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 Sight Distance in Highway Geometric
Design

Sight distance

Length of the roadway ahead visible to drivers, must

allow driver to perceive, reaction, stop, change speed,
and change direction etc. when necessary

Dr. Rizwan Memon 2

Dr. Rizwan Memon 3
Dr. Rizwan Memon 4
 - Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
the sight distances needed for stopping, applicable on
every locations

- Decision Sight Distance (DSD)

the sight distances needed for taking decisions at complex
locations

- Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

the sight distances needed for the passing of overtaken
vehicles applicable only on two lane highways,

- Intersection Sight Distance (ISD)

safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled
intersection Dr. Rizwan Memon 5
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

As per AASHTO, “The available sight distance on the

roadway should be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle
traveling at or near the design speed to stop before reaching
a stationary object in its path”.

It is the sum of two distances;

1. Brake reaction distance (d1) or Lag Distance
2. Braking distance (d2)

Brake Reaction Time

A certain amount of time is required for a driver to perceive
and react and for the brakes to be applied.
For design purpose, combined perception-reaction and brake
reaction time of 2.5 sec is recommended.
Dr. Rizwan Memon 6
 PIEV Theory

Some traffic engineers split the total reaction time in four

parts based on PIEV theory;

1. Perception; it is the time required for perceive an object

2. Intellection; it is the time required for understanding the

situation

3. Emotion; it is the time elapsed during emotional sensation

and disturbance

4. Volition; it is the time taken for final action

Dr. Rizwan Memon 7

 Brake reaction distance:
d1 = 0.278Vt or d1 = v( m / s )t
d1 = 1.47Vt v – design speed, kmph;
v – design speed, mph; t – brake reaction time, 2.5 s
t – brake reaction time, 2.5 s d1 - m
d1- ft
0.039V 2 v 2(m / s)
d2 = or d2 =
1.075V 2 a
Braking distance d2 = 2 gf
a V – design speed, kmph;
a – deceleration rate, 3.4 m/s2
V – design speed, mph; d2 - m
f –coefficient of longitudinal friction
a – deceleration rate, 11.2 ft/s 2
(0.4 to 0.35 for 20 kmph to 100
d2- ft kmph)
g – gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s 2)
Dr. Rizwan Memon 8
 ◼ Assume
◼ Driver eye height of 3.5 feet or 1.08 m

◼ Height of object between 2.0 and 3.5 feet(0.6 to 1.06m)

◼ Design standards: tr = 2.5s, a = 11.2 ft/s2 (3.4 m/s2)

2
V( mph)
SSD( ft ) = 1.47 V( mph)  tr ( s ) + 1.075
a( ft / s 2 )

2
V( kmph)
SSD( m) = 0.278 V( kmph)  tr ( s ) + 0.039
a( m / s 2 )
Dr. Rizwan Memon 9
 ◼ Effect of Gradient (G); adjust d2 only

2
V( mph)
SSD( ft ) = 1.47 V( mph)  tr ( s ) +
 a( ft / s 2 ) 
30  G
 32.2 

2
V( kmph)
SSD( m ) = 0.278 V( kmph)  tr ( s ) +
 a( m / s 2 ) 
254  G
 9 .81 

Dr. Rizwan Memon 10

for design:

Source: Green book, pp. 112 Dr. Rizwan Memon 11

Source: Green book, pp. 115 Dr. Rizwan Memon 12
 Overtaking Sight Distance
B A

First Phase 1/3 d2 d1

2/3 d2

d4 d3 d2

Second Phase
Dr. Rizwan Memon 13
 d1 = distanced traversed, during perception/reaction time, to the
point where the vehicle just enters the left lane;
(Note: “reaction” here means accelerating instead of breaking)
at1 at1
d1 = 1.47t1 (V − m + ) d1 = 0.278t1 (V − m + )
2 2
or

d1 = vb .t1

The speed of passed vehicle is assumed to be 15 kmph (10 mph) less than
the speed of passing vehicle.( m = 15 kmph)

Dr. Rizwan Memon 14

 d2 = distanced traveled while the passing vehicle occupies
the right lane
d2 = 1.47Vt2 d 2 = 0.278V( kmph)t 2

d3 = distanced between the passing vehicle, at the end of its

overtaking maneuver, and the opposing vehicle.
Approx. 30 to 75 m, considered as the clearance length

d4 = distance traversed by an opposing vehicle during the passing

maneuver. The opposing vehicle is assumed to be traveled at
the same speed as the passing vehicle. (d4 = 2/3 d2)
Dr. Rizwan Memon 15
Source: Green book, pp. 120 Dr. Rizwan Memon 16
 O.S.D = d1 + d 2 + d3 + d 4

Dr. Rizwan Memon 17

Source: Green book, pp. 124
 Assumptions in OSD calculation:

Source: Green book, pp. 118 Dr. Rizwan Memon 18

 Intersection sight decision

Source: Green book, pp. 656 Dr. Rizwan Memon 19