What is Urbanisation?

Sustainable Urban Living Traffic Management

This is an increase in the amount of people living in urban areas such Sustainable urban living means being able to live in cities in ways that do Urban areas are busy places with many people travelling by different
as towns or cities. In 2007, the UN announced that for the first time, not pollute the environment and using resources in ways that ensure modes of transport. This has caused urban areas to experience different
more than 50 % of the world’s population live in urban areas. future generations also can use then. traffic congestion that can lead to various problems.

Where is Urbanisation Water Conservation Energy Conservation Environmental problems

happening?
Urbanisation is happening
all over the word but in
LICs and NEEs rates are
much faster than HICs. This
is mostly because of the
rapid economic growth
they are experiencing.
Causes of Urbanisation
The movement of people from rural to
Rural - urban migration (1)
Push
• Natural disasters
• War and Conflict
• Mechanisation
• Drought
• Lack of employment
This is about reducing the amount
of water used.
• Collecting rainwater for
gardens and flushing toilets.
• Installing water meters and
toilets that flush less water.
• Educating people on using less
water.
Creating Green Space
Creating green spaces in urban
areas can improve places for
urban areas.
people who want to live there.
Pull • Provide natural cooler areas for
people to relax in.
• More Jobs • Encourages people to exercise.
• Better education & • Reduces the risk of flooding
healthcare from surface runoff.
• Increased quality of life.
• Following family members.
Unit 2a GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT
Using less fossil fuels can reduce
the rate of climate change.
• Promoting renewable energy
sources.
• Making homes more energy
efficient.
• Encouraging people to use
energy.
Waste Recycling
More recycling means fewer
resources are used. Less waste
reduces the amount that
eventually goes to landfill.
• Collection of household waste.
• More local recycling facilities.
• Greater awareness of the
benefits in recycling.
• Traffic increases air pollution
which releases greenhouse
gases that is leading to climate
change.
Economic problems Social Problems
• Congestion can make people • There is a greater risk of
late for work and business accidents and congestion is a
deliveries take longer. This can cause of frustration. Traffic can
cause companies to loose also lead to health issues for
money. pedestrians.
Congestion Solutions
• Widen roads
• Build ring roads and bypasses
to keep through traffic out of
city centres.
• Introduce park and ride
•

•
Encourage car-sharing schemes
Have public transport, cycle
When the birth rate exceeds the death lanes & cycle hire schemes.
Natural Increase (2)

Increase in birth rate (BR)

rate.

Lower death rate (DR)

• High percentage of
• Higher life expectancy due to
population are child-bearing
better living conditions and
age which leads to high
diet.
fertility rate.
• Improved medical facilities
• Lack of contraception or
helps lower infant mortality
education about family
rate.
planning.
Types of Cities
Megacity An urban area with over 10 million people living there.
More than two thirds
of current megacities
are located in either
NEEs (Brazil) and LICs
(Nigeria). The
amount of megacities
are predicted to
increase from 28 to
41 by 2030.
Urban Issues & Challenges • Having congestion charges
discourages drivers from
entering the busy city centres.
Sustainable Urban Living Example: Curitiba
Traffic Management Example: Leeds
Background & Location Sustainable Strategies
• Guided bus routes on A64 Crossgates to city centre
Capital of Parana State in south • Transport – speedy eco-buses • Modern, cleaner bendy buses in city centre
east Brazil. Suffered expected (4000 passengers per bus per • New Park & Ride at Elland Road (1 of 7 around Ring Road)
problems from rapid urban growth: day) • Car Share Priority Lanes on Ring Road in East Leeds
unemployment, congestion, lack of • Parks – 28 parks/open spaces • Free bus pass for people in Harehills (poverty)
services, favelas. • Housing – site & service (like • Priority parking for electric cars
Rio) • Congestion Charge proposed for city
• Waste – 2/3 recycled • Pedestrian zones in centre
• Economy – CIC built – 50,000 • 20mph zones around schools/residential areas
jobs, 150,000 indirect jobs • Urban Traffic Control (UTC) – up-to-date traffic info
• Bus only lanes through Headingley (student area) into city and
Greenbelt Universities
• Clean Air Zone for Leeds approved
This is a zone of land surrounding a city where new building is strictly
controlled to try to prevent cities growing too much and too fast.
Brownfield Site
Brownfield sites is an area of land or premises that has been previously
used, but has subsequently become vacant, derelict or contaminated.
 Urban Change in a Major UK City: Leeds Case Study Urban Change in a Major NEE City: Rio de Janeiro Case Study
Location and Background City’s Importance Location and Background City’s Importance
Leeds is in West It grew because of • The regional centre for West Yorkshire Rio is a coastal city • Has the second largest GDP in Brazil It is
Yorkshire in northern the textile trade, • 2nd biggest financial city after London situated in the South headquarters to many of Brazil’s main
England. The pasture land & soft • Change from manufacturing to East region of Brazil companies, particularly with Oil and Gas.
population is 720,000 water and the finance/commerce within the continent • Sugar Loaf mountain is one of the seven
making it the 3rd navigable River Aire • Strategic position on M62 (Liverpool/Hull), of South America. It is wonders of the world.
largest in the UK. It to Goole/Hull (ports). A1 (Edinburgh/London), rail links, LBA the second most • One of the most visited places in the
grew during the 18th It’s a bridging point • 3 universities – Uni of Leeds over 20,000 populated city in the Southern Hemisphere.
Century Industrial for the River Aire. students including overseas country (6.5 million) • Hosted the 2014 World Cup and 2016
Revolution. Nearby coal fields. • Sport – YCCC, ECB, Leeds Rhinos, Leeds after Sao Paulo. Summer Olympics.
United
Migration to Rio De Janeiro City’s Opportunities
Migration to Leeds City’s Opportunities
The city began when Portuguese settlers with Social: Standards of living are gradually
Net migration – 3,400 (expected to fall to 2,500 Social: Vibrant nightclub/bar scene due to slaves arrived in 1502. Since then, Rio has improving. The Rio Carnival is an important
due to Brexit). 2,600 short-term migrants. large student population. Sport: Leeds Rhinos, become home to various ethnic groups. cultural event for traditional dancing and music.
YCCC, Leeds United, England RL, ECB.
Reasons for migrating to Leeds: Headingley Stadium undergoing major However, more recently, millions of people Economic: Rio has one of the highest incomes
Work – 9,520 new migrants for work (1,900 redevelopment to continue getting have migrated from rural areas that have per person in the country. The city has various
from Romania, 1,100 from Poland, 5,500 from international cricket and rugby league in the suffered from drought, lack of services and types of employment including oil, retail and
Spain/India/Italy) city. Tetley Wharf / Bodington Manor – new unemployment to Rio. People do this to search manufacturing.
housing developments for a better quality of life.
Study – 8,460 international students in 2016. Environmental: The hosting of the major
Over 75% from outside EU Economic: German Markets in Millennium This expanding population has resulted in the sporting events encouraged more investment in
Square. Leeds Arena now brings in music/sport rapid urbanisation of Rio de Janeiro. sewage works and public transport systems.
Protection – 744 asylum seekers, 45 events. West Yorkshire Playhouse attracts
unaccompanied asylum seeking children, 63 plays. Major development of city’s shopping City Challenges Self-help schemes - Rocinha, Bairro Project
resettled Syrian refugees attractions to attract big companies.
Social: There is a severe shortage of housing,
City Challenges Leeds Regeneration Projects schools and healthcare centres available. Large • The authorities have provided basic
scale social inequality, is creating tensions materials to improve peoples homes with
Life Expectancy: Trinity Centre/Victoria Centre: city centre between the rich and poor. safe electricity and sewage pipes.
Wike: 86.8 years, Harehills: 77.8 years locations with primary use for retail. Trinity • Government has demolished houses and
Education (no qualifications): based around Topshop, Victoria around John Economic: The rise of informal jobs with low created new estates.
Wike: 22%, Harehills: 45% Lewis. Lots of retail moved to these centres for pay and no tax contributions. There is high • Community policing has been established,
Unemployment: prime location. Bars/casinos/restaurants also employment in shanty towns called Favelas along with a tougher stance on gangs with
Wike: 1.5%, Harehills: 9.5% opened in them. military backed police.
Carless Households: Environmental: Shanty towns called Favelas are • Greater investment in new road and rail
Wike: 15%, Harehills: 51% Leeds Dock: main project – Royal Armouries established around the city, typically on network to reduce pollution and increase
Average House Price: museum to bring in tourists. Dock area tidied unfavourable land, such as hills. connections between rich and poor areas.
Wike: £335,000, Harehills: £76,000 up, boat trips, boat bars. Gyms/office
House Sales: space/residential areas all opened. Restaurants
Wike: 582, Harehills: 1 closed. Dock extremely quiet during the day. Sky
Households in Deprivation (at least 1 category): has opened offices. Improved lighting and CCTV
Wike: 17%, Harehills: 91% to increase safety of the area.
National Deprivation Ranking (wards out of
32,844):
Wike: 32,653, Harehills: 310
 The structure of the Earth Responses to Earthquakes: Nepal - LIC Responses to Earthquakes: Chile - HIC Managing Volcanic Eruptions

Varies in thickness (5-10km) beneath Immediate Responses Long-term Immediate Long-term Warning signs Monitoring techniques
The Crust the ocean. Made up of several large • Search/rescue • Lakes emptied • Quick action • 200,000 Small earthquakes are caused as Seismometers are used to detect
plates. teams from UK, to prevent from emergency houses magma rises up. earthquakes.
India & China sent flooding services reconstructe Thermal imaging and satellite
Widest layer (2900km thick). The heat • Helicopters to Mt • 7000 schools • Repairs in 24hrs d Temperatures around the volcano
cameras can be used to detect heat
and pressure means the rock is in a Everest to rescue rebuilt for Route 5 so aid • Copper rise as activity increases.
around a volcano.
The Mantle
liquid state that is in a state of people • Repairs to could get to exports Gas samples may be taken and
convection. • 1/2m tents Everest Base Santiago meant When a volcano is close to erupting
chemical sensors used to measure
• Aid from many Camp for • Power/water economy it starts to release gases.
sulphur levels.
Hottest section (5000 degrees). Mostly countries tourism restored to 90% recovered
The Inner Preparation
made of iron and nickel and is 4x • 300,000 migrated • Stricter controls in 10 days without aid
and outer
denser than the crust. Inner section is from Kathmandu on building regs • US$60m raised in Creating an exclusion zone around Being ready and able to evacuate
Core
solid whereas outer layer is liquid. appeal the volcano. residents.
Having an emergency supply of Trained emergency services and a
Convection Currents LIC -CS: Haiti 2010 basic provisions, such as food good communication system.
The crust is divided into tectonic plates which are moving due to convection Causes Earthquake Management
currents in the mantle. The earthquake was caused by the North American Plate sliding past the Caribbean
Plate at a conservative plate margin. The pressure that was built up because of the PREDICTING
Radioactive decay of some of the elements in the core and mantle friction between the 2 plates was eventually released a magnitude 7 earthquake with an
1 epicentre 16 miles West of Port-au-Prince and a shallow focus of 5 miles. Methods include:
generate a lot of heat.
• Satellite surveying (tracks changes in the earth’s surface)
Primary Effects Secondary Effects
When lower parts of the mantle molten rock (Magma) heat up they • Laser reflector (surveys movement across fault lines)
2 • 316,000 killed, 1 million homeless • 1 in 5 people lost their job. Clothing
become less dense and slowly rise. • 250,000 homes destroyed, 60% of industry badly affected • Radon gas sensor (radon gas is released when plates move so
Government buildings • Hospitals and morgues became this finds that)
As they move towards the top they cool down, become more dense • Transport badly damaged50+ overcrowded • Seismometer
3
and slowly sink. hospitals and 1300+ schools • Spread of Cholera from dead bodies • Water table level (water levels fluctuate before an earthquake).
damaged • Difficulty getting aid into country • Scientists also use seismic records to predict when the next
4 These circular movements of semi-molten rock are convection currents • Prison destroyed – 4,000 inmates event will occur.
Unit 1a
escaped
Convection currents create drag on the base of the tectonic plates and PROTECTION
5
this causes them to move. The Challenges of Natural Hazards You can’t stop earthquakes, so earthquake-prone regions follow
Types of Plate Margins What is a Natural Hazard these three methods to reduce potential damage:
• Building earthquake-resistant buildings
Destructive Plate Margin A natural hazard is a natural process which could cause death, injury or disruption to
humans, property and possessions.
• Raising public awareness
When the denser plate subducts beneath the other, • Improving earthquake prediction
friction causes it to melt and become molten magma. Geological Hazard Meteorological Hazard
The magma forces its ways up to the surface to form a HIC - CS: Christchurhc, New Zealand 2011
These are hazards caused by land and These are hazards caused by weather
volcano. This margin is also responsible for devastating tectonic processes. and climate.
earthquakes. Causes The 6.3 magnitude earthquake struck New Zealand at 12:51
Causes of Earthquakes on 22 February 2011. The epicentre was 6 miles South East of
Constructive Plate Margin Christchurch and the focus was very shallow at 3.1 miles. The
Earthquakes are caused when two plates become locked causing friction to earthquake occurred on a conservative plate margin where the
Here two plates are moving apart causing new magma Pacific Plate slid past the Australian Plate in the opposite direction.
build up. From this stress, the pressure will eventually be released, triggering
to reach the surface through the gap. Volcanoes
the plates to move into a new position. This movement causes energy in the
formed along this crack cause a submarine mountain Primary Effects Secondary Effects
form of seismic waves, to travel from the focus towards the epicentre. As a
range such as those in the Mid Atlantic Ridge. • 181 killed, 2000 injured, • Business out of action for
result, the crust vibrates triggering an earthquake.
800,000 affected long periods causing
Conservative Plate Margin • Hundreds of kms of water and losses of income and jobs
The point directly above the focus, where the seismic waves
reach first, is called the EPICENTRE.
sewage pipes damaged • Damage to roads through
A conservative plate boundary occurs where plates • 50% + of Central City buildings liquefaction made it
slide past each other in opposite directions, or in the severely damaged including difficult for emergency
SEISMIC WAVES (energy waves) travel out from the focus.
same direction but at different speeds. This is the cathedral services
responsible for earthquakes such as the ones • 80% of city without electricity • People suffered from
The point at which pressure is released is called the FOCUS.
happening along the San Andreas Fault, USA. mental health conditions
 Global pattern of air circulation Changing pattern of Tropical Storms Case Study: Storm Eva, 2015

Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air by which heat is Scientist believe that global warming is having an impact on the Causes
distributed on the surface of the Earth. frequency and strength of tropical storms. This may be due to an Dec 2015 was the wettest December on record – average: 120mm, Dec 2015:
increase in ocean temperatures. 230mm. This meant that the River Ouse, York peaked at 5.2m above normal.
Hadley Largest cell which extends
cell from the Equator to between Management of Tropical Storms Effects Management
30° to 40° north & south. • Foss Barrier failed • £10m to improve York defences
Protection • 400 people evacuated • 10,000 sandbags used
Aid
Ferrel Middle cell where air flows Preparing for a tropical storm • 600 military personnel used to
Aid involves assisting after the • 300y/o Tad bridge collapsed
cell poleward between 60° & 70° may involve construction help with clear up
storm, commonly in LIDs. • A64 shut
latitude. projects that will improve • £1m in aid donated
protection. • Jorvik Centre shut for a year • Foss Barrier pumping station
Polar Smallest & weakness cell that • 3500 properties affected improved and raised
cell occurs from the poles to the Development
Planning
Ferrel cell. The scale of the impacts
Involves getting people and the What is Climate Change?
depends on the whether the
Distribution of Tropical Storms. High and Low Pressure emergency services ready to
country has the resources cope
deal with the impacts. Climate change is a large-scale, long-term shift in the planet's weather
with the storm.
They are known by many names, Low High patterns or average temperatures. Earth has had tropical climates and ice
including hurricanes (North America), Pressure Pressure Prediction ages many times in its 4.5 billion years.
cyclones (India) and typhoons (Japan Education
Constant monitoring can help to
and East Asia). They all occur in a band Caused by Caused by Teaching people about what to Recent Evidence for climate change.
give advanced warning of a
that lies roughly 5-15° either side of the hot air rising. cold air do in a tropical storm.
tropical storm Global Average global temperatures have increased by more
Equator. Causes sinking.
stormy, Causes clear Primary Effects of Tropical Storms temperature than 0.6°C since 1950.
cloudy and calm
Ice sheets & Many of the world’s glaciers and ice sheets are melting.
weather. weather. • The intense winds of tropical storms can destroy whole
glaciers E.g. the Arctic sea ice has declined by 10% in 30 years.
communities, buildings and communication networks.
• As well as their own destructive energy, the winds can generate Sea Level Average global sea level has risen by 10-20cms in the
abnormally high waves called storm surges. Change past 100 years. This is due to the additional water from
• Sometimes the most destructive elements of a storm are these ice and thermal expansion.
subsequent high seas and flooding they cause to coastal areas.
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
Secondary Effects of Tropical Storms
Recently there has been an increase in humans burning fossil fuels for
Formation of Tropical Storms
• People are left homeless, which can cause distress, poverty and ill energy. These fuels (gas, coal and oil) emit greenhouse gases. This is making
The sun’s rays heats large areas of ocean in the summer and autumn. health due to lack of shelter. the Earth’s atmosphere thicker, therefore trapping more solar radiation and
1 This causes warm, moist air to rise over the particular spots • Shortage of clean water and lack of proper sanitation makes it causing less to be reflected. As a result, the Earth is becoming warmer.
easier for diseases to spread.
Evidence of natural change
Once the temperature is 27⁰, the rising warm moist air leads to a low • Businesses are damaged or destroyed causing employment.
2 pressure. This eventually turns into a thunderstorm. This causes air • Shortage of food as crops are damaged. Orbital Some argue that climate change is linked to how the Earth
to be sucked in from the trade winds. Changes orbits the Sun, and the way it wobbles and tilts as it does it.
Case Study: Typhoon Haiyan 2013
With trade winds blowing in the opposite direction and the rotation Sun Spots Dark spots on the Sun are called Sun spots. They increase the
3 of earth involved (Coriolis effect), the thunderstorm will eventually Causes amount of energy Earth receives from the Sun.
start to spin. Started as a tropical depression on 2rd November 2013 and gained
strength. Became a Category 5 “super typhoon” and made landfall on Volcanic Volcanoes release large amounts of dust containing gases.
When the storm begins to spin faster than 74mph, a tropical storm the Pacific islands of the Philippines. Eruptions These can block sunlight and results in cooler temperatures.
4 (such as a hurricane) is officially born.
Effects Management Managing Climate Change
With the tropical storm growing in power, more cool air sinks in the • Almost 6,500 deaths. • The UN raised £190m in aid.
5 centre of the storm, creating calm, clear condition called the eye of Carbon Capture Planting Trees
• 130,000 homes destroyed. • USA & UK sent helicopter This involves new technology designed to Planting trees increase the amount of
the storm. • Water and sewage systems carrier ships deliver aid reduce climate change. carbon is absorbed from atmosphere.
destroyed had caused remote areas.
When the tropical storm hits land, it loses its energy source (the
diseases. • Education on typhoon International Agreements Renewable Energy
6 warm ocean) and it begins to lose strength. Eventually it will ‘blow Countries aim to cut emissions by signing Replacing fossil fuels based energy with
• Emotional grief for dead. preparedness.
itself out’. international deals and by setting targets. clean/natural sources of energy.
What is an Ecosystem? Biome’s climate and plants

An ecosystem is a system in which organisms interact with each other and Biome Location Temperature Rainfall Flora Fauna
with their environment.
Tropical Centred along the Hot all year (25-30°C) Very high (over Tall trees forming a canopy; wide Greatest range of different animal
Ecosystem’s Components rainforest Equator. 200mm/year) variety of species. species. Most live in canopy layer

Abiotic These are non-living, such as air, water, heat and rock.
Tropical Between latitudes 5°- 30° Warm all year (20-30°C) Wet + dry season Grasslands with widely spaced Large hoofed herbivores and
Biotic These are living, such as plants, insects, and animals. grasslands north & south of Equator. (500-1500mm/year) trees. carnivores dominate.

Flora Plant life occurring in a particular region or time. Hot desert Found along the tropics Hot by day (over 30°C) Very low (below Lack of plants and few species; Many animals are small and
of Cancer and Capricorn. Cold by night 300mm/year) adapted to drought. nocturnal: except for the camel.
Fauna Animal life of any particular region or time.
Temperate Between latitudes 40°- Warm summers + mild Variable rainfall (500- Mainly deciduous trees; a variety Animals adapt to colder and
Food Web and Chains forest 60° north of Equator. winters (5-20°C) 1500m /year) of species. warmer climates. Some migrate.

Simple food chains are useful in

explaining the basic principles
behind ecosystems. They show
only one species at a particular
trophic level. Food webs however
consists of a network of many food
chains interconnected together.
Tundra Far Latitudes of 65° north
and south of Equator
Found within 30° north –
Coral Reefs south of Equator in
tropical waters.
Cold winter + cool
summers (below 10°C)
Warm water all year
round with temperatures
of 18°C
Low rainfall (below Small plants grow close to the Low number of species. Most
500mm/ year) ground and only in summer. animals found along coast.
Wet + dry seasons. Small range of plant life which Dominated by polyps and a
Rainfall varies greatly includes algae and sea grasses diverse range of fish species.
due to location. that shelters reef animals.

CASE STUDY: UK Ecosystem: Epping Forest, Essex

Nutrient cycle
Unit 1b GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT

Plants take in nutrients to build into new This is a typical English lowland deciduous woodland. 70% of the area is designated

The Living World

organic matter. Nutrients are taken up when as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSI) for its biological interest, with 66 %
animals eat plants and then returned to the designated as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC).
soil when animals die and the body is broken
down by decomposers. Components & Interrelationships Management

Litter This is the surface layer of Spring Flowering plants (producers) such as - Epping has been
Tropical Rainforest Biome bluebells store nutrients to be eaten by managed for centuries.
vegetation, which over time
breaks down to become humus. consumers later. - Currently now used
Tropical rainforest cover about 2 per cent of the Earth’s surface yet they are for recreation and
Biomass The total mass of living home to over half of the world’s plant and animals. Summer Broad tree leaves grow quickly to
conservation.
organisms per unit area. maximise photosynthesis.
- Visitors pick fruit and
Interdependence in the rainforest berries, helping to
Autumn Trees shed leaves to conserve energy
Biomes due to sunlight hours decreasing.
disperse seeds.
A rainforest works through interdependence. This is where the plants and - Trees cut down to
A biome is a large geographical area of distinctive plant and animal groups, animals depend on each other for survival. If one component changes, there Winter Bacteria decompose the leaf litter, encourage new growth
which are adapted to that particular environment. The climate and geography can be serious knock-up effects for the entire ecosystem. releasing the nutrients into the soil. for timber.
of a region determines what type of biome can exist in that region.
Distribution of Tropical Rainforests Layers of the Rainforest
Coniferous
forest Emergent Highest layer with trees reaching 50 metres.
Tropical rainforests are centred along the
Equator between the Tropic of Cancer and
Deciduous Canopy Most life is found here as It receives 70% of
forest Capricorn. Rainforests can be found in South
the sunlight and 80% of the life.
America, central Africa and South-East Asia.
The Amazon is the world’s largest rainforest U-Canopy Consists of trees that reach 20 metres high.
Tropical
rainforests and takes up the majority of northern South
America, encompassing countries such as Shrub Layer Lowest layer with small trees that have
Tundra Brazil and Peru. adapted to living in the shade.

Rainforest nutrient cycle Climate of Tropical Rainforests

The most productive biomes – which have the greatest
biomass- grow in climates that are hot and wet.
Temperate
grasslands The hot, damp conditions on the forest floor allow for the rapid • Evening temperatures rarely fall below 22°C.
decomposition of dead plant material. This provides plentiful • Due to the presence of clouds, temperatures rarely
Tropical nutrients that are easily absorbed by plant roots. However, as these
grasslands rise above 32°C.
nutrients are in high demand from the many fast-growing plants,
they do not remain in the soil for long and stay close to the surface. • Most afternoons have heavy showers.
Hot deserts.
If vegetation is removed, the soils quickly become infertile. • At night with no clouds insulating, temperature drops.
 Tropical Rainforests: Case Study Malaysia Cold Environments Case Study: Svalbard

Malaysia is a LIC country is south-east Asia. 67% of Malaysia is a tropical rainforest with 18% of it not being interfered with. Svalbard s a Norwegian territory in the Arctic Ocean and the most northerly permanently inhabited group of islands in the
However , Malaysia has the fastest rate of deforestation compared to anywhere in the world world. It experiences Polar and Tundra climates. The main town of Longyearbyen has a population of 2700.

Adaptations to the rainforest
Orangutans Large arms to swing & support in the tree canopy.
Drip Tips Allows heavy rain to run off leaves easily.
Lianas & Vines Climbs trees to reach sunlight at canopy.
Issues related to biodiversity
Why are there high rates of biodiversity?
• Warm and wet climate encourages a
wide range of vegetation to grow.
• There is rapid recycling of nutrients to
speed plant growth.
• Most of the rainforest is untouched.
Main issues with biodiversity decline
• Keystone species (a species that are
important of other species) are
extremely important in the rainforest
ecosystem. Humans are threatening
these vital components.
• Decline in species could cause tribes
being unable to survive.
• Plants & animals may become extinct.
• Key medical plants may become extinct.
Impacts of deforestation
Economic development
+ Mining, farming and logging creates
employment and tax income for
government.
+ Products such as palm oil provide valuable
income for countries.
- The loss of biodiversity will reduce tourism.
Soil erosion
Rainforest inhabitants
Many tribes have developed sustainable ways of
survival. The rainforest provides inhabitants with…
• Food through hunting and gathering.
• Natural medicines from forest plants.
• Homes and boats from forest wood.
What are the causes of deforestation?
Logging Agriculture
• Most widely reported cause of • Large scale ‘slash and burn’ of
destructions to biodiversity. land for ranches and palm oil.
• Timber is harvested to create • Increases carbon emission.
commercial items such as • River saltation and soil erosion
furniture and paper. increasing due to the large
• Violent confrontation between areas of exposed land.
indigenous tribes and logging • Increase in palm oil is making
companies. the soil infertile.
Mineral Extraction Tourism
• Precious metals are found in • Mass tourism is resulting in the
the rainforest. building of hotels in extremely
• Areas mined can experience soil vulnerable areas.
and water contamination. • Lead to negative relationship
• Indigenous people are between the government and
becoming displaced from their indigenous tribes
land due to roads being built to • Tourism has exposed animals
transport products. to human diseases.
Energy Development Road Building
• The high rainfall creates ideal • Roads are needed to bring
conditions for hydro-electric supplies and provide access to
power (HEP). new mining areas, settlements
• The Bakun Dam in Malaysia is and energy projects.
key for creating energy in this • In Malaysia, logging companies
developing country, however, use an extensive network of
both people and environment roads for heavy machinery and
have suffered. to transport wood.
Distribution of the world’s cold Major characteristics of
environments cold environments
Cold environments are located at, and POLAR: Temp as low as -50,
surrounding the North and South Pole. The low precipitation,
very most north and south points have permanently frozen soil,
Polar Biome. Tundra climate is found some plants like Moss and
between 90 and 60 degrees north. Lichens, Polar Bears in
Arctic, Penguins in
Major Characteristics of Cold Environments Antarctic
TUNDRA: Winter temps as low as -20, short, but quite Interdependence
warm summers, high amounts of snow, Permafrost soil
Different parts of the cold
(permanently frozen), infertile soil, soils may be
environment ecosystem
waterlogged, low growing flowering pants
are closely linked together
and depend on each other,
especially in a such a harsh
environment.
Adaptations to the cold environments
Arctic Fox Lives on cliff sides for shelter, white fur to camouflage, one of thickest furs of all mammals.
Bearberry Red berried plant. Low growing and thick stems to survive strong winds, leathery leaves to retain
moisture n dry climate, hairy stems to retain hear,
Opportunities and challenges in Cold Environments - Svalbard
Opportunities Challenges
Mineral extraction: coal mining vital. Employs 300+ Extreme Temp: temps fall to -30 in Winter. Dangerous to
Energy Development: coal mined on island is burned to work outside (frostbite). Several layers of clothing mist be
generate electricity at Longyearbyen power station. Is worn which makes work difficult
Norway's only coal fired power station . Geothermal energy Construction: Construction (houses, shops, roads, harbour
used as sits on constructive plate margin facilities, mines) is difficult due to temp and limited daylight
Fishing: Barents Sea home to reserves of Cod, Herring and hours. Most construction happens in Summer
Haddock. Fishing monitored by Norway and Russia to ensure Accessibility: Only reached by plane or ship. Limited
sustainability transport around the 5 islands. One international airport. Only
Tourism: 70,000 visitors a year (30,000 on cruise ships). 50kn of road in Longyearbyen – none serve outlying
Longyearbyen harbour has been enlarged. 300 jobs for locals communities. Most people use snowmobiles.

- Once the land is exposed by deforestation,
the soil is more vulnerable to rain.
- With no roots to bind soil together, soil can
easily wash away.
Climate Change
-When rainforests are cut down, the climate
becomes drier.
-Trees are carbon ‘sinks’. With greater
deforestation comes more greenhouse
emissions in the atmosphere.
-When trees are burnt, they release more
carbon in the atmosphere. This will enhance
the greenhouse effect.
Sustainability for the Rainforest Threats to Cold Environments Why do we need to protect cold envs? Strategies to manage Cold Envs
Uncontrolled and unchecked exploitation can cause irreversible damage such Indigenous Tribes Use of Tech: Trans Alaskan Pipeline
Cold Environments are fragile. Tundra
as loss of biodiversity, soil erosion and climate change. Inuit live in Arctic Alaska – depend on (raised and insulated to not melt
wildlife takes a long time to recover
wildlife for hunting and fishing permafrost, raised to allow animal
Possible strategies include: migrations, earthquake resistant)
• Agro-forestry - Growing trees and crops at the same time. It prevents soil Oil Spills Species Action by Governments: Natural
erosion and the crops benefit from the nutrients. Polluted rivers and habitats, risk of fire, Home to many birds, animals and Environment Policy Act (protects rights of
• Selective logging - Trees are only felled when they reach a particular forest cleared for building of pipes plants native people from Oil companies)
height. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
• Education - Ensuring those people understand the consequences of Off Road Vehicle Damage Scientific Research Administration ( oversees sustainable
deforestation Takes place in summer when snow has Unpolluted and unspoilt environments fishing)
• Afforestation - If trees are cut down, they are replaced. melted which make soil soggy. Can are important for scientific research n International Agreements: Antarctic
• Forest reserves - Areas protected from exploitation. take decades for the soil to recover climate change Treaty
• Ecotourism - tourism that promotes the environments & conservation Conversation Groups: WWF
 Global Distribution of Resources Provision of Food in the UK Provision of Water in the UK

Resource is a stock or supply of something that has a
value or purpose. The three most important are:
food, water, energy
Food Human health is affected by how much
food is eaten and nutritional value of
food.
WHO suggest 2000-2400 calories a day
to be healthy.
Over 1 billion people fall below this level
and are described as malnourished.
Another 2 billion suffer from
undernutrition – a poorly-balanced diet
lacking in minerals and vitamins.
Growing issue with obesity in HICs.
Water Quantity and quality of water are
important for well-being and economic
development.
Water is vital for people, animals, crops
and food supply.
Important source for providing energy.
As population grows – more people
face water shortages.
Imbalance is mainly due to climate and
rainfall.
Rainwater needs to be stored in
reservoirs or taken from rivers – all very
expensive.
By 2025, UN predicts 50 countries facing
water scarcity.
By 2037, population of UK predicted to be 73million 50% of UK water is used domestically, 21% is wasted through
increasing the demand for food. UK is not self-sufficient for leakage. Demand for water expected to increase by 5% by 2020 due
food supplies and imports 40% of all food consumed. to: rising population, more houses, increase in water-intensive
domestic appliances.
Why does the • UK-produced food can be expensive due to
UK import so poor harvests and price of animal feed.
much food? • Demand for greater choice and more exotic
foods.
• Availability of cheaper food from abroad
imported by supermarkets
• UK climate is unsuitable for production of
some foods (cocoa, tea, bananas)
• Demand for seasonal food all year round
(strawberries, apples)
UK food miles (distance food travels) is increasing and therefore our
carbon footprint (emission of CO2) is also increasing due to
production and transportation of food.
Managing Water Quality
Water quality is just as important and water quantity. The Environment Agency
is in charge of managing water quality.
Managing Water Quality Deterioration of Groundwater
•
Monitoring quality of river water • Leaching from old underground
• Filtering water to remove mine workings
sediment • Discharge from industrial sites
Unit 2c • Purifying water by adding chlorine
• Restricting recreational use of
• Runoff from chemical fertilisers

The Challenge of Resource

Energy Energy is required for economic
development – powers factories,
machinery and fuel for transport.
Past – rely on your own supply.
Today – energy is traded.
Energy consumption is increasing as
world beceomse more developed –
demand increases.
HICs use far more than LICs.
Middle East provides most of oil, yet
consumption is relatively small.
Management
Responding to the Challenges of Food Provision
Agribusiness – Lynford
House Farm, East Anglia
570 hectares of land using
chemicals, machinery and
other investments .
Flat, fertile land is intensively
farmed – maximise
productivity and profitability
Main crops- wheat, sugar
beet, potatoes
Chemicals widely used as
pesticides and fertilisers
Machinery costs are high but
make farm more efficient.
54-million litre reservoir built
to avoid water shortage
GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT
Organic Produce - Riverford Organic
Farms, Devon
Organic food and dairy farm
providing local fresh food to local
people weekly.
Reduces food miles
Supports local farmers
Provides local employment
Builds strong links between grower
and customer.
used on farmland
water sources • Water used for cooling in power
• Imposing strict regulations for use
stations released back into rivers.
of water
Water Transfer – Kielder Water, Northumberland, UK
Largest man-made reservoir in Europe. Dam is 1.2km long and 50m high.
Benefits Newcastle, Sunderland, Durham, Darlington, Middlesbrough.
Transferred by aqueduct – Airy Holm, Frosterly and Eggleston. (Airy Holm –
Frosterly; Frosterly – Wear; Eggleston – Tees)
Advantages Disadvantges
• Income created through tourism • Conservation areas were
• Reliable water source – sold to disrupted/removed for the
rest of UK scheme
• Provides hydro-electric power • Habitats destroyed – flooded an
• Dam prevents river flooding Area of Outstanding Natural
nearby towns Beauty
• New habitats created • People had to be relocated
• In 1995 droughts – Kielder • Never been less than 90% full –
provided water for North East. not needed/waste of money
• 1.5m trees cut down
 Provision of Energy in the UK CS: Micro-Hydro Scheme –
Chambamontera, Peru
Despite increasing demand for electricity, UK consumption has fallen
due to decline of heavy industry and improved energy conservation. Why was the scheme needed?
Most people in the area are dependant on
75% of UK oil/natural gas subsistence farming. Development has been
reserves have been exhausted. severely restricted by lack of electricity for heat,
By 2020 – UK importing 75% of light and power. Nearly half the population
survive on US$2 a day.
its energy.
Energy security is affected due to Steep slopes rise to 1700m and rough roads are
reliance on imports. impassable in winter. Very isolated location and
2/3 of UK gas reserves remain. due to low population density it was uneconomic
UK oil production has declined to build electricity grid to serve the area.
6% a year for last decade.
What is the scheme?
Over 75% of UK coal comes from
A micro-hydro scheme to solve energy deficit.
Russia, USA, Cambodia Supported by charity Practical Action. High
All UK coal power stations closed rainfall, steep slopes and fast flowing rivers make
by 2025. this an ideal location for water power.
Total cost of the scheme was US$51,000. Some
Non-Renewable Energy Extraction – Fracking – Kirby Misperton, North Factors Affecting Energy Supply government money and support from Japan but
Yorkshire each family had to pay US$750 in form of no-cost
Costs of Exploitation Oil rigs and pipelines require huge investment. Nuclear power
UK has rich reserves of natural gas trapped deep underground in shale rocks. and Production stations are expensive to build. loans.
High-pressure liquids are powered into rocks to release the gas - fracking Benefits to the local community.
Physical Factors Geology determines location and availability of fossil fuels.
Geothermal energy is produced in areas of tectonic activity like • Renewable energy
Advantages Disadvantages
Iceland. • Low maintenance and running costs
• Use local companies to produce • 24/7 site – noise, light, air • Little environmental impact
all equipment pollution all increase Political Factors • Political instability in Middle East means many oil-consuming • Local labour and materials
• Could provide jobs in hospitality • 50% of wells will leak and pollute countries are looking for alternative sources • Reduced rural-urban migration (population
all year round so not relying on water supplies in 15 years of • Western countries and Israel want to stop Iran developing has grown)
tourism opening nuclear power. • Regulated water flow has reduced flood
• More taxes paid – better services • 4000 HGV journeys are required • Germany plans to stop generating nuclear power by 2020. danger
provided for all transportation (50 a day, • UK government has cut subsidies for wind and solar energy. • Less need to burn wood for heat – reduced
• 100% of business rates go direct including Sundays) deforestation and soil erosion
to local council • 59 chemicals in air that are Technology Advances have allowed energy in remote/difficult places such as • Will last 25 years
• Community Benefit Scheme worth harmful to human health North Sea and Arctic to be exploited. Fracking now happens to • Electricity is available in winter
£100,000 per well • Earthquakes are caused by exploit shale gas. • Reliable electricity for fridges, light and
fracking entertainment
Climate Sunshine and wind influences availability of solar and wind power. • Street lights make it safe on a night
• Tourist industry decimated
HEP needs a suitable dam site in areas of mountains and high • Healthcare improved as medicines can be
rainfall. stored correctly
• Improved education as schoolwork can be
done after dark
• Reduced fire risk as kerosene lights no longer
used
• Business development is possible
Relief of the UK Areas Types of Erosion Types of Transportation Mass Movement
+600m:
Relief of the UK Peaks and The break down and transport of rocks – A natural process by which eroded material A large movement of soil and rock debris that
can be divided ridges cold, smooth, round and sorted. is carried/transported. moves down slopes in response to the pull of
into uplands and misty and gravity in a vertical direction.
lowlands. Each Attrition Rocks that bash together to Solution Minerals dissolve in water
snow Rain saturates the permeable rock above
have their own become smooth/smaller. and are carried along. 1
common. the impermeable rock making it heavy.
characteristics. i.e. Scotland Solution A chemical reaction that Suspension Sediment is carried along in
dissolves rocks. the flow of the water. Waves or a river will erode the base of the
Key Areas - 2
slope making it unstable.
200m: Flat Abrasion Rocks hurled at the base of a Saltation Pebbles that bounce along
or rolling cliff to break pieces apart. the sea/river bed. Eventually the weight of the permeable rock
Lowlands
hills. 3 above the impermeable rock weakens and
Warmer Hydraulic Water enters cracks in the cliff, Traction Boulders that roll along a collapses.
weather. Action air compresses, causing the river/sea bed by the force of
Uplands The debris at the base of the cliff is then
i.e. Fens crack to expand. the flowing water. 4
removed and transported by waves or river.
Formation of Coastal Spits - Deposition Types of Weathering

Weathering is the breakdown of rocks where

they are.
Example:
Spurn Breakdown of rock by
Head, Carbonation changing its chemical
Holderness composition. What is Deposition?
Coast.
Breakdown of rock without When the sea or river loses energy, it drops the Formation of Bays and Headlands
Mechanical changing its chemical sand, rock particles and pebbles it has been
1) Waves attack the
composition. carrying. This is called deposition. Bay coastline.
1) Swash moves up the beach at the angle of the prevailing wind. Soft rock 2) Softer rock is eroded by
2)
3)
Backwash moves down the beach at 90° to coastline, due to gravity.
Zigzag movement (Longshore Drift) transports material along beach.
Unit 1c GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT
the sea quicker forming
a bay, calm area cases
Hard rock deposition.
4)
5)
6)
Deposition causes beach to extend, until reaching a river estuary.
Change in prevailing wind direction forms a hook.
Sheltered area behind spit encourages deposition, salt marsh forms.
Physical Landscapes in the UK 3) More resistant rock is
left jutting out into the
Headland sea. This is a headland
and is now more
How do waves form? Mechanical Weathering Example: Freeze-thaw weathering vulnerable to erosion.

Waves are created by wind blowing over the surface of the Stage One Stage Two Stage Three Formation of Coastal Stack
sea. As the wind blows over the sea, friction is created - When the water
Water seeps freezes, it With repeated
producing a swell in the water.
into cracks and expands about freeze-thaw
Example:
fractures in the 9%. This wedges cycles, the rock
Why do waves break? Old Harry
rock. apart the rock. breaks off.
Rocks,
1 Waves start out at sea. Dorset
Size of waves Types of Waves
2 As waves approaches the shore, friction slows the base.
Constructive Waves Destructive Waves 1) Hydraulic action widens cracks in the cliff face
3 This causes the orbit to become elliptical. • Fetch how over time.
far the wave This wave has a swash that is stronger This wave has a backwash that is 2) Abrasion forms a wave cut notch between HT and
4 Until the top of the wave breaks over. has travelled LT.
than the backwash. This therefore builds stronger than the swash. This therefore
• Strength of 3) Further abrasion widens the wave cut notch to
up the coast. erodes the coast. from a cave.
the wind.
4) Caves from both sides of the headland break
• How long the through to form an arch.
wind has 5) Weather above/erosion below –arch collapses
been leaving stack.
blowing for. 6) Further weathering and erosion eaves a stump.
Coastal Defences Water Cycle Key Terms Lower Course of a River

Hard Engineering Defences Precipitation Moisture falling from clouds as rain, snow or hail. Near the river’s mouth, the river widens further and becomes flatter. Material transported is deposited.

Groynes Wood barriers Beach still accessible. Interception Vegetation prevent water reaching the ground. Formation of Floodplains and levees
prevent No deposition further
longshore drift, down coast = erodes Surface Runoff Water flowing over surface of the land into rivers When a river floods, fine silt/alluvium is deposited
so the beach faster. on the valley floor. Closer to the river’s banks, the
can build up. Infiltration Water absorbed into the soil from the ground. heavier materials build up to form natural levees.

Sea Walls Concrete walls Long life span Transpiration Water lost through leaves of plants. Nutrient rich soil makes it ideal for farming.
break up the Protects from flooding Flat land for building houses.
Physical and Human Causes of Flooding.
energy of the Curved shape
wave . Has a lip encourages erosion of Physical: Prolong & heavy rainfall Physical: Geology River Management Schemes
to stop waves beach deposits. Long periods of rain causes soil to Impermeable rocks causes surface
going over. become saturated leading runoff. runoff to increase river discharge. Soft Engineering Hard Engineering

Gabions or Cages of Cheap Physical: Relief Human: Land Use Afforestation – plant trees to soak up rainwater, Straightening Channel – increases velocity to
Rip Rap rocks/boulders Local material can be Steep-sided valleys channels water Tarmac and concrete are reduces flood risk. remove flood water.
absorb the used to look less to flow quickly into rivers causing impermeable. This prevents Demountable Flood Barriers put in place when Artificial Levees – heightens river so flood water is
waves energy, strange. greater discharge. infiltration & causes surface runoff. warning raised. contained.
protecting the Will need replacing. Managed Flooding – naturally let areas flood, Deepening or widening river to increase capacity
cliff behind. Upper Course of a River protect settlements. for a flood.
Soft Engineering Defences Near the source, the river flows over steep gradient from the hill/mountains.
This gives the river a lot of energy, so it will erode the riverbed vertically to Hydrographs and River Discharge
Beach Beaches built Cheap form narrow valleys.
Nourishment up with sand, Beach for tourists. River discharge is the volume of water that flows in a river. Hydrographs who discharge at a
so waves have Storms = need certain point in a river changes over time in relation to rainfall
Formation of a Waterfall
to travel replacing.
further before Offshore dredging
1) River flows over alternative types of rocks. 1. Peak discharge is the discharge in a
eroding cliffs. damages seabed.
period of time.
Managed Low value Reduce flood risk 2) River erodes soft rock faster creating a step.
Retreat areas of the Creates wildlife 2. Lag time is the delay between peak
coast are left to habitats. 3) Further hydraulic action and abrasion form a rainfall and peak discharge.
flood & erode. Compensation for land. plunge pool beneath.

4) Hard rock above is undercut leaving cap rock

Case Study: Holderness Coast
Location and Background
East Yorkshire between Flamborough Head and Spurn Point. Fastest
eroding coastline in western Europe (approx. 2m per year). Formed
12,000 years ago by glacial deposits – boulder clay (soft rock), north
of coastline is chalk (hard rock). Predominant prevailing wind from
north east, so material is transported by LSD south east. SMP
introduced in 1998 – mainly “hold the line/do nothing”. Only 11km of
50km coast is protected.
3. Rising limb is the increase in river
discharge.
which collapses providing more material for
erosion.
4. Falling limb is the decrease in river
5) Waterfall retreats leaving steep sided gorge. discharge to normal level.
Middle Course of a River Case Study: The River Tees (Landforms), River Ouse (Management)
Here the gradient get gentler, so the water has less energy and moves more Location and Background
slowly. The river will begin to erode laterally making the river wider. Located in the North of England and flows 137km from the Pennines to the North Sea at Redcar.

Management Geomorphic Processes

Formation of Ox-bow Lakes Upper – Features include V-Shaped valley, rapids and
Bridlington (tourism, residential) – 3.6km of high recurved sea walls
and rock armour. Groynes to stop LSD. waterfalls. Highforce Waterfall drops 21m and is made
Step 1 Step 2 from harder Whinstone and softer limestone rocks.
Hornsea (tourism, residential) – 1.86km of concrete sea walls, rock
armour and groynes – recently upgraded to meet rising sea levels Gradually a gorge has been formed.
Erosion of outer bank Further hydraulic
and increase beach size. Middle – Features include meanders and ox-bow lakes. The
forms river cliff. action and abrasion
Mappleton (tourism, residential) – 2.26km of sea walls, groynes, meander near Yarm encloses the town.
Deposition inner bank of outer banks, neck
rock armour and offshore reef. Recent upgrade to recurve sea wall. Lower – Greater lateral erosion creates features such as
forms slip off slope. gets smaller.
Easington (North Sea gas terminal) – 1km of rock armour to protect floodplains & levees. Mudflats at the river’s estuary.
terminal. Reviewed & renewed whilst gas available. Step 3 Step 4 Management – River Ouse, York
Skipsea/Ulrome (campsites) – privately paid for gabions to protect
-Clifton Ings – water storage, holds 2.3m3 of water lowering river levels by 150mm
key assets (shop, bar, restaurant) Erosion breaks through Evaporation and
-Marygate–concrete flood walls reinforced with steel, 460mm higher than previous flood
Other areas (farmland, small villages, campsites) – “do nothing”. neck, so river takes the deposition cuts off
-Museum Gardens – raised natural embankments
Monitoring erosion and implementing “roll back” so gradually fastest route, main channel leaving
-Foss Barrier – prevents Ouse flowing into Foss, failed in 2015, £17m upgrade = 8 pumps pumping
moving campsites further away from coastal edge. redirecting flow an oxbow lake.
50tonnes of water per second