fittest
• Evolution is the change in allele frequency in a population.
• Natural selection occurs over many generations and over a long period of time, it can produce major
changes of allele frequency in a population that could give rise to a new species.

Artificial selection
• Artificial selection, also known as selective breeding, is the intentional breeding for particular genetic
traits.
• Individuals with favourable alleles is selected and individual with non-favourable allele is prevented from
breeding. This increases the frequency of desirable alleles for the offsprings.
• It is used to produce several economically important crops and animals, for example
-Disease resistance crops
-Crops with high quality and high yield Increase milk production in cows Increase eggs production in
chickens - Increase meat production in farm animals
 Natural selection Artificial selection

Selection occurs Humans select the

when natural varieties of
environmental organism that
condition change suits their needs.

Varieties are produced Varieties are produced

by mutations. by selective breeding.

Artificial selection Genetic engineering

Plants and animals used for Genes from any plant or animal
breeding must beclosely can be inserted into non-related
related or belong to the species or different species.
same species.

Defective genes may Genes are carefully selected

be transmitted along before transfer into an organism.
with the healthy genes This reduces the risk of genetic
to the offspring. defects being passed on to the
offspring.

Selective breeding is a
slow process. It involves Genetic engineering uses
breeding over several individual cells which reproduce
generations. Selective rapidly in the laboratory in a
breeding requires large small container.
amounts of land.

More efficient. Transgenic

Less efficient. Organisms organisms may grow faster
grow slower and may and require less food than
require more food. ordinary organisms.
Molecular Genetics
Ecology
The abiotic environment consists of physical, non-living factors such as the
climate, light, water and the pH of the soil and water.
The biotic environment consists of all the living things that an organism
interacts with.
A habitat is the place where an organism lives.
A population is a group of organisms of organism of the same species that
live together in the same habitat.
A community is made up of all the populations living and interacting with
one another in a habitat
An ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with one another
and its abiotic environment.
The biosphere is the sum of all ecosystems, including all parts of earth where
life can be found.
Organisation levels in ecology:
The Abiotic environment:
• determine the type of plants found in a region, which determines the type of
animals living in the same region, as these animals directly or indirectly depend on
these plants for food
• Organisms in an environment are usually adapted to the physical features of an
environment.

Light intensity
• affects the rate of photosynthesis and rate of growth in plants
• which affects the rate of growth of animals,
• as animals depend either directly indirectly on plants for food.

Temperature
• affects the rate of enzyme reaction,
• and therefore the rate of metabolism and growth in organisms

Water availability
• important for the survival of all organisms
• main component of protoplasm
• adaptations to low water availability —> long loops of henlé in kidneys, most of
water filtered is reabsorbed by them, urine becomes relatively concentrated.

Oxygen content
• needed for aerobic respiration which releases energy for cell activities, such as the
active transport of mineral salts
• adaptations (eg. oxygen-poor soil) —> special breathing roots called
pneumatophores buried in this project above the surface. They have openings for gas
exchange through which oxygen diffuses to the whole root system of the plant

Salinity of the soil

• affects water potential of a solution.
• organisms living in freshwater (lower salinity) have to constantly remove excess
water from their bodies via osmosis!
• while those living in saltwater (high salinity) have to conserve water

pH of soil and water

• organisms are sensitive to the PH of soil and water in which they live
• as it affects the rate of enzyme reactions within their bodies
• extreme changes may result in the Decatur action of these enzymes.
The Biotic environment
• comprises of all the living organisms that an organism interacts with in its
habitat
• Organisms in a habitat are never completely independent
• The life of each organism depends on, and is influenced by the other
organisms around it
• Organisms are interdependent

Ecological communities
• made up of different populations of plants and animals living
interdependently together and interacting within the same environment
• a change in one population affects the other populations so the community
• The population of small crabs living in decreases, less food for mudskippers,
population of mudskippers decreases
• OR mudskippers feed on other more insects or small worms to get enough
food, whose populations may decrease as a result.
• In reality, the abiotic and biotic factors in an ecosystem interact with each
other in very different ways.
• However, the relative sizes of the different populations remain constant.
• This biological balance or equilibrium is like a web - breaking a single strand
will affect the whole system.
Flow of energy & nutrients in an ecosystem
• living organisms in an an ecosystem can be categorised as producers,
consumers, and decomposers, based on their mode of nutrition.

Producers
• make their own food via photosynthesis
• contain chlorophyll which convert light energy into chemical energy
• synthesise glucose from CO2 and H2O, along with oxygen as a by-product
• Often affect the lives of other organisms as they provide them with energy
& oxygen

Consumers
• unable to make their own food
• obtain energy & nutrients by feeding on other organisms
• Primary consumers (herbivores) —> feed directly and only on plants
• Secondary consumers (carnivores) —> feed on primary consumers
• Tertiary consumers (carnivores) - > feed on secondary consumers

Decomposers
• feed on decaying organic matter
• break down dead bodies of organisms, faeces & excretory products
• their activities return nutrients to the environment
Food chain
• is a series of organisms through which energy is transferred in the form of
food.
• represents feeding relationships between organisms in an ecosystem using
food chains
• (producer) —> (primary consumer) —> (secondary c) —> (Tertiary c)
• always begins with a producer (plant)
• Each stage in a food chain is known as a tropic level, i.e. the feeding position
of an organism in an organism. (Generally there are no more than 4 trophic
levels in a chain

Food web
• consists of interlinked food chains
• an organism can be at more than 1 more trophic level in a food web
•
English
1) ERRORS

E: Difficulty in gauging the exact moment at which decolourisation occurs

I: may increase/decrease time recorded for colour change to occur —> different from actual time taken
R: use of colourimeter

E: Temperature of set-up not kept constant due to heat from lamp

I: Time taken may increase/decrease is temperature of environment increases from the heat from the
lamp —> how does temperature increase affect recorded variable, and therefore dependent variable?
R:

E: transferring of <solutions> from test tubes to specimen tubes leads a loss in volume
I: volume decrease, time taken increase/decrease, rate higher/lower than expected
R:

E: time lapse when <mixing contents, turning on lamp>

I: time taken increase, rate decreases
R:

E: Only one set of data collected

I: deprives reliability as…
R: repeat experiment three more times and calculate the average results of the 4 sets of data.

E: Syringes we’re washed and rescued without them being dried out, leading to the possible dilution of
solution occurring when they were transferred and measured using syringes.
I: time taken increases, rate decreases
R: throughly dry the syringe out (both inside and outside)

E:
I:
R: select syringe closest to required volume

E: Yeast sinks to bottom as it is denser than suspension

I: Decreases concentration of concentration of solution on the top, can result in a decrease/increase
of the conc. of solution, resulting in an increase/decrease in time taken, and decrease/increase in rate.
R: thoroughly stir the suspension before transferring it using a syringe. / use yeast solution of lower
concentration??

E: bubbles are of different sizes - counting is not an accurate/reliable? method to measure rate of
reaction / bubbles are produced too fast
I: rate of reaction is more/less than expected
R: cont bubbles over one minute instead of 30 s

E: Anomalies in data not identified and removed before calculation of average

I: average lower/higher than expected
R: inverse of error.

E: Involvement of enzymes —> pH/Temperature not regulated

I:
R:
 • No short form, according to
what they write it as in
instructions
• UNITS! unless ratio like SA to
vol ratio

• no units
• degree of
specificity should be
Specificity same as that same in each
of measuring instrument column
Additional
Mathematics
: Elementary
Mathematics
HISTORY
Reasons for the Cold War
Ideological conflict between the USA & soviet union
English
Physics
Measurements
Kinematics
Definitions:
DISTANCE is the total length travelled, regardless of direction.
DISPLACEMENT is the total length between the start point and end point,
taking into account the direction of motion.
SPEED is the rate of change of distance with respect to time.
VELOCITY is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time.
ACCELERATION is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

Formulae:
Total dist.
Av. speed = Total time

Total disp.
Av. Velocity = Total time

V - U
Acceleration = t
 • The object is • The object is moving
stationary forward with speed

• The object is • The object is moving

moving forward at forward with speed
a constant speed

• The object is moving • The object is moving

with. acceleration with acceleration

• The object is • The object is moving • The object is moving

moving backward forward with speed forward with speed
at a constant
speed
Dynamics
Mass, Weight, Density
Moments
Pressure
What is pressure?
• Pressure is the force acting per unit area.
• SI unit: Pascal (Pa) or N/m

Liquid Pressure
• An object immersed in a uniform liquid will experience a
pressure which only depends on the height of the liquid
above the object.

Pressure P P = Atmospheric Pressure

Pressure P As the depth , pressure .
P <P <P <P
Pressure P
Pressure P

C h Pressure at point A = P +
A
B

• When a liquid is at equilibrium, the pressure is the same at any point in the
same horizontal surface, explaining why the liquid in the container settling at
a common height, h.
• If the water level were uneven, the pressure at the base of one arm would be
greater than the Peres sure of another. This would result in the water in the
arm with a higher water level experiencing a resultant force to the other
arm, resulting in the water moving to the other arm and the equaliser ion of
the water level in both arms.
Hydraulic System

• Liquids are incompressible

• If pressure is applied to an
enclosed liquid, the pressure is
Incompressible
transmitted to all parts of the
liquid
liquid.

Hydraulic System
1. Pressure can be transmitted in all directions if it is exerted on an
incompressible fluid in a container.
2. Components of a Hydraulic System:
• Container with 2 openings
• A press
• A piston
• Incompressible fluid
3. If the two pistons 1 & 2 have the same area, the force exerted, F , will have
the same magnitude as the force, F , at the other piston.
4. If the area , A , of the exerting piston is smaller than the area, A , of the
other piston, then F < F .
If…
1. A = A , then F = F
2. A < A , then F < F
3. A > A , then F > F

• Hence we can use hydraulic systems to lift heavy objects?

• *However, where we have the advantage of less force (energy) required to,
we have to compromise on the distance/length we have to push.
 If the large piston has an area twice
that of the smaller piston, then the
smaller piston will move twice as much
Incompressible
liquid
as the large piston.
Thus, the force applied on the small
piston is multiplied by the ratio of the
area of the pistons.
1. The inverted glass tube is pushed into
mercury.
2. 2. Atmospheric pressure forces the
mercury into the glass tube
3. the column of mercury has an equal
pressure to the atmospheric pressure.
• When air is introduced into the vacuum,
the mercury level will fall.
• The pressure in the space above the
mercury column is no longer zero.
• The sum of the pressure of the air in the
space and the pressure of the mercury
column is equal to atmospheric
pressure.
• Therefore, the height of the mercury
column will fall.
• Pressure of trapped air = Atmospheric
air pressure - h (in mm)
Work, Energy, Power
Kinetic Model of Matter
What is Brownian Motion?

• It refers to the constant, random motion of particles,

such as pollen & dust specks that are suspended in fluids.
• Fluid molecules are always in constant motion
• The smaller & lighter fluid molecules bombard
suspended particles randomly in all directions, hence
causing the particles to move about in a random motion.
Temperature-Molecular motion R/S
• Temp Speed of movement of particles
• Temp Speed of movement of particles
• In both cases, particle movement remains random & continuous.
1) Temperature
2) Average speed of air molecule
3) Impact of air molecules on smoke particles
4) Smoke particles move faster and change direction more frequently.

Pressure in Gases

Motion of Molecules & Pressure

• Moving gas molecules collide with the inner wall of the container & exert a
force on it.
• The force exerted per unit area is thus called gas pressure.
Pressure-Temperature R/S

• The pressure, p, of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature,

T, where its mass and volume is constant.
• At higher temperatures, the air molecules have greater average
kinetic energy, and hence have greater speed.
• The air molecules will then bombard the walls of their container at
higher frequency and with greater average force per unit area.
• Since p=F/A , and Area, A, is constant, this causes an increase in
gas pressure
Temperature-Volume R/S

• The volume, V, of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature, T,

constant mass & pressure .
• When the temperature of the air increases, the average kinetic energy of
the particles increases, resulting in the air molecules moving a greater
speed.
• The air molecules then bombard the walls of the container at a greater
average force per unit area, & the gas pressure increases.
• To maintain the constant pressure, the air expands and the air molecules
move further apart.
• As the air molecules occupy a large volume, they collide with the walls
less frequently, helping in maintaining the gas pressure.
Pressure-Volume R/S

• The pressure, p, of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume,

V, at a constant mass & temperature.
• When the volume of the gas is decreased, the number of air
molecules per unit volume increases
• The air molecules will therefore bombard the walls more
frequently.
This causes an increase into the average force exerted per unit
area on the walls of the container, and hence an increase in gas
pressure.
Transfer of Thermal Energy
Heat capacity, C, is the amount of thermal energy required to raise
the temperature of a substance by 1K/ C.

Specific heat capacity, C, is defined as the amount of thermal

energy required the temperature of a unit mass (eg. 1kg) of a
substance by 1K/ C

Latent heat is the energy released by a substance during a change

of state, without a change in its temperature

Latent heat of fusion, , is the amount of thermal energy

required to change a substance from a solid state to liquid state,
without a change in temperature.

Specific latent heat of fusion, , of a substance is the amount

of thermal energy required to change a unit mass (eg. 1kg) of a
substance from solid state to liquid state, without a change in
temperature.

Latent heat of vaporisation, , is the amount of thermal energy

required to change a substance from a liquid state to gaseous
state, without a change in temperature.

Specific latent heat of vaporisation, , of a substance is the

amount of thermal energy required to change a unit mass (eg.
1kg) of a substance from liquid state to gaseous state, without a
change in temperature.
Melting
1. From points P to Q, the graph is a curve
2. The temperature of the solid ice rises from -15C to 0C. There is a
change in temperature

Freezing
Boiling

Condensing
Temperature
-
Thermal properties of matter
General Wave Properties
Definitions:
A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy through vibrations from one
place to another, without the transfer of particles/matter itself.
Transverse waves are waves whose particles vibrate in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the wave motion.
Longitudinal waves are waves whose particles vibrate in a direction
parallel to the direction of the wave motion.
Crest is the highest point in a wave.
Trough is the lowest point in a wave.
When the distance between 2 points in a wave is the wavelength,
they are said to be in phase.
Amplitude is the magnitude of the maximum displacement from the rest
position.
Wavelength is the distance between any 2 points in phase.
Period of a wave is the time taken for one wave to be generated/ the wave to
move a distance of one wavelength.
Frequency is the number of complete waves generated per second /
number of crests through that pass through a point in a second.
Speed of a wave is the distance moved by a wave per second.
Wavefront is an imaginary line joining all the crests (or points in phase).
Types of waves:

Transverse Wave:
Wave motion

Crest

Amplitude

Equilibrium

Trough
Types:
Particle motion
Wavelength, Water waves
Electromagnetic waves
Light waves
Radio waves

Longitudinal Wave:
Types:
Particle motion Sound
Silky coil

Wavelength,

Rarefraction Compression Rarefraction

Wave motion
Displacement-distance graph
Displacement/m
Wavelength
Crest

Amplitude

Distance/m

Trough

A displacement-distance graph shows the displacement of particles at one

specific instance.

Displacement-time graph
Displacement/m
Period
Crest

Amplitude

Time/s

Trough

A displacement-time graph shows the displacement of a singular particle

as a wave pass through.
Light
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Sound
Basic Facts:
Sound waves are propagated as longitudinal waves whose particles vibrate
parallel to the wave motion direction.
Sound waves are mechanical waves, as they require a medium
to travel.
The source of a sound wave is by a vibrating source.

How is sound produced?

When vibrating object alternately pulls or pushes on the layers of air
adjacent to it, it causes small but rapid changes in air pressure.
Compressions are regions where particles are pushed closer together,
resulting in higher pressure.
Rarefactions are regions where particles are pulled further apart, resulting in
lower pressure.

Speed of sound in different mediums:

When a vibration occurs by sound molecules in the medium start to
vibrate and transmit that energy through other particles.
The distance between the particles in the denser mediums is smaller
than those in less dense mediums.
Hence, the energy is transferred faster in the denser mediums and
sound travels faster in denser mediums.

Why can't sound travel in Vacuum?

Sound cannot travel in Vacuum as particles are required for the transfer
of energy and sound travel.

Medium Speed (m/s)

Distance travelled
Vacuum 0 Speed of Sound =
Time
Air 330
Water 1500
Steel 5200
An echo is a reflected sound wave.
When a sound wave is reflected by a large, hard and smooth surface, an echo
is produced.
Distance travelled Distance travelled (to and back)
Speed of Sound = =
Time Time

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is used to display waveforms.

Loudness is measured by amplitude & is a measure of the

amount of energy carried by the sound.
Loud: Soft:

Pitch depends on the frequency (number of waves formed in 1s).

Low Frequency: High Frequency:

Ultrasound
: ultrasound is a type of sound wave that is above 20kHz. Human audible
An
frequency is between 20Hz and 20kHz.
Ultrasound allows imaging because of the difference in time taken for the
waves to return from different depths of the medium.
Application:
- Pre-natal scanning
- Sound navigation and ranging (sonar) to measure distances in air or
water - Quality control in manufacturing - detector monitors strength of
ultrasonic signals
Static Electricity
Current Electricity
D.C. Circuits
Practical Electricity
• a neutral body has an equal number of +ve & -ve charges
• when a neutral object is brought close to a charged object, attraction
occurs, and the charges are induced
• If the neutral object touches the charged object, electrons will flow to the
+ve ply charged object, neutralising the +ve charges
• Both objects become +very charged, causing them to repel each other.

• when rubbed with another material, electrons

are transferred from one material to another.
• As electrons are transferred from the rod
from the cloth,
• the rod has more -ve charges than +ve charges
and is hence -vely charged, while
• the fur has less -ve charges than +ive charges,
and is hence +vely charged.
• put 2 metal spheres side by side, in contact with one another
• use a negatively charged rod & place it near sphere A, without actually
touching it
• since like charges repel, & unlike charges attract, electrons in Sphere A will
travel away to Sphere B,
• resulting in an uneven charge distribution as seen in the diagram where
Sphere A has more +ve charges while Sphere B has more -ve charges.
• While keeping the negative rod near A, separate both spheres
• When they are no longer in contact with each other & the electrons are no
longer free to move in between A & B, remove the negative rod.

• use a negative rod & place it near the sphere, without actually touching it.
• since like charges repel & unlike charges attract, electrons will be repelled
& move to the side B, leaving the +ve charges in side A.
• The sphere is then earthed with a finger touching side B, with the -ve rod
still in place.
• Electrons will flow from sphere to the ground, making side B neutral
• While keeping the -ve rod at side A, remove the finger.
• The sphere is now left with a +ve charge.
• a very direct way of charging by making a direct physical contact to facilitate
the transfer of charges.
• A +vely charged sphere comes in contact with the neutral metal ball.
• Upon contact, the electrons will flow from the neutral metal ball to
neutralise the +vely charged metal sphere
• Separate both the objects
• Both objects are noe +vely charged, although the sphere is now less +vely
charged than before
• The sphere has to be on an insulating stand to prevent earthing
• No fingers should come into contact with the charged object at any point as
well (ball is hung using string)

Take note:
• during charging (whether by induction or friction) charges are only
transferred from one object to another, and charges are neither created nor
destroyed.
• In any charging process, only the electrons can be transferred
• Charging by rubbing doesn’t work for conductors, as conductors can transfer
excess charges to the hand holding it.
• In insulators, however, electrons are not free to move about, so charges stay
after the rubbing process. '
• induction/induction + earthing only works for conductors & not insulators, as
electrons are free to move only in conductors, not insulators.
1) Expose to a flame
• thermal energy from the flame ionises the air particles to produce -ve &
+ve ions, which discharge an object

2) Expose to moisture
• in moist conditions, water vapour in the air removes excess charges

1) Earthing
• connect the object to the ground (earth) with a conducting wire or by
touching it with a finger
A CHARGE is a particle capable of carrying electrical
energy, that moves around in a circuit.
Current is defined as the rate of flow of electrical
charges
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is defined as the work
done by the source in driving a unit charge round a
complete circuit. —> source must provide enough
energy to the charge to go past all the components
& complete a full circuit
Potential Difference (p.d.) is defined as the work
done (energy convertein
Magnetism
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism Induction
Magnetism
Chemistry
 Atmosphere
Composition of the Atmosphere Nitrogen
The air around the Earth is called the atmosphere, and (78%)
it is an important resource.
Oxygen
The composition of the atmosphere varies depending (21%)
on the time and place.
Noble gases
CO
(0.97%)
(0.03%)
(Mostly Argon)

Fractional distillation of liquid Air

Air is separated into its components by the fractional distillation of liquid air.
This is an important process, especially to obtain nitrogen, oxygen, and argon.
Nitrogen
Air Liquid air (B.p. -196 C)
Cooling & Fractional
Compression. Distillation Argon
(B.p. -186 C)

Oxygen
(B.p. -183 C)
1) Air is first cooled and compressed into a liquid.
- The particles change from (kinetic particle theory of gases) to
(kinetic particle theory in liquids)
- Carbon dioxide deposits into dry ice, while water first condenses, followed
by freezing into ice as both the b.p and m.p is below the temperature in the
chamber.
2) The liquified air is passed into the bottom of a fractionating column & is
separated by fractional distillation based on the differences in the b.p.
3. The fractions with lower boiling points rise to the top, while the fractions with
the higher boiling points sink to the bottom.
- Nitrogen has the lowest b.p, followed by argon, and oxygen.
Carbon monoxide
Source
Incomplete combustion of carbon-
containing substances (eg. Coal,
Petrol)
If very little Oxygen is present,
black soot (carbon) is produced.
Unburnt Hydrocarbons
Source
Hydrocarbons present in petrol that
have not been burnt in vehicle
engines and escape into the
atmosphere
Oxides of Nitrogen
At high temperatures, nitrogen
& oxygen react to form
carbon monoxide, which
further reacts with oxygen to
form nitrogen dioxide.
Impacts
Combines with haemoglobin
in the blood to form a stable
compound known as
carboxyhaemoglobin,
Preventing blood from
transporting oxygen around
the body, causing headaches,
fatigue, and even death.
Impacts
Causes Cancer
Reacts with nitrogen
dioxide in the presence of
sunlight to produce ozone
(main component of
photochemical smog,
only good at a certain
atmosphere, bad at
breathing level)
Metals
Metals
Arrangement

Physical properties of metals

High Large amt. of energy req. to overcome the strong

m.p. & b.p. electrostatic forces of attraction between the metal
cations and sea of delocalised electrons

Good conductor Presence of mobile delocalised electrons

of electricity to carry charges

Layers of atoms packed closely together

High Density —> hence greater mass per unit volume

1. Sonorous sound when hit

2. Shiny appearance
3. Ductile (stretchable) & malleable (easily shaped)
4. Good conductor of heat
Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with one or a few other elements

Advantages of Alloys
1. Makes metals harder & stonger
2. Makes metal more corrosion-resistant
3. Improve appearance of metals
4. Lower melting point of metals

Why are alloys harder & stronger than their pure components?
• In pure metals, the atoms are of the same size & packed regularly in layers.
• Hence, it is easy for the layers of atoms to slide over each other when a force
is applied.
In alloys, however,
• the atoms are of different sizes.
• This disrupts the regular arrangement of the atoms,
• making it more difficult for the layers of atoms to slide over one another.
Thus, alloys are harder and stronger than pure metal components.

Pure Metal Alloy

Displacement reactions

Big idea:
The more reactive metal will displace the less reactive metal from its salt
solution. This is because a more reactive metal forms a more stable compound.
If the more reactive metal is an element in the solution, then no reaction will
occur.

Eg.
Zinc + Copper(||) Sulfate solution
Observation: Solution turns from blue to clear, and a reddish-brown solid forms
in the strip.
Explanation: Zinc is more reactive than Copper, so the Zinc displaces the
copper in the copper(||) solution to form a clear solution of zinc sulfate?
Extraction of Iron - Blast Furnace
• Iron is a product of the reduction of haematite by carbon in a blast furnace

Hot waste gases escape: Raw materials:

• Carbon monoxide • Haematite (iron (||)
• carbon dioxide oxide)
• nitrogen • coke (carbon)
• limestone (calcium
4 carbonate)
Blast furnace
3

1
Used to make
Hot Air roads

Slag (calcium silicate) Too brittle,

mostly
Molten iron converted
to steel

1) Oxygen from the hot air reacts with coke to form carbon dioxide,
producing a lot of heat. (Combustion, exothermic)

2) Carbon dioxide rises up the furnace & reacts with more coke to form
carbon monoxide.

3) Carbon monoxide reduces the iron(||) oxide in haematite to molten iron,

which runs to the bottom of the furnace.

4) Limestone decomposes to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.

Calcium oxide reacts with acidic impurities such as silicone dioxide in the iron
ore to form slag, which floats on top of the molten iron, and the both are
run off separately at the bottom of the furnace.
Conversion of Iron to Steel
• Iron is too brittle
• Most iron is therefore converted to steel
• Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon and/or other metals
• Types of Steel:

Types of Steel Uses Properties

Mid Steel (Low Carbon) Car bodies & Hard, strong &
• up to 0.25% Carbon machinery malleable

High Carbon Steel Knives, hammers,

• 0.45-1.5% Carbon chisels, saws, & Strong, but brittle
other cutting &
boring tools

Stainless Steel Equipment in

• alloy of iron, chemical plants, Does not rust
chromium, nickel, & cutlery, & surgical
a little carbon instruments

Effect of Carbon content on steel

• the carbon content,
• the disruption of the regular arrangement of atoms in pure iron,
making the steel
• stronger
• less malleable
• more brittle

Alloy steels compose of iron & carbon and one of the following;
• manganese —> strength & hardness
• chromium & nickel —> improve resistance to corrosion
• tungsten
• vanadium
Rusting
• rusting is the slow oxidation of iron to form hydrated Iron (||) oxide.

Why does rust form (conditions for rusting)

• Rust is a reddish brown substance that forms when iron comes into
contact with water & oxygen. It happens over a long period of time.

Disadvantages of rusting
• rusting is a flaking coating which peels off, allowing more iron
underneath to rust.
• Structures such as bridges can become unsafe and need to be
replaced or they may become unstable and unsafe for use.

During rusting, the mass of the object increases. This is because….

Conditions affecting the Speed of Rusting.

Dissolved ionic/Dilute acidic substances in the water

• Free moving ions increase the electrical conductivity & hence speed
up rusting

When iron is in contact with a less reactive metal

• Iron is more reactive than copper,
• and is hence preferentially oxidised to become Fe ions.
• Therefore, rust is formed faster
Ways to prevent Rusting

Protection of large iron & steel structures

Painting
(e.g. bridges & ships)

Thin films of grease may be used to protect

Grease
moving parts (eg. machinery or bicycle chains)

Prevention of rusting (eg. Tin cans)

Tin Coating If the thin layer is scratched, the iron underneath
rusts more rapidly than it normally would as iron is
more reactive than tin.

Coating an object with a protective layer of

zinc metal
Galvanising
Reasonably cheap
(eg. outdoor objects)
Electroplating using precious, unreactive metals like
Electroplating gold & silver (eg. jewellery)

A more reactive metal is connected to the object

Sacrificial The more reactive metal (eg. Zinc blocks to a ship’s
protection hull, magnesium blocks to underground pipes) is
oxidised in preference to the iron, preventing rusting
(eg. underground objects like tanks/gas pipes)

Corrosion and Rust resistant

Upon exposure to air & moisture, a very hard coating
Stainless steel of chromium (|||) oxide forms on the surface of the
stainless steel, preventing it from further corrosion.
(eg. Cutlery, surgical instruments)
Why is extraction expensive?
• Titanium - involves many stages, and requires magnesium, is costly
• Aluminium - involves electrolysis, which requires a large quantity of
electricity, which is expensive.

Advantages of Recycling Metals

• Metals are finite resources —> recycling them will conserve it so that they
can last for a longer time and be available for future use.
• Reduces air & water pollution at the site of extraction
• Saves the cost of Extraction & Building landfill sites —> as fewer landfills
will be required to dispose both used metal objects & waste material from
metal extraction.
• Reduces Mining activities p, —> freeing up land for other uses such as
agriculture.

Advantages/Disadvantages of Recycling Metals

Economic
Costly
- need for the separation of the different types of metals
- transportation costs of scrap metal to processing plant
- costs of cleaning and sorting of metals

Social
• Recycling frees up land for the increasing human population by reducing the
need for land for mining.
• Effort & time required for society to start practicing recycling as a way of life
—> need to start develop metal recycling strategies that are cost-effective
and environmental-friendly now.

Environmental
• Recycling does not produce as much waste that may engraver human health
as extracting metals from ores
• Recycling of some metals may cause air pollution
- smelting process to extract lead from car batteries —> poisonous fumes
Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the process of using
electricity to decompose a compound
• important in the extraction of pure
elements from their compounds
• takes place in in electrolytic cell
• The electrons flow from the
anode to the cathode in the
external circuit
• Flow of electrons constitutes
the flow of electricity in the
connecting wire

Battery
(+) (-) Electron
flow
Cathode
• connected to the
(-) terminal of the
Anode battery
• Cations move to
• connected to the
here
(+) terminal of the
• Reduction
battery
•( in electrons)
• Anions move to
occurs
here
• Oxidation
•( in electrons)
Electrodes
occurs

Electrolyte
Electrodes • Molten ionic compound
• made from materials that conduct or an Aqueous solution
electricity that
- graphite/platinum —> inert electrodes • Conducts electricity
- copper/silver —> reactive electrodes - free-moving ions that
Flow of cations & anions towards the allow for the conduction
electrodes constitutes the flow of electric of electricity
current through the solution
Periodic Table
Groups
• is a vertical column of elements
• eight groups, numbered from | to V||
• Group V|| = Group 0
• run from the top to bottom

Periods
• is a horizontal row of elements
• 7 periods, period 1 to period 7
• runs from left to right

Transition metals
• The block of metals is known as transition metals

Metals

Metalloids

Non-metals
How are elements in the same group similar in terms of their electronic
structure?

How are elements in the same period similar in terms of their electronic
structure?

R/S between the group number and charge of the ion formed by each element

How do the metallic properties change across a period

How do metallic properties change down a group

Energy Changes
Why do energy changes occur during chemical reactions?
• a chemical substance involves the formation of a new substance,
• meaning that they rearrange themselves
• to do so, bonds are broken and formed
• energy is required to break/overcome the intermolecular forces of
attraction between molecules

Exothermic reactions
• a chemical reaction in which heat energy is released to the surroundings,
causing an increase in temperature surrounding.

Temperature/ C

2. Maximum temperature is
reached, reaction is complete.

1. Temp to a max. 3. Temperature drops

temp as reaction to room temperature
takes place

Time/min

Physical Changes Chemical Changes

• Freezing, condensation • Combustion of fuels

• Dissolving NaOH or acids • Rusting of Iron
in water • Respiration
• Neutralisation reactions
• Displacement
Endothermic reactions
• a chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed from the
surroundings, causing an decrease in temperature surrounding.

Temperature/ C

1. Temp to a min. 3. Temperature rises to

temp as reaction room temperature
takes place

Time/min
2. Minimum temperature is
reached, reaction is complete.

Physical Changes Chemical Changes

• Melting, boiling • Thermal decomposition

• Dissolving of some ionic • Action of AgBr in
compound in water, such photographic film rctn
as ammonium chloride • Photosynthesis
• Reaction of nitrogen
and oxygen in car
engines
Types of Fuels
Petroleum
Organic Compunds
Alkanes
Alkenes
Fats & Oils
Cracking
Alcohols
Carboxylic Acids
Macromolecules
laborious task

would not have the patience to do this for extended periods of time, but I fell that it would be quite enjoyable to do it for shorter periods of time, like 5 minutes, for example.

boring, repetitive

- standing on feet all day

not much fun in creating bubbles as compared to popping them

may be fulfilling to see the joy on the faces of kids pooping and chasing after the bubbles

Back when I was a kid, blowing bubbles was my favourite activity

Friends and I used to take turns using bubble guns, creating bubbles from various levels of the playground, like the slide, ladder

Fascinating to see crystal clear orbs that still somehow managed to reflect light rays off it in a myriad of colours, while dreamily floating in the air before popping in an instant

My favourite part was when the bubbles became bigger, used to jiggle around in the air like pudding.

Personally, I would not …. as I feel that ….

Simplicity

Childhood innocence