lOMoARcPSD|21902709

Contemporary
Philippine Arts
from the Regions
Module

NOTE: Please use a separate sheet of paper for your answers (YELLOW PAD
PAPER). For essay questions, copy the questions and for multiple choice
activities, just write the letter of the correct answer. Compile your answers
using a LONG WHITE FOLDER.
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LESSON 1: DIFFERENT PERIODS OF CONTEMPORARY

ARTS

What’s New

Activity 1: Make an interpretive statement about the contemporary art work.

1. What do you think is the art form of

the given art work?
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
______________________________.
2. What is your initial reaction to this art
work?
_____________________________________
___________________________________

Sabel (2004) || Cabrera, Benedicto (BenCab) https://www.mutualart.com

What is It

To understand contemporary art forms, you need to revisit the Philippine Art
aesthetic timeline from most primal to its contemporary form.
Below are the highlights of the History of Philippine Arts:
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Philippine Art Timeline Highlights

PRE COLONIAL ART PERIOD Old Stone Age (Paleolithic)
(6185BC – 1520 AD) Espinosa Ranch Site, Cagayan 16000-
8000 BC
The proof of earliest man’s presence was recovered
Old Stone Age (Paleolithic) from a ranch site in Cagayan Province-two flake
Age of Horticulture/ tools dated about 9 million years, the oldest man-
Neolithic Period made object associated with the fossils of a
Metal Age proboscidean, a prehistoric elephant.
Iron Age
Other flake tools are recovered in Tabon Caves,
Flake Palawan and some stone tools in Bolobok Cave,
Tools Sanga-Sanga in Tawi-Tawi.
https://

www.nationalmus
eum.gov.ph

Shell Bracelets and Pendants (Neolithic)

Shell Bracelets and Pendants
(Neolithic)
https://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph
Cagayan, Palawan, and Sorsogon 4854 BC Shells
were fashioned into tools, as well as ornaments.
The oldest known ornaments made from cone
shells were found in the early 1960’s in the grave
of an adult male in Duyong Cave in Palawan. A
shell disk with a hole in the center was found next
to his right ear and a disk with a hole by the edge
was found on his chest. The shell ornaments were
dated 4854 B.C.

Agono Petroglyphs are oldest known work of art

in the Philippines located in the province of Rizal.
Agono Petroglyphs There are 127 human and animal figures engraved
https://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph on the rockwall probably carved during the late
Neolithic (3000 BC).
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Lingling-o (2000 BC – 1000 AD) Duyong Cave,

Lingling-o
Palawan, a kind of ear pendant fashioned from
https://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph
green nephrite (jade) is the characteristic trait of
the Early Metal Age. One of the finest jade
ornaments found to date is the double- headed
pendant recovered from Duyong Cave, Palawan. It
is an example of the superb craftsmanship of
ancient carving in jade.

Manunggul Jar Burial jar excavated from a

Neolithic burial site in Manunggul cave of Tabon
Cave at Lipuun Point at Palawan dating from 890–
710 B.C.

Maitum Jar (Metal Age: 190 BC to 500

AD)
In 1991, the National Museum archaeological team
discovered anthropomorphic secondary burial jars
in Ayub Cave, Barangay Pinol, Maitum, Sarangani
Province, Mindanao, Philippines.

Maitum Jar Surigao gold objects’ date stamp could be placed in

https://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph the span of the 10th to the 13th centuries, A.D.,
pre-Hispanic era.

 Pre-colonial traditional art has religious symbols, every day activity such as
fishing, farming, etc., or a specific decorative art pattern to the community.
• It has either the influence of local religion (animistic) or Islamic based.
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 There is also an exchange of art aesthetics and art processes with Chinese
and other Asian countries who frequent as traders with our indigenous
groups.

 Baybayin is a Tagalog ancient script also known in Visayan as badlit. It is

derived from Brahmic scripts of India and first recorded in the 16th century.
It continued to be used during the Spanish colonization of the Philippines up
until the late 19th century.

Other pre-colonial art

1. Weaving
Handloom weaving is the typical process for creating gorgeous and vivid
textiles in the Philippines. The
traditional weaving loom is made of
bamboo and strings. Observing them at
work is fascinating as they produce
beautiful fabrics.

1.Textile weaving
Pis siyabit
(Tausug of
Sulu)- a
headpiece
woven made of cotton, silk, or thread.
Malong- (Maranao of Lanao del Sur)- a
handwoven using backstrap loom. It has simple
stripes as the preferred pattern. It is used as a
garment of both men and women.
Mat and Basket weaving

 Tepo mat (Sama of Tawi-tawi)- a colorful layered made of pandan leaves.

 Ovoloid basket (It Bayat, Batanes)- a head sling made of nito or bamboo used
to carry the harvests.
 Bubo (Ilocos Region)- a sturdy bamboo strip used to trap the fish.
2. Ornamentation – wearing of gold jewelry (Upper class Tagalog) symbolizing
the power and markers of elite status.

3. Tatooing
A tattoo is a form of body modification made by inserting tattoo ink, dyes,
and/or pigments, either indelible or
temporary, into the dermis layer of the skin
to form a design. Maria Oggay known as Apo
Whang-od is a tattoo artist from the village
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of Buscalan Tinglayan, Kalinga, also considered the last mambabatok (hand-

up tattoo artist of their generation).

UNCHANGED ART DESIGN

The Okir (motif) is an artistic cultural heritage of the Maranaos of Lanao,

Philippines. It is an artistic design of the Maranao native
inhabitants of southern Philippines beginning from the
early 6th Century C.E. before the Islamization of the area.
Okir is a design or pattern often rendered or curved in
hardwood, brass, silver and wall painting in curvilinear
lines and Arabic geometric figures.

PATTERNS OF OKIR
In the book of Dr. Nagasura Madale, it explains that the
Okir has patterns which are used by the Maranao artists.
1. Matilak (circle) 2. Poyok (bud) 3. Dapal
(leaf) 4. Pako (fern or spiral form) 5. Todi (fern leaf with spiral at
upper edge) 6. Pako lungat (fern leaf with a cut at one edge) Another elements found by Dr.
Madale are: Naga, obid-obid binotoon, kianoko, pakonai and tialitali.

COMMON THEME OF THE OKIR

• Torogan known as the flower symbol of the
ancestral home of the highest title holder in a
Maranao village. The prominent part is
panolong, carved beam that protrudes in the
front of the house. It symbolizes power and
prestige. • Nāga or serpent
• Sarimanok, a chicken-like figure that carries a
fish in its beak.

TRY ME!
Answer the following questions.
 lOMoARcPSD|21902709

1. Why is it important to preserve one’s culture, history, and literature?

2. What were the Philippine art during the pre-colonial period?

SPANISH COLONIAL ART

PERIOD Introduced formal Painting, Sculpture and
Architecture which was inspired by the
Byzantine, Gothic, Baroque and Rococo art styles.
• Most artworks are Religious (Catholic)
based
• Artworks bear the Philippine themed décor
even with Spanish influence.

Byzantine Painting Style:

Attributed to Maître à la Ratière, Battle of
Marignano, 1515
Byzantine frescoes 11th–12th-century Church of
Panayia Phorviotissa Cyprus.

(1521-1898)
Byzantine frescoes
https://www.robertharding.com/index.php?lang=en&pa
ge=search&s=byzantine+church&mode=0&zoom=1displa
y=5&sortby=0&bgcolour=white

Langit, Lupa at Impierno Josef Luciano

Dans ca. 1850
Byzantine art refers to artistic products of the
Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, as well as the
nations and states that inherited culturally from
the empire. These are more Christian based art.

Langit, Lupa at Impierno Josef

Luciano https://uninspiredbudha.wordpress.com/2012
/03/14/lenten-pilgrimage/dscf0098
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Baroque Aesthetics: Cathedral Church of Saint

Mary in Murcia, Spain
Filipino interpretation: Miagao Church also
known as the Sto. Tomas de Villanueva Parish
Church Miagao, Iloilo, Philippines The Baroque is
often thought of as a period of artistic style that
used exaggerated motion and clear easily
interpreted detail to produce drama, tension,
exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting,
architecture, literature, dance, theater, and
music.
Cathedral Church of Saint Mary in Murcia,
Spain

Rococo Art originated in early 18th century

Paris, is characterized by whimsical, curvy lines
and elaborately decorative style of art, whose
name derives from the French word 'rocaille'
Rococo Art meaning, rock-work after the forms of sea shells.
https://artandcrafter.com/movements
/taditional/rococo
movement/rococo/amp/

Gothic Art is the style of art produced in

Northern Europe from the Middle Ages up until
the beginning of the Renaissance. Typically rooted
in religious devotion. It is especially known for
the distinctive arched design of its churches, its
stained glass, and its illuminated manuscripts.

Gothic Architecture St. Stephen Cathedral

in Vienna,
Austria https://www.nomadepicureans.com
/architectural-guides/gothic-
architectureeurope/

Uprising of the Philippine Artist

In the formation of the elite Filipino class, the
Ilustrado paved way for the rich locals to study
abroad. In that case, a more “academic” and
“western” approach has been learned.
• The Filipino Classicism is formed that borrows
the Neoclassicism, Romanticism and even a hint
of Impressionism
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Father of Filipino Painting:

DAMIAN
DOMINGO
First Filipino to paint his face, the first Self-
Portrait in the Philippines
• Founder of the Academia de Dibujo y Pintura,
the first school of drawing in the
Philippines (1821)
• One of the known artists of the decorative art
illustrations tipos del pais watercolor paintings
that depict local costumes. It also became an
album of different native costumes.

Juan Luna y Novicio was a Filipino painter,

sculptor and a political activist of the Philippine
Revolution during the late 19th century.
• His Spoliarium won the gold medal in the 1884
Madrid Exposition of Fine Arts

Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo

One of the greatest Filipino painters along with
fellow painter Juan Luna in the 19th century
Juan Luna & Felix Hidalgo
http://topicalphilippines.com/People_Individ
• His work has a touch of Romanticism and
uals/Hidalgo_Felix.html aesthetics of the Neoclassicism
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Two Filipino Art Style developed during the

Spanish Era
• Miniaturismo art style that pays
attention to the embroidery and texture of
the costume.
• Letras y Figuras art style that fuses
Spoliarium
https://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph letters with figures in every day activity
amidst a common background. Usually
used in painting a patron’s full name.

Miniaturismo art style

https://takdangaralin-
blog.tumblr.com/Filipinoartists

Letras y Figuras art style

https://www.flickr.com/photos/14117283@N03/5 511622926

AMERICAN COLONIAL
ART PERIOD
(1898-1946)
The White House-
Neoclassicism https://amp.theguardian.co
m/world/2019/sep/12/israel-planted-
spying-devices-near-white-house-
says-report
Manila City Hall-
Neoclassicism https://www.pinterest.ph/pi
n/218495019391965496
Chrysler Building- Art Deco
https://chryslerbuidling.com
lOMoARcPSD|21902709
The American brought in Education and
Values Formation, with both following the
“American way of life” (Alice Guillermo,
Sining Biswal, 1994, p. 4)
• Art Illustration, Advertising and
Commercial Design gained popularity and incorporated
in Fine Arts.
• Painting themes still largely favored
Genre Paintings, Landscapes and Still Life. Portraits
are reserved for high ranking officials with a more
academic approach to make the subject more formal.
Popular Art Style during the Philippine
American Colonial Period
Neoclassicism in Architecture: The White House
Neoclassicism in Philippine Architecture:
Manila City Hall
Art Deco in Architecture Chrysler Building
Art Deco in Philippine Architecture
Metropolitan Theater
Art Nouveau in Architecture Old England building
built in Art Nouveau style. Musée des instruments de
musique – Bruxelles Art Nouveau in Philippine
Architecture UyChaco Building
ART NOUVEAU a style of decorative art, architecture,
and design prominent in western Europe and the US
from about 1890 until World War I and characterized
by intricate linear designs and flowing curves based on
natural forms.
It is also called style moderne, a movement in the
decorative arts and architecture that originated in the
1920s and developed into a major style in western
Europe and the United States during the 1930s. It is
characterized by simple, clean shapes, often with a
“streamlined” look ornament
that is geometric or stylized from representational
forms; and unusually varied, often expensive
materials.
 lOMoARcPSD|21902709

Metropolitan theater- Art Deco

https://www.skyscraprcity.com

NOTABLE ARTIST: FABIAN DELA ROSA

• The brightest name in
Philippine painting
after Luna and
certainly the
leading Master of
Genre in the first
quarter of the
Bruxelles-Art Nouveau http://buttes- century.
chaumont.blogspot.com/2011/05/oldengland.html?m=1 • His nephews
are artists as well,
Pablo
and Fernando

https://kahimyang.com/kauswagan/articles/1114/ today-
in-philippine-history-may-5-1869-fabiancueto-de-la-rosa-
Art Nouveau- Uy-Chaco Building was-born-in-paco-manila
https://www.spot.ph/things-to-do/thelatest-
 lOMoARcPSD|21902709

things-to-do/65587/neighborhoodguide- NOTABLE ARTIST: FERNANDO

escolta-a12520160318-lfrm AMORSOLO
• A portraitist and painter of rural
landscapes. He is best known for his
craftsmanship and mastery in the use of
light.
• His art styles:
Impressionism,
Luminism, Realism with
subjects inspired by
Philippine genre and
historical, nudes and
society portraits
• First awardee of
the
National Artist Award in 1972

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fer
nando_Amorsolo

NOTABLE ARTIST: GUILLERMO

TOLENTINO
• Won The National Artist Awards for
Sculpture in 1973
• He is consider as the "Father of
Philippine Arts" because of his great works like
the famous "Bonifacio
Monument" symbolizing Filipinos cry for freedom
Guillermo Tolentino and "The Oblation" in UP signifying academic
https://www.flickr.com/photos/nccaofficial/ freedom.
18504556539

EMERGENCE OF PHILIPPINE PRE- MODEN ART:

TRIUMVIRATE OF
PHILIPPINE MODERN ART
Victorio Edades • Carlos “Botong” Francisco • Galo
B. Ocampo
Introduced the Modern Art styles such as pop art,
maximalism, minimalism, abstraction,
expressionism, constructivism, magic realism,
and environmental art before the World War II
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THE LEGEND OF THE 13 MODERN ART

Victorio Edades, Carlos Francisco Galo B.
Ocampo, Hernando R. Ocampo, Cesar
Legaspi, Diosdado Lorenzo, Vicente
Manansala Anita, Magsaysay-Ho Demetrio,
Diego Ricarte, Purugunan Bonifacio,
Cristobal Arsenio Capili
The study of determining what is
Philippine Contemporary Art Period is still being
determined since it has been used loosely even
during the American Colonial Period. However,
some Philippine art historians/critics have always
been a follower of the Western Art Style and its
trends at that point and thus, suggested that this
was actually the point where Philippine Modern
Art Period started but went only full swing only
after the war.
This is set by the creation of the Art Association
of the Philippines (AAP) that in a way has a
strong leaning with the Modernist than the
Conservatives (the traditional art also termed as
the Amorsolo School).

Philippine Post Modern Art (1970 – 1980s)

POST COLONIAL PERIOD The support of the Philippine Government for the
(1946-1986) arts via the creation of the Cultural Center of
PHILIPPINE MODERN ART the Philippines during 1969 gave a venue for all
(1946-1970) artists to experiment and explore different art
medium tying closely to the Post Modern
Art Period of the West with Pop Art, Installation
Art, Performance Art, dominating the scene. In
contrast, social realism became a heavy theme by
most Filipino Artist as a social commentary of the
problem brewing in the Philippine political and
social landscape.

Cultural Center of the Philippines

https://medium.com/@jealsydecr/cultural-center-
ofthe-philippines-53004aeab564
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Philippine Contemporary Art (1980s to

Present)
It was on the on-set of the sudden rise of personal computers and new technology created a
new art medium for the arts and human expression. But there were also countless revivals
of old styles being done. This started a new direction for the arts thus, setting the name
momentarily, the Philippine Contemporary Period.

Modern art is characterized by the artist's intent to portray a subject as it exists in the
world, according to his or her unique perspective and is typified by a rejection of accepted
or traditional styles and values.

Postmodern art is a body of art movements that sought to contradict some aspects of
modernism or some aspects that emerged or developed in its aftermath. In general,
movements such as intermedia, installation art, conceptual art and multimedia, particularly
involving video are described as postmodern.

Contemporary art as the work of artists who are living in the 21st century.
• Contemporary art mirrors contemporary culture and society, offering the general
audience a rich resource through which to consider current ideas and rethink the familiar.
The work of contemporary artists is a dynamic combination of materials, methods,
concepts, and subjects that challenges traditional boundaries and defies easy definition.
• Diverse and eclectic, contemporary art is distinguished by the very lack of a uniform
organizing principle, ideology, or ism. " In a globally influenced, culturally diverse, and
technologically advancing world, contemporary artists give voice to the varied and changing
cultural landscape of identity, values, and beliefs.
• Contemporary audiences play an active role in the process of constructing meaning
about works of art. Some artists often say that the viewer contributes to or even completes
the artwork by contributing his or her personal reflections, experiences and opinions.
 lOMoARcPSD|21902709

CONTEMPORARY ART’S CHARACTERISTICS

ALTERMODERNISM Altermodernism is an attempt at contextualizing

art made in today's global context as a reaction
against standardization and commercialism.
• Artists are looking for a new modernity that
would be based on translation. Today,
the translation of cultural values of cultural
groups and the connection of those values to the
world network are very essential. This “reloading
process” of modernism according to the twenty-
firstcentury issues could be called
altermodernism, a movement connected to the
https://www.metamute.org/editorial/article
creolisation of cultures and the fight for
s/altermodern-movement-or-marketing
autonomy, but also the possibility of producing
singularities in a more and more standardized
world.
• Altermodern can essentially be read as an
artist working in a hypermodern world or with
“supermodern” ideas or themes.

The title of the Tate Britain's fourth

Triennial exhibition last 2009 curated by
Nicolas Bourriaud
The Tate exhibition includes a series of four one-
day events (called "Prologues"), aiming to
"introduce and provoke debate" around the
Triennial’s themes. Each Prologue includes
T lectures, performances, film and a manifesto text
The end of postmodernism and attempts to define what the curator sees as
https://aetheticmagazine.com/the-end- the four main facets of Altermodern
ofpostmodernism 1. The end of postmodernism
2. Cultural hybridisation
3. Travelling as a new way to produce
forms [clarification needed]
4. The expanding formats of arts

CONTEMPORARY ART FORMS CLASSIFICATION:

1. Visual Arts
• Forms perceived by the eyes.
• Known as spatial arts because it is an art form that occupy space.
• Includes: Painting, Sculpture and Architecture
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A. Graphic Arts
 Visual art forms with length and width known as two-
dimensional arts (2D Art)
 Flat art can be seen on flat surface example: billboards and
advertisement in magazine and print ads (commercial arts),
painting, printing, drawing, sketching, mechanical processes,
computer graphics and photography.

B. Plastic Arts
 Visual arts with length, width and volume known as three-
dimensional arts (3D Art)
Example: Sculpture, Architecture, Landscape Architecture,
City Planning Design, Set Design, Theater Design, Industrial
Design, Crafts and Allied Arts.

2. Audio-Visual Arts
• Art forms perceived by both ears (audio) and eyes (video)
• Known as performing arts
• Examples: Music (vocal, instrumental and mixed), Dance
(ethnological, social and theatrical), Drama (tragedy, comedy,
tragicomedy, farce, melodrama, etc.)

3. Literary Arts
• Art forms that are presented in the written mode and intended to
be read
• Example: prose (short stories, novels, essays and plays) and
poetry(narrative poem, lyric poems and dramatic poems)

TRY ME!

Activity 1. Answer the discussion questions.

1. How can you infer the birth of various contemporary art forms in our country?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2.How can you advocate our various contemporary art forms from different
regions?
__________________________________________________________________________________
 lOMoARcPSD|21902709

__________________________________________________________________________________
3.How will you show appreciation to the various contemporary art forms in our
country?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

What I Have Learned

Direction: Answer the following questions.

1. What contemporary art form classification is the most prevalent art form in our
country and why?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the importance of the contemporary art form classification in today’s
society?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

3. What are the advantages in learning the different art forms in the Philippines?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Summary of the Lesson: Various Contemporary Art Forms
I. Philippine Art Time Line
PRE COLONIAL ART PERIOD
(6185BC – 1520 AD)
• Old Stone Age (Paleolithic)
• Age of Horticulture/ Neolithic Period
• Metal Age
• Iron Age
Other Pre Colonial Art
• Pottery
• Weaving
 lOMoARcPSD|21902709

• Tattoo
• Jewelry
• Carving
• Metal Crafts
Unchanged Art Design
• Okir

SPANISH COLONIAL ART PERIOD

(1521-1898)
• Byzantine Painting Style
• Baroque Aesthetics
• Rococo Art
• Gothic Art
Uprising of the Philippine Artist
• Father of Filipino Painting: DAMIAN DOMINGO
• Juan Luna y Novicio
• Felix Resurrecction Hidalgo
• Two Filipino Art Style developed during the Spanish Era
• Miniaturismo art style
• Letras y Figuras art style
AMERICAN COLONIAL ART PERIOD
(1898-1946)
Popular Art Style
• Neoclassicism in Architecture
• Art Deco in Architecture
• Art Nouveau
NOTABLE ARTIST
• FABIAN DELA ROSA
• FERNANDO AMORSOLO
• GUILLERMO TOLENTINO
EMERGENCE OF PHILIPPINE PRE- MODEN ART: TRIUMVIRATE OF PHILIPPINE
MODERN ART :Victorio Edades • Carlos “Botong” Francisco • Galo B. Ocampo
THE LEGEND OF THE 13 MODERN ART POST
COLONIAL PERIOD
(1946-1986)
PHILIPPINE MODERN ART
(1946-1970)
Philippine Contemporary Art (1980s to Present)
Modern art
Postmodern art
CONTEMPORARY ART’S CHARACTERISTICS
• Altermodernism
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What I Can Do

Activity 1. Let us reflect.

Draw a symbol that signifies your feelings after discovering the Philippine Art
History and the different contemporary art forms. Write 5 to 10 sentences on how
you value this new knowledge based on the symbol that you draw. Use a LONG
bond paper.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Assessment

Direction: Multiple Choice: Write the letter (in Capital) of the best
answer on the space provided before the number.

_____1. It is known as a contemporary art form that are presented in written mode
and intended to be read.
A. Audio-Visual Arts B. Plastic Arts C. Literary Arts D. Visual Arts
_____2. What is the common theme for Okir which is known as the flower symbol of
the ancestral home of the highest title holder in a Maranao village?
A. Torogan B. Naga C. Pako D. Sarimanok
____3. Which of the following is the BEST example of graphic arts?
A. Poem B. Photograph C. 3D Art D. Farce
____4. Which of the following is the known as the pre colonial art?
A. Handicraft B.Ceramics C. Clay D.Tattoo
____5. Which of the following is the best characteristic of plastic arts?
A. Length B. Width C. Volume D. Art
____6. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the pre-colonial art form?
A. Religious symbols B. Animistic C. Baroque D. Trader’s influences
____7. During the neolithic era, shells were fashioned into tools as well as
ornaments. The oldest known ornaments made from cone shell were found
in 1960 in the grave of an adult male in a cave. Where do these ornaments
can be found?
A. Palawan B. Cagayan C. Sgagada D. Zambales ____
8. It is known as an attempt at contextualizing art made in today’s global context as
a reaction against standardization and commercialism.
A. Altermodernism B. Neorealism C. Postmodernism D. Contemporary

___9. Which of the following is NOT a popular art style during the Philippine
Colonial American period?
A.Manila City Hall C. National Museum
B. Cultural Center of the Philippines D. Metropolitan Theater

___10. Who is known as the father of the Filipino painting? He is also the first
Filipino to paint his face, the first self-portrait in the Philippines.
 lOMoARcPSD|21902709

A. Juan Luna B. Felix Hidalgo C. Jose Rizal D. Damian Domingo