Unit 1 – Naming and Formula Writing, Stoichiometry

1. Nomenclature and Writing Formula

Why is nomenclature important?

Nomenclature, the systematic naming of chemical compounds, plays a vital role in the
field of chemistry. Here are several reasons why nomenclature is important:

Universal Language: Nomenclature provides chemists with a universal language for

communication. With standardized naming conventions, scientists from different countries and
backgrounds can understand and discuss chemical compounds accurately. This global consistency
facilitates effective collaboration and the sharing of scientific knowledge.

Identification and Differentiation: Nomenclature allows chemists to identify and distinguish

between different compounds. By using specific names, scientists can differentiate between
compounds with similar chemical formulas but different structures or properties. This distinction
is crucial in research, analysis, and practical applications.

Systematic Organization: Nomenclature provides a systematic organization of chemical

compounds, enabling scientists to classify and categorize substances based on their composition
and properties. This systematic approach allows for efficient retrieval and referencing of
information in chemical databases, textbooks, and scientific literature.

Naming Simple Compounds

Molecule or molecular compound is an assembly of two or more non-metal atoms tightly bonded
together. A diatomic molecule is a molecule made from two atoms of the same element. The
following seven elements form diatomic molecules in their natural state:

H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

An allotrope is one of two or more distinct forms of an element, such as: graphite and diamond
(for carbon) and dioxygen (O2 - usually referred to simply as oxygen) and ozone (O 3). Molecular
compounds (also known as covalent compounds) are composed of nonmetal elements that bond
together into larger particles using covalent bonds (bonds created by the sharing of their valence
electrons.

Molecular formulas show the exact number of atoms of each element in the molecule.
Empirical formulas are the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms in a molecular
compound or an ionic compound.
Ionic compounds are composed of ions and usually contain both metals and non-metals. The ions
in an ionic compound form when the metal atoms give one or more electrons to the nonmetal
atoms. Consequently, the metal ion is positively charged (called an cation) and the nonmetal ions
are negatively charged (called the anions). Ionic compounds must be electrically neutral, so the
sum of the charges of the anions and cations must equal zero. Because the formulas of ionic
compounds must be empirical formulas, make sure the subscripts are reduced to their simplest
ratio.
Watch the following instructional video: Ionic vs. Molecular Compounds
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PKA4CZwbZWU

Naming & Writing Formulas of Molecular Compounds

Watch the following instructional video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DejkvR4pvRw

Identifying a Molecular Compound (aka Covalent Compound)

A molecular compound contains ALL non-metal elements (located on the right side of the staircase
on the periodic table).

General Naming Rule:

Prefix (except mono) + nonmetal name + prefix + nonmetal name + ide
Prefix Definitions

Examples of molecular compounds

Practice Problems
Instructions: Write the formula from the names of the following molecular compounds and vice
versa.
1. disilicon trioxide __________
2. nitrogen dioxide __________
3. carbon tetrachloride __________
4. trisulfur monoxide __________
5. phosphorus trisulfide __________
6. boron tribromide __________
7. carbon monoxide __________
8. dinitrogen pentoxide __________
9. carbon dioxide __________
10. phosphorus hexafluoride __________
11. ______________________ SeCl2
12. ______________________ NO
13. ______________________ P2S
14. ______________________ Si3I8
15. ______________________ S2O
16. ______________________ PBr5
17. ______________________ N2Se3
18. ______________________ As2O4
19. ______________________ PH3
20. ______________________ OCl2

Naming & Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds

Identifying an Ionic Compound: An ionic compound will start with a metal element or ammonium
(NH4) and end with a non-metal or polyatomic ion (more about that later).

There are three main types of ionic compound to be considered:

• Basic (binary) ionic compounds (contain 1 metal & 1 nonmetal element)
• Ionic compounds containing a polyatomic ion
• Ionic compounds containing a transition metal

Examples of ionic compounds

We will learn the rules for naming and writing formulas for each type, one at a time, and then
put it all together.

Naming & Writing Formulas of Binary* Ionic Compounds

*a binary ionic compound is the simplest kind of ionic compound. It has only two elements in it
(one metal and one nonmetal).

Naming Binary Ionic Compounds

General Rule:
1. Write the name of the metal ion (same as the element’s name)
2. Write the name of the nonmetal ion (element’s name, but change the ending to –ide)
Example: MgCl2 Magnesium Chlorine → Magnesium Chloride

Writing Formulas for Binary Ionic Compounds

Watch the following instructional videos:
Introduction: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URc75hoKGLY&t=19s
Practice: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X_LVANMpJ0c

Practice Problems
Instructions: Write the formula from the names of the following binary ionic compounds and
vice versa.
1. _____________________ Na2S
2. _____________________ SrO
3. _____________________ Be3N2
4. _____________________ CaF2
5. _____________________ KCl
6. Cesium Phosphide _____________________
7. Barium Bromide _____________________
8. Lithium Oxide _____________________
9. Aluminum Selenide _____________________
10. Rubidium Iodide _____________________
What is a Polyatomic Ion?
A polyatomic ion is an ion made from a charged group of bonded atoms consisting of more than
one element.

Watch the following instructional videos:

Definition: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MJZeZvDxcx8

IMPORTANT: In CHM012, the names, formulas, and charges of the common polyatomic
ions MUST BE MEMORIZED! You will be tested on these during the first two meetings.

CHM012 Polyatomic Ion Memorization List

(see the next page for tips on how to do it!)
Naming & Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds that contain Polyatomic Ions

Naming Ionic Compounds that contain Polyatomic Ions

General Rule:
1. Identify that the ionic compound contains a polyatomic ion. Ionic compounds containing
polyatomic ions are easily identified because they will contain more than two elements.
2. Identify the particular polyatomic ion the compound contains. Unless it is ammonium
(NH4+), the polyatomic ion will be negatively charged, and therefore, will be written AFTER
the metal ion (which, by convention, is always written first).
3. Simply write the name of the metal ion (same as the element’s name) and then the name
of the polyatomic ion (which you’ve memorized).
Example: MgCO3 Mg2+ and CO32- → Magnesium Carbonate

Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds that contain Polyatomic Ions

Watch the following instructional videos:
Definition: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MJZeZvDxcx8
Introduction: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p9iQ5Qn42DM

Practice Problems
Instructions: Write the formula from the names of the following ionic compounds and vice
versa.
1. _____________________ Na2SO3
2. _____________________ Sr(NO3)2
3. _____________________ Be3(PO4)2
4. _____________________ NH4F
5. Cesium Acetate _____________________
6. Barium Perchlorate _____________________
7. Ammonium Cyanide _____________________
8. Aluminum Hydroxide _____________________

Naming & Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds that contain Transition Metals

Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds that contain Transition Metals

Watch the following instructional videos:
Definition: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Da_ah6TqAss
Introduction: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H4nfE8gRX7Q

Naming Ionic Compounds that contain Transition Metals

Watch the following instructional videos:
Introduction: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rq0A-AHdB74
Practice: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rq0A-AHdB74

Practice Exercises
Instructions: Write the formula from the names of the following binary ionic compounds and
vice versa.
1. _____________________ Mn2S
2. _____________________ NiO
3. _____________________ Cr3N2
4. _____________________ CuF2
5. _____________________ PbCl
6. Tin II Phosphide _____________________
7. Molybdenum III Bromide _____________________
8. Titanium IV Oxide _____________________
9. Vanadium II Selenide _____________________
10. Cadmium I Sulfate _____________________

Writing Names & Formulas of Acids

Identifying an Acid
An acid starts with hydrogen and ends with a nonmetal or polyatomic ion.
Watch the following instructional videos:
Introduction: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Jb2u9ihfm4
Practice: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VyjnMk-Ta10

General Rules:
Binary acids: acids made from hydrogen plus a single element (like HBr):
Hydro + element name + ic Acid

Example: HBr Hydro + bromine Acid → Hydrobromic Acid

Oxyacids: acids made from hydrogen plus an oxygen-containing polyatomic ion (like HBrO3):
Polyatomic ion name* Acid
(*but change “ate” endings to “ic” and “ite” endings to “ous”)

Examples:
HBrO3 BrO3- = Bromate Bromate Acid → Bromic Acid

HBrO2 BrO2- = Bromite Bromite Acid → Bromous Acid

Practice Problems
Instructions: Write the formulas from the names of the following acids and vice versa.
1. _____________________ HCl
2. _____________________ HI
3. _____________________ H2SO3
4. _____________________ HNO3
5. Phosphorous Acid _____________________
6. Hydrofluoric Acid _____________________
7. Perchloric Acid _____________________
8. Acetic Acid _____________________

Naming Hydrates
Hydrates are ionic compounds that have a specific number of water molecules attached to them.
Anhydrates are hydrates that have had the water removed (such as through heating). The
number of water is indicated with a coefficient in the formula and a prefix in the name.

Examples of common hydrates

Practice Problems
Instructions: Write the formulas from the names of the following hydrates and vice versa.
1. _____________________ MgBr2 . 2H2O
2. _____________________ CoCl2 . 6H2O
3. _____________________ NaNO3 . 5H2O
4. _____________________ NH4ClO2 . 3H2O
5. potassium sulfide tetrahydrate _____________________
6. lithium hydroxide monohydrate _____________________
7. calcium sulfide octahydrate _____________________
8. barium chloride heptahydrate ____________________
Putting It All Together

Of course, in chemistry class, you will be asked to name and write the formulas of random
compounds. They won’t come pre-categorized like the ones on the previous pages. So let’s come
up with a strategy for how to correctly name or write the formula of a compound when you
haven’t been told what kind it is.

When you come across a random formula, answer the following questions:
Summary of Naming and Writing Formula Rules
2. CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Chemical Reaction – is a process by which a set of substances is transformed through a

chemical change into a new set of substances.

Physical evidences that a reaction occurs:

1. color change
2.
2. formation of a solid (precipitate) within a clear solution
3. evolution of gas
4. evolution or absorption of heat

Chemical equations give a description of a chemical reaction.

1. Reactants → Products
2. Whole number coefficients indicate numbers of each substance participating in the
reaction.
3. Special conditions for the reaction are often written over the arrow. (Δ means heat is
supplied to the reaction.)
4. Physical states of each substance are indicated.

Chemical reactions are classified into four general types

• Combination: Two or more elements or simple compounds combine to form
(synthesize) one product
A + B → AB
MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2

• Decomposition: One substance is broken down (split) into two or more simpler
substances.
AB → A + B
2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2

• Single Replacement: One element takes the place of an element in a reacting

compound.
A + BC → AB + C
Cl2 + 2NaI → 2NaCl + I2

• Double Replacement: Two elements in reactants take the place of each other
 AB + CD → AD + CB
2NaOH + H2SO4 → 2H2O + Na2SO4

• Combustion Reaction is a reaction of a hydrocarbon with oxygen to form carbon

dioxide and water
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

Balancing Chemical Equations

A balanced equation has the same number of each kind of atom on each side of the equation.
Hints:
1. Start with most complex compound.
2. Balance polyatomic ions as a unit.
3. Balance hydrogen and oxygen last.
4. In some cases, use a fraction to balance O, then multiply all coefficients by two to eliminate
the fraction.

Exercise: Balance the following chemical equations and determine the type of reaction.

1. H2 + I2 → HI

2. H2O2 → H2O + O2

3. Al + HBr → AlBr3 + H2

4. Ba(NO3)2 + H2S → BaS + HNO3

5. C4H10 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Exercises: Identify the type of reaction and balance each of the following equations. Write
your final answer on the space provided. (3 pts. each)

a. Al(s) + H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq) + H2(aq)

_______________________________________________________________________

b. Pb(NO3)2 + Na3PO4 → Pb3(PO4)2 + NaNO3

_______________________________________________________________________
c. N2 + Li → Li3N

_______________________________________________________________________
d. KClO3 → KCl + O2

_______________________________________________________________________

3. MASS RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Atomic Mass – the mass of atoms of elements expressed in atomic mass units (amu)

Atomic mass units (amu) are convenient units to use when dealing with extremely small
masses of individual atoms.

1 amu = 1.66054 x 10–24 g and 1 g = 6.02214 x 1023 amu

Carbon-12 was chosen and given a mass value of 12 amu

By definition, the mass of 12C is exactly 12 amu.

1 amu = 1/12 the mass of carbon-12
Mass of all other atoms measured relative to mass of carbon-12

– The mass of carbon on the periodic table is 12.01 amu, NOT 12.00 amu–WHY?!

– Atomic masses reported on the Periodic Table are weighted averages of all naturally
occurring isotopes for each element

Average Atomic Mass/ Atomic Weight – is the average of the isotopic masses, weighed
according to the naturally occurring abundances of the isotopes of an element. (Unit: amu)

Atomic Weight = Σ (fractional abundance x mass of isotope)

Sample Problem:

1. The natural abundances of the three stable isotopes of magnesium are 78.99%
magnesium-24 (23.98 504 amu), 10.00% magnesium-25 (24.9858 amu), and 11.01%
magnesium-26 (25.9829 amu). Calculate the atomic weight of magnesium.

2. The two most abundant naturally occurring isotopes of carbon are carbon-12 (98.90%,
12.000 amu) and carbon-13 (1.10%, 13.003 amu). From these abundances, calculate the
atomic weight of carbon and compare your calculated value with that given in the Periodic
Table.
Formula weight (FW) – is the sum of atomic weights for the atoms shown in the chemical
formula.

Molecular weight (MW) – is the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in a molecule as
shown in the molecular formula. Unit : amu

Example:
Methanol, CH3OH

MW = 1(AW of C) + 4(AW of H) + 1(AW of O)

= 1 (12.01 amu) + 4 (1.01 amu) + 1 (16.00 amu)
= 32.05 amu.

Exercises: Calculate the formula/molecular weight of the following:

a. glucose, C6H12O6 b. urea, (NH2)2CO

c. ibuprofen, C13H18O2 d. carbonic acid, H2CO3

THE MOLE (mol or n)

- is a convenient measure of chemical quantities.
- is the amount of matter that contains as many particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) as
the number of atoms contained in exactly 12 g of 12C.

Avogadros Number (NA) = 6.022 x 1023 entities

that is,
1 mol of C  6.022 x 1023 C atoms
12

1 mol of HC2H3O2  6.022 x 1023 HC2H3O2 molecules

1 mol of OH-  6.022 x 1023 OH- ions
1 mol of MgCl2  6.022 x 1023 MgCl2 formula units

Similar to:
1 ream of paper = 500 sheets of paper
1 mole of paper = 6.022 x 1023 sheets of paper
How many sheets of paper are in 2 reams of paper? _________________
How many sheets of paper are in 2 moles of paper? _________________

The Mole Concept

• 1 mole of molecules has a mass equal to the molecular weight in grams.
• 1 mole H2O is the number of molecules in 18.015 g H2O
• 1 mole H2 is the number of molecules in 2.016 g H2.
• 1 mole of atoms has a mass equal to the atomic weight in grams.
• 1 mole of particles = 6.02214 x 1023 particles (Avogadro's number) for any substance!
• molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance

Examples:
1) Zinc (Zn) is a silvery metal that is used in making brass (with copper) and in plating iron
to prevent corrosion. How many grams of zinc are in 0.356 mole of zinc?

65.38 𝑔 𝑍𝑛
0.356 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛 𝑥 = 23.28 𝑔 𝑍𝑛
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛

‘
2) Sulfur (S) is a nonmetallic element that is present in coal. When coal is burned, sulfur is
converted to sulfur dioxide and eventually to sulfuric acid that gives rise to the acid rain
phenomenon. How many atoms are in 16.3 g of S?

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆 6.022 𝑥 1023

16.3 𝑔 𝑆 𝑥 𝑥 𝑆 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 3.06 𝑥 1023 𝑆 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
32.07 𝑔 𝑆 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆

Molar Mass - the mass in grams of 1 mole of substance.

Unit: g/mol (also written as g·mol-1).

*The mass of 1 mole of 12C = 12 g.

*Molar masses for elements are the same as their atomic weight found on the periodic table.
(1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 is the amount of atoms of any element that has a mass in grams equal
to the mass of ONE atom in amu)
*The molar mass of a compound is the sum of the molar masses of each atom in the
compound; same value as its molecular weight
* The molecular/formula weight is numerically equal to the molar mass.
*The atomic masses reported for each element in the Periodic Table gives the atomic weight
(or molecular/formula weight for compounds) in amu and the molar mass in g/mol.
Example:
One H2O molecule weighs 18.0 amu → 1 mol H2O weighs 18.0 g
One NO3- ion weighs 62.0 amu → 1 mol NO3- weighs 62.0 g
One NaCl unit weighs 58.5 amu → 1 mol NaCl weighs 58.5 g

Exercises: Determine the molar mass of each of the following.

a. SO3 ________ b. (NH4)2CO3 _______

c. AlPO4 ________ d. HClO4 _______

Useful Conversion:
use NA
Grams
use molar mass
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Moles ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → # of Particles
𝑔
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)𝑥 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑚𝑜𝑙) = 𝑔 =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ( ) 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐴 ( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

Example:
1. a. How many molecules are there in 3.10 moles of H2O?
b. How many grams are there in 3.8 moles of H2O?

Solution:
a. # of molecules H2O = mol H2O x NA = (3.10 mol)( 6.022 x 1023 molecules/mol)
= 1.87 x 1024 molecules of H2O

b. mass = mol x MW = (3.8 moles)(18.02g/mol)

= 68 g H2O

2. How many moles of glucose, C6H12O6, are there in (a) 538 g and (b) 1.00 g of this
substance?

Solution:
𝑔
a. 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 = 6(12.01) + 12(1.01) + 6(16) = 180
𝑚𝑜𝑙

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 = 538 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 𝑥 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟗 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔
180 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6
 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6
b. 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 = 1.00 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 𝑥 = 𝟓. 𝟓𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔
180 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6

3. How many glucose molecules are in 5.23 g of C6H12O6?

Solution:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 6.02 𝑥1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 = 5.23𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 𝑥 𝑥
180 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6

= 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔

4. Calculate the mass of 7.9 moles of O.

5. Calculate number of moles of atoms contained in 2.35 g Li?

6. What is the mass of 8.06 ×1023 atoms of hydrogen?

7. Calculate the mass of 0.605 mol HClO4.

8. Calculate the number of molecules in 53.0 g H2O.

9. What is the mass of 6.70 ×1023 molecules of H2O?

10. How many molecules are present in 9.76 moles of HCl?

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

Percent composition is a list of the mass percent of each element in a compound.

To calculate the percent composition (percentage composition) of a compound
• Calculate the molecular mass (molecular weight, formula mass, formula weight) of the
compound
• Calculate the total mass of each element present in the formula of the compound

(# 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑋)(𝐴𝑊 𝑜𝑓 𝑋)
%𝑋 = 𝑥 100
𝐹𝑊 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

Example:
In mammals, lactose or milk sugar is broken down to glucose (C6H12O6), the key nutrient for
generating chemical potential energy. What is the mass percent of each element in glucose?

molecular mass of glucose = (6 x mass of C) + (12 x mass of H) + (6 x mass of O)

= (6 x 12.01 g/mol) + (12 x 1.008 g/mol) + (6 x
16.00 g/mol)
= 180.16 g/mol

72.06 𝑔
%𝐶 = 𝑥 100 = 40.00
180.16 𝑔
 12.096 𝑔
%𝐻 = 𝑥 100 = 6.714
180.16 𝑔

96.00 𝑔
%𝑂 = 𝑥 100 = 53.29
180.16 𝑔

Example:
1. Calculate the percentage composition of each element in (a) CCl3Br and (b) NH3.

Solution:
a. FW = 12.01 + 3(35.45) + 79.90 = 198.26 amu

(1)(12.01)
%𝐶 = 𝑥 100 = 6.058 %
198.26 𝑔

(3)(35.45)
% 𝐶𝑙 = 𝑥 100 = 53.46 %
198.26 𝑔

(1)(79.90)
% 𝐵𝑟 = 𝑥 100 = 40.30 %
198.26 𝑔

b. FW = 14.01 + 3(1.01) = 17.04 amu

(1)(14.01)
%𝑁 = 𝑥 100 = 82.2 %
17.04 𝑔

(3)(1.01)
%𝑁 = 𝑥 100 = 17.8 %
17.04 𝑔

2. What is the percent carbon in glucose, C6H12O6?

3. What is the percentage of O in ethanol, CH3CH2OH?

Empirical and Molecular Formulas

Empirical formula - the formula that gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of
elements in a compound.
Molecular formula - the formula that indicates the actual numbers of each atom in a molecular
compound.

A Molecular Formula shows the actual numbers and types of atoms in a molecule.

An empirical formula shows the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance.

MF : H2O C6H12O6 O3 N2H4

EF : H2O CH2O O NH2

Finding empirical formulas from the element's mass percents:

1. Write the mass percent as a mass (mass percent is just mass per 100 g sample).
2. Convert each mass to moles.
3. Divide each molar amount by the smallest molar amount.
4. Round the mole ratios to the nearest whole number by multiplying each with the smallest
whole number. Use significant figures to guide your choice of whole number. These are the
subscripts in the empirical formula.

Examples:
1) Analysis of an unknown compound shows that the sample contains 0.21 mol of zinc, 0.14
mol of phosphorus, and 0.56 mol of oxygen. Determine its empirical formula.

0.21 0.14 0.56

Zn P O --------------> Zn1.5P1.0O4.0
0.14 0.14 0.14

Zn1.5x2P1.0x2O4.0x2 ----------> Zn3P2O8

2) Elemental analysis of a pure compound isolated from tea leaves gave the following results:
49.48% C, 5.19% H, 28.85% N, 16.48% O. What is the empirical formula of the
compound?
 g element per 100 g moles element per 100 simplified
sample g sample mole ratio ratio
49.48 g C 4.11952 mol C 3.99939 4
5.19 g H 5.1490 mol H 4.9988 5
28.85 g N 2.05973 mol N 1.99966 2
16.48 g O 1.03004 mol O 1 1

The empirical formula is C4H5N2O (caffeine).

3) During physical activity, lactic acid (M=90.08 g/mol) forms in muscle tissue and is
responsible for muscle soreness. Elemental analysis shows that this compound contains
40.0% C, 6.71% H, and 53.3% O.

a) Determine the empirical formula of lactic acid.

b) Determine the molecular formula.

Assuming 100.0 g of lactic acid:

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
mole of 𝐶 = 40.0 𝑔 𝐶 𝑥 12.01 𝑔 𝐶 = 3.33 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻
mole of 𝐻 = 6.71 𝑔 𝐻 𝑥 1.01 𝑔 𝐻 = 6.66 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
mole of 𝑂 = 53.3 𝑔 𝑂 𝑥 16.00 𝑔 𝑂 = 3.33 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂

3.33 6.66 3.33

C H O --------------> C1.00H2.00O1.00 ; the empirical formula is CH2O
3.33 3.33 3.33

The molecular formula is a whole number multiple of the empirical formula.

𝑔 𝑔
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚𝑜𝑙) 90.08𝑚𝑜𝑙
Whole number multiple = 𝑔 = 𝑔 = 3.000 = 3
𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚𝑜𝑙) 30.03𝑚𝑜𝑙

Molecular formula: C(1 x 3)H(2 x 3)O(1 x 3) = C3H6O3

Exercises:
4) A dry-cleaning solvent (M=146.99 g/mol) that contains C, H, and Cl is suspected to be a
cancer-causing agent. When a 0.250-g sample was studied by combustion analysis*,
0.451 g of CO2 and 0.0617 g of H2O formed. Find the molecular formula.
Answer: C6H4Cl2
5) What is the empirical formula of a purified drug sample that is 74.27% C, 7.79% H,
12.99% N, and 4.95% O?

6) What is the empirical formula of an iron oxide that is 70.0% Fe and 30.0% O?

7) What is the molecular formula of a compound that is 5.93% H and 94.07% O, with
molar mass 34.015 g?

8) A 20.882 g sample of a pure compound is found to contain 6.072 g Na, 8.474 g of S and
the rest is O. What is its simplest formula?

9) An alcohol is 64.81 % C, 13.60 % H and 21.59 % O by mass. It has an approximate

molecular weight of 148.28 amu. What is the empirical and molecular formula of the
compound?

Combustion analysis is a method used to measure the amounts of C and H in a

combustible organic compound. The unknown is burned in pure O 2 in an apparatus that
consists of a combustion chamber and chambers containing compounds that absorb either
H2O or CO2. All the H in the compound is converted to H2O which is absorbed in the first
chamber and all the C is converted to CO2, which is absorbed in the second. By weighing the
masses of the chambers before and after combustion, the masses of CO2 and H2O are
determined. These are used to calculate the masses of C and H from which the empirical
formula is determined.

STOICHIOMETRY
- from the Greek word “stoicheion” (element) and “metron” (measure).
- deals with the quantitative relationships between the reactants and products in a balanced
chemical equation.

Information in a Chemical Equation

Generally, a chemical reaction is represented by this equation:

Reactants → Poducts
aA(w) + bB(x) → cC(y) + dD(z)

where:
A, B, C, and D are chemical species;
a, b, c, and d are stoichiometric coefficients;
w, x, y, and z are physical state of the substance in a reaction.
There are two sets of numbers in a chemical equation:
1. Numbers in front of the chemical formulas (called stoichiometric coefficients) and
2. Numbers in the formulas (they appear as subscripts).

Note:
Stoichiometric coefficients give the mole ratio in which the reactants and products exist. The
subscripts give the ratio in which the atoms are found in the molecule.

Illustration:
H2(g) + F2(g) → 2HF(g)

1 molecule 1 molecule 2 molecules

2 atoms H 2 atoms F 2 atoms H & 2 atoms F

1 mol H2 1 mol F2 2 mol HF

USEFUL DIAGRAM

Examples:

1. Given: 2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)

2 molecules 1 molecule 2 molecules
2 moles 1 mole 2 moles
2(6.02 x 1023 molecules) 6.02 x 1023 molecules 2 (6.02 x 1023 molecules)
Stoichiometric equivalence:
2 mol H2 : 1 mol O2 : 2 mol H2O (can be used as conversion factors)

a. How many moles of H2O can be produced from 1.57 mol O2?
Solution:
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂
mole of 𝐻2 𝑂 = 1.57 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 𝑥 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
= 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝟐 𝑶

2. Caustic soda, NaOH, can be prepared commercially by the reaction of Na 2CO3 with slaked
lime, Ca(OH)2. How many grams of NaOH can be obtained by treating 1.000 kg of Na 2CO3
with Ca(OH)2?

Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 → 2 NaOH + CaCO3

(1 mol = 106g) [2mol = 2(40.0g)=80.0g]

Solution:
Factor Label Method: mass of NaOH (unknown) is equated to 1000 g Na 2CO3, and the right
side of the equation is multiplied by successive conversion factors until it has the desired units
of g NaOH.

 1 mol Na2 CO3   2 mol NaOH   40.0 g NaOH 

Mass of NaOH = 1000 g Na2 CO3     = 755 g NaOH
 106.0 g Na2 CO3   1 mol Na2 CO3   mol NaOH 

3. Silicon to be used in computer chips is manufactured by a process represented by the

following reaction:
SiCl4(s) + 2Mg(s) → Si(s) + 2MgCl2(s)

A sample of 225 g of silicon tetrachloride, SiCl 4, is reacted with an excess (more than
necessary) of Mg. How many moles of Si are produced?

4. When urea, (NH2)2CO, is acted on by the enzyme urease in the presence of water, ammonia
and carbon dioxide are produced. Urease, the catalyst, is placed over the reaction arrow.

(NH2)2CO(aq) + H2O(l) → 2NH3(aq) + CO2(g)

If excess water is present (more than necessary for the reaction), how many grams each of
CO2 and NH3 are produced from 0.83 mol of urea?
Chemical Reactions That Involve a Limiting Reactant

limiting reactant – the one that limits the amount of the other reactant that can react, and
thus the amount of product that can form. In mathematical terms, the limiting reactant is
the one that yields the lower amount of product.

Example: A fuel mixture in the early days of rocketry is composed of two liquids, hydrazine
(N2H4) and dinitrogen tetraoxide (N2O4), which ignite on contact to form nitrogen gas and
water vapor. How many grams of nitrogen gas form when 1.00 x 10 2 g of N2H4 and 2.00 x
102 g of N2O4 are mixed?

1. Write the balanced equation:

2 N2H4(l) + N2O4(l) -----> 3 N2(g) + 4 H2O(g)

2. Determine the limiting reactant. Because the amounts of two reactants are given, we
know this is a limiting reactant problem. To determine which reactant is limiting, calculate
the mole of N2 formed from each reactant assuming an excess of the other.*

Find the moles of N2 from the moles of N2H4 (if N2H4 is limiting):
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝐻4 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
Moles of N2 =1.00𝑥102 𝑔 𝑁2 𝐻4 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟖 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑵𝟐
32.05 𝑔 𝑁2 𝐻4 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝐻4

Find the moles of N2 from the moles of N2O4 (if N2O4 is limiting )

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝑂4 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
Moles of N2 =2.00𝑥102 𝑔 𝑁2 𝑂4 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝟔. 𝟓𝟐 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑵𝟐
92.02 𝑔 𝑁2 𝑂4 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝑂4

N2H4 is the limiting reactant because it yields fewer moles of N2.

28.02 𝑔 𝑁2
Mass(g) of N2 =4.68 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝑥 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝒈 𝑵𝟐
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2

*An alternative approach to finding the limiting reactant: Find the mass of each reactant that
would be needed to react with the other reactant. Then see which amount actually given in
the problem is sufficient.

Exercises:
1)How many grams of solid aluminum sulfide can be prepared by the reaction of 10.0 g of
aluminum and 15.0g of sulfur? How much of the nonlimiting reactant is in excess? Ans: 23.4
g Al2S3 ; 1.6 g Al
3) Calculate the maximum number of moles and grams of H2S that can form when 158 g of
aluminum sulfide reacts with 131 g of water:
Al2S3 + H2O -----> Al(OH)3 + H2S (unbalanced)
What mass of the excess reactant remains?

Chemical Reactions In Practice: Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Yields

Up until now, we have assumed that 100% of the limiting reactant becomes product,
that ideal separation and purification methods exist for isolating the product and that we use
perfect lab technique to collect all the product formed. The fact is, the theoretical yield (the
yield calculated by assuming that the reaction goes to completion) is never obtained, for
reasons that are uncontrollable. Although the major reaction predominates, many reaction
mixtures also proceed through one or more side reactions that form smaller amounts of
different products. Many reactions seem to stop before they are complete, which leave some
limiting reactant unused. Even when a reaction goes completely to product, losses occur in
virtually every step of a separation procedure. With careful technique you can minimize losses
but never eliminate them. The amount of product that you actually obtain is the actual yield.
The percent yield is the actual yield expressed as a percentage of the theoretical yield.

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

Example: Silicon carbide (SiC) is an important ceramic material that is made by allowing sand
(silicon dioxide, SiO2) to react with powdered carbon at high temperature. Carbon monoxide
is also formed. When 100.0 kg of sand is processed, 51.4 kg of SiC is recovered. What is the
percent yield of SiC from this process?

SiO2(s) + 3 C(s) -----> SiC(s) + 2 CO(g)

1000 𝑔 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝐶

𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝐶 = 100.0 𝑘𝑔 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = 1664 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝐶
1 𝑘𝑔 60.09 𝑔 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑂2

40.01 𝑔 𝑆𝑖𝐶 1 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)𝑆𝑖𝐶 = 1664 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝐶 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟕𝟑 𝒌𝒈 𝑺𝒊𝑪
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝐶 1000 𝑔

51.4 𝑘𝑔
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝐶 = 𝑥 100 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟎 %
66.73 𝑘𝑔

Exercises:
1) Marble (calcium carbonate) reacts with hydrochloric acid solution to form calcium chloride
solution, water, and carbon dioxide. What is the percent yield of carbon dioxide if 3.65 g
of the gas is collected when 10.0 g of marble reacts?
Answer: 83.0%

2) When 56.6 g of calcium and 30.5 g of nitrogen gas undergo a reaction that has a 93.0%
yield, what mass of calcium nitride forms?

3) Calculate each of the following quantities. Show your solution.

a. mass in grams of 3.0 mol CaSO4

b. moles of compound in 89.0 g of Ba(ClO4)2

c. number of N atoms in 3.20 g of Ca(NO3)2

d. moles of H atoms in 1.0 mole glucose, C6H12O6

4. Calculate each of the following.

a. mass % of Cu and N in Cu(NO3)2

 Ans. ______________ % Cu Ans. ______________ % N

b. mass % of C and O in CH3CH2OH

Ans. ______________ % C Ans. ______________ % O

5. In the industrial synthesis of acetic acid, methanol is reacted with carbon monoxide. How
many moles of CO are required to produce 16.6 mol of acetic acid?
CH3OH(g) + CO(g) → CH3COOH(l)

6. Ethanol is produced industrially by the reaction of ethylene with water in the presence of
an acid catalyst. How many grams of ethanol are produced from 7.24 mol of ethylene?
Assume that excess water is present.
C2H4(g) + H2O(l) → C2H6O(l)

7. Ammonia (NH3) is produced on an industrial scale by the reaction of nitrogen gas with
hydrogen gas (the Haber process) according to this balanced equation:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
How many grams of N2 are necessary to produce 7.50 g of NH3?