UNIT 6

HYDROTHERMAL PROCESSESS

Structure______________________________________________
6.1 Introduction 6.4 Wall Rock Alteration
Expected Learning Outcomes Factors Controlling Wall Rock Alteration

6.2 Hydrothermal Fluids Types of Wall Rock Alteration and their Mineral
Assemblages
Nature
6.5 Summary
Chemistry
6.6 Activity
Evolution
6.7 Terminal Questions
Migration
6.8 References
6.3 Classification of Hydrothermal Deposits
6.9 Further/Suggested Readings
Cavity Filling Deposits
6.10 Answers
Replacement Deposits

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In nature there are various geological processes which are responsible for the formation of different
ore deposits on or below the surface of Earth which you have read in Unit 12 of BGYCT-133 course
and in previous units. And one such significant process is the “Hydrothermal Ore-Forming Process”.
Hydrothermal mineral deposits are formed by hot aqueous solutions/fluids called “hydrothermal
solutions/ fluids” in form of veins, stock works and replacement deposits. These solutions can
originate by any one or combination of the igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary processes. The
hydrothermal deposits may result either by the direct deposition of the metal contents from the
hydrothermal solution or by its reaction with the host rock. There are few essential conditions
required for the formation of ore deposits generated from hydrothermal fluids. They are:
i) existence of hot solution that is capable to dissolve and transport minerals;
ii) presence of sufficient metal concentration in the hydrothermal solution;
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iii) availability of interconnected openings in the rocks for transmission of
the solutions;
iv) availability of suitable sites for the ore deposition; and
v) chemical reaction for deposition of the ore.
In the previous unit, we have discussed some of the ore forming processes
such as early and late magmatic, contact metamorphic and metasomatic. In
this unit we will discuss the nature and chemistry of ore-bearing fluids along
with its evolution and migration. We will also discuss the classification of
hydrothermal deposits from cavity and replacement deposits to wall rock
alteration.

Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 explain the nature of ore-forming fluids;
 describe the chemistry of ore-bearing fluids;
 know the evolution and migration of hydrothermal fluids;
 discuss the classification of hydrothermal deposits; and
 describe the factors controlling wall rock alteration and types of wall rock
alteration.

6.2 HYDROTHERMAL FLUIDS

You have been introduced to Hydrothermal Processes in Unit 12 of BGYCT-
133 course. Let us know about the hydrothermal fluids before we read about
hydrothermal processes. Ore-forming fluids originate from different sources and
travel at all levels in the Earth’s crust. The hydrothermal fluids which form part
of the ore-forming fluids are the naturally heated aqueous solutions
characterised by dissolved constituents such as elements, compounds and
gases. These fluids play a key role in the origin of wide-ranging deposits and
are generated from diverse processes while circulating at various levels in the
Earth’s crust. Considering the importance of the hydrothermal fluids in
hydrothermal processes of ore formation, let us discuss the nature, chemistry
and evolution of these fluids.
6.2.1 Nature
There is barely any ore deposit exposed on the Earth’s surface which is not
formed by the influence of hydrothermal fluids or altered to some or other extent
by such hot solutions. The various types of hydrothermal fluids generated from
the numerous sources in the Earth’s crust are of different nature. Such fluids
show variable chemical activities and chemical potentials. The intensity of the
fluids activity is determined by the presence of H+ ions concentration (pH), CO2,
K+, S2 dissolved and oxygen fugacity (activity). After water, carbon dioxide is the
most abundant component present in these fluids which are mainly sourced
from magmatic and metamorphic waters. The term hydrothermal means hot
water whose temperature ranges between 500 C and 5000 C. The term
hydrothermal solution is the fluid which results as an end product of magmatic
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differentiation and carries metals originally present in the magma to the site of
deposition.
The nature of hydrothermal fluids originated from the magma can be
understood by their composition, pH and Eh conditions, oxygen/sulphur activity,
and temperature and pressure conditions. Such characteristics of magmatic
fluids can be interpreted mostly by the different types of wall rock alteration
effects they produce in the surrounding rocks and also depend on the changing
nature of the fluids. These fluids are usually weakly acidic, but may become
neutral or slightly alkaline by reaction with wall rocks or by mixing with other
waters, e.g. ground waters.
The hydrothermal fluids produced in low to medium grade metamorphic rocks
are characterised by presence of H2O, CO2, and CH4. Whereas the fluids
derived from rocks of high-grade metamorphism are rich in CO2 with minor
quantities of H2O and CH4.The nature of hydrothermal fluids of metamorphic
origin can be understood by dehydration and decarbonation reactions that are
dominant during the prograde metamorphism. These processes are dominant
in the middle and lower part of the crust that generate significant volumes of
metamorphic water. The fluids generated during this process comprise the
components like H2O, CO2, CH4 and sulphur species. However, most of the
fluids produced during the metamorphic processes are less saline and with
reduced sulphur concentrations. The best example that represents the nature of
the fluids derived from metamorphism can be known through the study of the
important gold deposits of the world.
In sedimentary environments the ore-forming fluids are formed from the water
that is derived mostly from the argillaceous sedimentary rocks. This water gets
released from the clay minerals during the diagenetic processes at
temperatures between 50-100°C, and surges with the increase in crustal depth.
The character of fluid derived from sedimentary environment is either reduced
or oxidised in nature.
6.2.2 Chemistry
After studying the nature of the ore-bearing fluids, let us discuss the chemistry
of the fluids.
The concentration and types of ore-forming elements dissolved in the
hydrothermal fluids depend upon the source of the fluids. The composition of
fluid derived from magma is controlled by magma composition, temperature at
which the fluid gets separated from magma, partition coefficients of individual
elements from melt (magma) to ore fluid (aqueous phase) and stable elements
present in the magma. If the surrounding rocks (also known as wall rocks) are
enriched with primary concentration of ore elements, then the hydrothermal
fluid reacts with them and dissolves the ore elements and transports them
further. Such reaction between the fluid and wall rock modifies the composition
of original fluid and gets enriched with the dissolved elements. Under the
metamorphic conditions, the mobilisation of the ore elements takes place from
the originally dispersed or disseminated ore minerals in the rocks. These
elements become part of the metamorphic hydrothermal solution. The
hydrothermal fluids of sedimentary origin contain the dissolved metals like Pb,

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Zn and Cu. These fluids are responsible for the formation of many sediments
hosted massive sulphide deposits like Mississippi Valley type Pb–Zn deposits
of North America.
The dissolved constituents in the hydrothermal fluids are usually determined
from the fluid inclusion studies and thermodynamic calculations. These studies
indicate that the ore bearing hydrothermal solutions are comparatively hot with
temperature ranging between 50-500°C. The ore fluids are concentrated with a
variety of dissolved constituents including elements in liquid and gaseous state.
There is variation in the total dissolved constituents with invariable
concentrations of potassium, calcium, sodium, chlorine and magnesium. Other
major constituents that are sometimes concentrated in excess amounts (i.e.,>
1,000 ppm) are heavy metals (copper, manganese, zinc, iron and lead), carbon,
nitrogen and sulphur. The pH of the hydrothermal fluid is another important
parameter which influences the solubility of the dissolved constituents. It is
inferred from the wallrock alteration studies that the most of the ore-bearing
fluids are weakly alkaline to slightly acidic.
6.2.3 Evolution
Now let us study how the different types of hydrothermal fluids evolve in the
Earth’s crust. Though the hydrothermal fluids are comparably of similar origin,
but there is variation in the composition and temperature of formation of these
fluids. Hence, the change in these conditions promotes the hydrothermal fluids
to behave differently in the formation of several ore deposits. The hydrothermal
fluids predominately rich in saline solutions are active and widespread in the
crustal part of the Earth. In these fluids, water is the main component which is
derived from the various sources. Therefore, the hydrothermal fluids are named
after type of water and are classified based on the depth and temperature of the
formation (Fig. 6.1). They are:
1) sea water
2) meteoric water
3) connate water
4) metamorphic water
5) magmatic water
Let us study about these types of waters in detail as given below:
1) Sea Water
This type of water is widely circulated in the crustal part of the ocean. The sea
water is responsible for the relocation of metallic ions in the oceanic crust. This
water seeps through the major faults. It is present in the mid-oceanic ridges of
the ocean is the likely source for the emergence of various deposits such as
volcanic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits.
2) Meteoric Water
Surface and ground water are commonly referred as meteoric water. The
meteoric water sinks deep in to the crust where it enters in a zone of high heat
flow, absorbs heat and dissolved elements from surrounding rocks resulting in
the formation of various hydrothermal ore deposits. Generally, the deposits
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formed are characterised by low temperature and precipitation such as
sandstone hosted deposits.

Fig. 6.1: Schematic diagram showing different types of waters. (Source: Redrawn
from Robb 2005)

3) Connate Water
The water trapped within the pore spaces of sedimentary rocks is called
connate water. This water reacts with the host rocks and becomes enriched in
mineral composition. The enriched fluid is involved in the formation of several
hydrothermal ore deposits.
4) Metamorphic Water
The water generated by dehydration reactions during the process of
metamorphism is known as metamorphic water. These waters are generally
formed at high temperatures (i.e.,> 300°C).The process of dehydration and
decarbonation resulted from prograde metamorphism produce metamorphic
water in the lower parts of the crust. For example, experimental studies of the
rock samples of the Witwatersrand Basin in South Africa, provide an evidence
during the metamorphic reactions that the metamorphic water was released
when subjected to high temperatures.
5) Magmatic Water
Magmatic water is generated from the magma. Out of all the waters it is the
most primitive or juvenile water. The magmatic water circulates at different
depths in the Earth’s crust and is enriched with many dissolved components
with some significant metal concentration. This mineral rich circulating water
cools and crystallise at different stages of magmatic crystallisation that results
in the concentration of metals. These metals form the source for a number of
significant types of ore deposits. The tungsten deposit in Degana area, North
West India in Rajasthan forms a good example of the ore deposit formed from
hydrothermal solutions of magmatic origin.
6.2.4 Migration
After the generation of hydrothermal fluids from the different sources, the fluids
migrate to the surrounding/country rocks and later deposit their metal contents.
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In order to form economic size ore deposits these fluids circulate in rocks and
reach the suitable sites where the deposition of the ore elements takes place.
Such movement of ore fluids take place through suitable openings in the host
rocks which are of primary and secondary in nature.
The opening like bedding planes, porosity and structural joints in the rocks are
the primary structures. Whereas, the open spaces provided by faults, solution
cavities, fissures and jointing are secondary in nature. The secondary openings
are formed by the deformation (stress effect) of the host rocks after their
formation. These openings are of different shape and size and act as channel
ways for the migration of the fluids. Such fluids also act as mineralising agents
and during their circulation in the surrounding rocks, react with them, dissolve
and transport ore elements.
The migration of hydrothermal fluids takes place either by change in
temperature or pressure gradient in the Earth’s crust. The deformation in the
rocks also play an important role in controlling the flow of ore fluids in the crust
where pressure gradient is related to deformation of rocks. Another, important
factor responsible for fluid flow is effective porosity of rock material that
determines the permeability and micro-cracks which are interconnected. The
circulation of the ore-bearing fluids helps to form many hydrothermal ore
deposits either by direct precipitation from fluids or by reaction with the host
rocks.
Learners, you have learnt the nature, chemistry, evolution and migration of
hydrothermal fluids. Before going to the next section, spend 5 minutes to check
how you are progressing.

SAQ 1
a) The ore-forming waters produced in the sedimentary environments are
mostly derived from the _____________sedimentary rocks.
b) In hydrothermal solutions the dissolved elements can be identified by
_________ and _________ studies.
c) The water trapped within the pore spaces of _____________ rocks is
called connate water.
d) The hydrothermal fluids formed from the rocks of low to medium grade
metamorphism are characterised by presence of ______________.
e) The tungsten deposit in Degana area, NW India is formed from
hydrothermal fluid of _________________ origin.

6.3 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROTHERMAL

DEPOSITS
You have read about the composition of ore fluid and its migration in the
surrounding rocks. Now, it is important to know how different types of ore
deposits are formed from this fluid. In 1913, Waldemar Lindgren, an American
economic geologist has detailed on system of ore classification in his
book Mineral Deposits. He had classified the hydrothermal deposits in to three

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groups based on the temperature of formation (Table: 6.1). This classification is
popularly known as Lindgren classification of ore deposits. The groups are:
i. Hypothermal Deposits (High temperature deposits): The hydrothermal
deposits formed at high temperature are called hypothermal deposits.
These deposits are formed at 300-500°C very close to the intrusive body.
The important ores formed under such conditions are wolframite,
molybdenum, gold, copper and lead. The wolframite at the Degana
tungsten deposits (Rajasthan) and gold in Kolar gold field (Karnataka) in
India are formed under these hypothermal conditions.
ii. Mesothermal Deposits (Moderate temperature deposits): These
deposits are formed at moderate temperature and pressure in and along
fissures or fractures of rocks. Such deposits are known for their large size
and depth of formation. The major gold deposits of the world are formed in
mesothermal condition between 200-300°C at a depth ranging from1.3 to
3.6 km. Ore minerals which are formed in these conditions are gold and
sulphides (galena, sphalerite chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite and arsenopyrite).
Many valuable metalliferous deposits of western North America are the
good examples of mesothermal type deposits.
iii. Epithermal Deposits (Low temperature deposits): These are low
temperature hydrothermal deposits formed between 50-200°C and very far
away from the intrusive body. The ore deposits formed under such
conditions are realgar, cinnabar, pyrite, orpiment, and stibnite.
The other two types of hydrothermal deposits are:
i. Xenothermal Deposits: The deposits formed at very low temperature and
shallow depth were described as xenothermal deposits by Buddington in
1935. Minerals like sulphides, rhodonite, rhodochrosite, tourmaline and
porphyry type silver and tin are formed under such condition. Tin-silver ore
deposit of Northeastern Russia is the best example of xenothermal type
deposit.
ii. Telethermal Deposits: These deposits were identified by an American
geologist Graton in 1933. These deposits are formed away from the source
of igneous intrusion at low temperature and shallow depth. The metallic
deposits yielding uranium, vanadium, molybdenum and sulphides are the
good examples of telethermal deposits.
Table 6.1: Classification of hydrothermal deposits. (Source: Modified after
Alexander 2009)
Type Pressure- Characteristics Minerals
temperature of ore deposits Ore Gangue
range
Hypothermal 300-500°C Irregular shape Gold, pyrite, Quartz,
High pressure and mainly cassiterite, garnet,
replacement type galena, pyroxene,
magnetite topaz
Mesothermal 200-300 °C Mixed type Gold, Quartz,
Moderate sphalerite, carbonates
pressure galena, silver
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Epithermal 50-200°C Mostly cavity filling Gold, stilbite, Quartz,

Shallow depth galena, calcite,
marcasite chalcedony,
sercite

Telethermal Low Both cavity filling Pyrite, Quartz,

temperature and replacement chalcopyrite, calcite
and pressure type native dolomite
and at shallow copper,
depth uranium
minerals

Xenothermal High Mineralogy complex, both

temperature at hypo and epithermal type
shallow depth minerals present

On the basis of mode of formation hydrothermal deposits are divided into cavity
filling and replacement deposits.
6.3.1 Cavity Filling Deposits
The cavity filling deposits are formed when hydrothermal fluids deposit their
dissolved metal content in the form of ores in the opening within rocks. The
deposition mainly occurs due to change in pressure, temperature and chemical
character of the hydrothermal fluids. The deposition of the material carried by
the hydrothermal fluids mainly takes place in the form of veins. These veins are
narrow, elongated or tabular, sheet like bodies of ore minerals occurring within
a host rock. These veins range in thickness from a few centimeters to few
meters and they can be several hundred meters long and may extend to a
depth of around 1.5 km.
When these veins are highly concentrated with ores then they are called “lode”
ore deposits. Many economic hydrothermal deposits of gold, silver, copper and
lead-zinc in the world are found as lode deposits. When veins occur in clusters
in an area they are called as a “vein system” which can hold good amounts of
valuable minerals. Depending upon the size, shape and nature of the cavities
available for ore deposition, different types of cavity filling deposits are formed
and are discussed below:
 Types of Cavity Filling Deposits:
1. Fissure Veins
Fissure veins are huge fractures in the rock in which ores gets deposited, are
most common type of deposits. These fissures may be parallel or intersecting,
radial or fan-shaped in pattern. In these veins when the deposition of the ores
on the walls took place in layered form it is called “crustification” (Fig. 6.2).The
deposition of ores in these fractures are found in ore bodies which are
elongated or tabular in shape. Fissure type tin-tungsten deposit is present in
Panasqueira region of Portugal. The Prestea gold belt of Ghana is best
example of vein type gold deposit.
In India fissure filling type magnesite deposit is present in the Salal area of
Jammu in Jammu and Kashmir and Gold mineralisation in the Kolar Gold field
in Karnataka. The mineralisation in these fissure veins may be massive or
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crustified. The fissure veins are of different types and are shown in Fig. 6.3.
Some of the important types of fissure veins are discussed below.
a. Chambered Veins: These veins are formed near the surface under the load
pressure in the Earth crust having irregular and brecciated walls.
b. Lenticular Veins: These are lens shaped veins formed by the stress
causing the bulging in the rocks.
c. Sheeted Veins: These are closely spaced, distinct and parallel fractures,
which are filled with ores.
d. Linked Veins: In such type of fissure veins there is a diagonal linkage
between the veins.

Fig. 6.2: Line drawing showing the layered deposition of the ores in the cavity
filling type hydrothermal deposits. (Source: modified after Evans, 2015).

Fig. 6.3: Sketch showing the different types of fissure veins; A) Chambered; B)
Lenticular; C) Sheeted and D) Linked.

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2. Shear Zones
Shear zones are the sheet like connected opening which act as channel ways
for the movement of hydrothermal fluids. The deposition of ores in such rock
openings forms shear zone type deposits. Many gold deposits of the world
occur as shear zone type deposits. Gold deposit of Jiaodong Peninsula of
Eastern China is best example of shear zone type deposit. In India, Singhbhum
shear zone in Jharkhand host copper and uranium deposits.
3. Stockwork
The stockworks are networking of numerous but extremely small size veins or
fissures traversing in the body of rock. They are filled with ore minerals such as
tungsten, silver etc. Stockworks form low grade, high tonnage ore deposits and
are mined by removing large quantities of the rock material. In Degana tungsten
deposits of Rajasthan numerous criss-cross small mineralised quartz forms the
stockwork type of tungsten mineralisation in granite and phyllites. In the
Archaean rocks of Singhbhum the asbestos shows stockwork type
mineralisation.

Fig. 6.4: Sketch showing the saddle reef type cavity filling deposit.

4. Saddle Reefs
These types of cavity filling deposits are formed when ores are deposited in the
crust and trough of closely spaced folds in alternate hard and soft rock beds
(Fig.6.4). Best example of such kind of deposits is the quartz reefs of Hutti gold
fields of Karnataka and quartz reef of Wynad gold deposits of Kerala.
5. Ladder Veins
Ladder vein deposits are formed by the deposition of ores in ladder shape
network of the fractures in which regularly space transverse fractures cross cuts
the vertical/inclined fractures (Fig.6.4). Such type of vein networking is also
formed by combination of contracting joints. Magnesite deposits of Mysore,
Karnataka is the best example of this kind of deposits.
6. Gash-Veins
These veins form narrow, sloping and thick ore-bodies deposited in fissures/
cracks that are formed by the action of water in soluble rocks such as
carbonates like limestones and dolomites.
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Fig. 6.5: Sketch illustrating the ladder vein type cavity filling deposit.

7. Breccia Filling Deposits

The cavity filling deposits are also formed when hydrothermal fluid moves in the
breccias formed by the different mechanism. Porphyry-breccia filling type Cu-
deposit is present in the Duolong District, Tibet.
As the breccias are formed by the different processes, therefore on the basis of
origin these breccia filling deposits are of three types;
a. Volcanic breccia: The breccias which are formed by volcanic activity and
the inter-spaces serve as conduits for the ore fluid in which ore deposition
took place. The deposition of the minerals occurs in layered and vugs.
b. Collapse breccia: By the activity of the solution there is leaching of the
underground ore body as a result the ore blocks are collapsed. Many Pb-Zn
deposits in the world occur as breccia hosted in the carbonate rocks.
c. Tectonic/fault breccia: The tectonic breccias are formed by the tectonic
activity in which the brecciation of the rocks takes place. These types of
deposits are formed at shallow depth. The baryte deposit in Krol limestone
of Sirmur in Himachal Pradesh and Singhbhum shear zone in Jharkhand,
are the good examples.
8. Solution Cavities
These deposits are essentially formed by the solution activities in soluble rocks
like limestones and dolomites. In the Sirmur region of Himachal Pradesh
barytes ores are formed in solution cavities of limestones.
9. Pore Space Fillings
The pore spaces in the rocks, especially interconnected pore spaces in
arenaceous sedimentary rocks provide suitable sites for the deposition of ores.
10. Vesicular Fillings
The vesicles formed during the solidification of lava on the Earth’s surface
become excellent sites for deposition of ores. The mineralised solutions
deposited in these openings or vesicles results in the formation of vesicular
filling deposits. Another good example is the Deccan basalts where some semi-

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precious varieties of quartz like agate, amethyst, opal and agate gets deposited
in the vesicles of the basaltic flows.
6.3.2 Replacement Deposits
In the cavity filling process of ore formation, we discussed about the
precipitation of minerals and metals from the hydrothermal solution in the open
spaces in a rock, especially vugs and veins at shallow depth. In the
hydrothermal processes, replacement is one of the dominant processes for the
deposition of valuable mineral content at high temperature and pressure. The
replacement occurs when the circulating ore solutions encounters the mineral
which are unstable. As a consequence, the replacing mineral is also known as
metasome, which will occupy the same volume as that of the replaced mineral.
The resulting process is by diffusion where volume to volume replacement
takes place.
The replacement process is controlled by the temperature, pressure and
chemical composition of the host rock. Although, the replacement occurs at any
pressure and temperature conditions. But it is more effective at higher
temperature at which chemical activity increases. The replacement is more
common in soluble rocks such as carbonates (Fig.6.6). During the replacement
process the circulating solutions may replace many oxide minerals.

Fig. 6.6: Sketch showing the replacement type hydrothermal deposits in

carbonate rock.

 Types of Replacement Deposits:

The replacement process results in the formation of different types of ore
deposits when the host rock is replaced by the hydrothermal fluids. They are:
a) Massive replacement deposits: These types of replacement deposits are
irregular in outline and diverse in shape. The host rock is almost completely
replaced by ore body which terminates abruptly against the country rock.
The original structure and texture of the replacing rock is retained by the
ore body.
b) Lode replacement deposits: In this type of replacement deposits, the
ores are of high grade and low tonnage. In lode type deposits, the
replacement of host rock starts from the walls of the fissure. These
deposits are wavy and irregular in outline and shows gradational contact
with the host rock.
c) Disseminated replacement deposits: It signifies the multi centered
replacement of the host rock. The ores are represented in scattered

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(disseminated) form in the host rock. Such deposits form low grade and
high tonnage ore deposits. Porphyry copper deposits are best examples of
disseminated type replacement deposits.
 Criteria for Evidences of Replacement:
There are several criteria that are suitable for establishing origin of
hydrothermal replacement deposits. They are as follows:
i. Presence of unaltered remains of host rock: The supportive evidence is
that the replacement of the original rock or host rock is not complete. And
the portion of the rock that escaped replacement remained isolated in the
ore body.
ii. Irregular outlines of ore body: The ores formed by the replacement
process are characterised by their irregular form and wavy outlines shown
against the host rock.
iii. Formation of pseudomorphs: One mineral replaces other mineral which
is different in chemical composition and preserves the form of the replaced
mineral. Such process results in the formation of pseudomorph of the
replaced mineral. In the replacement process development of such
pseudomorphs are very common.
iv. Widening of fractures: When hydrothermal fluids move through the
cavities/fractures and accompanied by chemical reaction they become
wider.
v. Preservation of rock structures: It is sometimes observed that the
original structures present in the replaced rock like stratification, cross
bedding, folding etc. are preserved in the ore body during the replacement
process. Occasionally it is also noticed that dolomitization rhombs and
fossils are also preserved.
vi. Absence of crustification: Crustification (layering) which is very common
in cavity filling type hydrothermal deposits is completely absent in
replacement type deposits

Watch the following video to know more about hydrothermal

mineralisation. To watch the video, you can also scan the QR Code of
the video given in page no. 4 to 10.
 Hydrothermal mineralisation
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53461
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Red8n1UOKx0

6.4 WALL ROCK ALTERATION

You have been introduced to wall rock alteration in unit 12 of BGYCT-133
course. All the hydrothermal deposits are commonly associated with wall rock
alteration. Wall rock alteration can be defined as the chemical reaction between
the hydrothermal solutions and the enclosed or the host rocks that results in the
alteration of minerals. These alterations are more conspicuous near to the vein
and turn out to be less discrete when moved further away from the vein. The
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wall rock alteration brings the multiple changes in mineralogy, texture and
chemical composition of the surrounding rocks. The extent of alteration effect
depends on the temperature and pressure of the fluid, as well as the nature and
composition of rocks in contact. Other aspects that effect the alteration of host
rock are the permeability, grain size and shape, and fracturing nature of host
rock. In depth knowledge of wall rock alteration can be achieved by field and
laboratory studies. The high temperature minerals are formed as a result of wall
rock alteration and some of these minerals are topaz, tourmaline and
amphibole.
6.4.1 Factors Controlling Wall Rock Alteration
The extent of alteration and nature of altered products depends on the following
criteria:
1. Temperature and pressure: The change in temperature causes
mineralogical and textural modification of the host rocks. Although the
pressure gradient effects the boiling points, and precipitation of the new
minerals, still it is less significant in causing the physical modification of the
rocks and formation of new mineral assemblage.
2. Chemical potential of fluid: Chemical potential of a substance is defined
as a free energy per mole of the substance. In simple words, it is the
potential of a substance to move and react. The difference in the chemical
composition of the hydrothermal fluid and surrounding rocks effects the
chemical substitution between the fluid and rock.
3. Composition, texture and structure of rocks: The coarse grained, highly
fractured and jointed rocks are more susceptible to hydrothermal alteration.
Carbonate rocks are found to be more liable to alteration than the other
rocks.
4. Eh, pH, oxygen fugacity, anion-cation composition, vapour pressure of the
dissolved volatile components and degree of hydrolysis of the invading fluid
controls the alteration effects in the rocks.
5. The fluid/rock ratio: It is defined as the ratio of fluid to rock in the
alteration process. The fluid/rock ratio is considered to be the most
important variable and influences the wall rock alteration processes.
6.4.2 Types of Wall Rock Alteration and their Mineral
Assemblages
Different types of changes can be expected in the country rock by the
interaction of circulating fluid. Let us discuss the different types of wall rock
alterations and mineral associations resulted from the varied hydrothermal
environments.
a. Greisenisation
Greisen alteration effect is commonly associated with mineralised quartz veins
in the granitic rocks (Fig.6.7).The altered rocks show dark colour, coarse
texture and contain minerals like muscovite, quartz, fluorite, topaz, tourmaline,
altered feldspars, and some other minerals like wolframite, cassiterite. The
interaction of hydrothermal fluids with the granitic rocks release Na and Ca from
the feldspar minerals.
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Fig. 6.7: Field photograph of granite showing greisenisation and feldspathisation

alteration effect in mineralised granite in the Degana tungsten deposits,
Rajasthan, India.

b. Silicification
Silicification is one of the common and well-known types of hydrothermal
alteration (Fig.6.8). This alteration is characterised by the introduction of quartz
and cryptocrystalline variety of silica such as chert and opal in the country rock
released during the breakdown of the silicate minerals.

Fig. 6.8: Microphotograph showing the second-generation quartz formed in the

silicification zone of Degana tungsten deposit, Rajasthan, India.

c. Carbonatisation
Carbonatisation is the process of formation of carbonate minerals such as
calcite, dolomite, magnesite, and siderite in the country rock. This type of rock
alteration is mainly caused by the reaction of the fluid rich in carbon dioxide and
neutral to alkaline pH conditions with the country rock. The host rock of gold
deposits in the greenstone belt of South India is the best example of
carbonatisation type alteration.
d. Feldspathisation
This alteration effect is caused when alkali content of hydrothermal fluid had
produced new soda-feldspars. In this alteration the mineral assemblage
produced are microcline, perthite, albitic plagioclase, sericite, chlorite and
quartz. This kind of alteration is caused by the addition of Na and K in the
country rocks (Fig.6.9).

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Fig. 6.9: Field photograph showing potassic alteration in the rhyolite rock of
Tosham Sn-W-Cu deposit, Haryana, India.

e. Prophylitic Alteration
The propylitic alteration is the most widespread form of alteration. This type of
alteration mainly comprises of minerals such as chlorite and epidote with
inadequate representation of calcite, zoisite, albite, and clinozoisite. This
alteration generally occurs at about 200-350°C and low fluid/rock ratios by H +
metasomatism.
f. Phyllic/Sericitic Alteration
This type of alteration is commonly associated with a variety of hydrothermal
ore deposits and characteristically forms over a wide temperature range. The
dominant minerals are muscovite, hydromica and phengite. The primary silicate
minerals such as feldspars, micas and some mafic minerals are transformed in
to sericite (white mica) and quartz. The phyllic alteration is mainly associated
with porphyry Cu deposits.
g. Argillic Alteration
In argillic alteration, plagioclase altered into kaolinite and montmorillonite,
whereas amphiboles get altered into montmorillonite.This alteration occurs at
low temperature, low K+/H+ and Na+/H+ ratios, low activities of the alkalis, strong
acid, high H+ fluids. A sketch showing the various alteration effects in the
periphery of mineralised ore body is shown in Fig. 6.10.

Fig. 6.11: Sketch illustrating the hydrothermal alteration zones in the mineralised
rock body. (Source: modified after Evans, 2015)

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SAQ 2
a) Name any two metallic deposits formed by telethermal process of
hydrothermal origin.
b) What are shear zones?
c) Name any two factors that control the wall rock alteration.
d) Silicification is commonly seen in which type of igneous rocks.

6.5 SUMMARY
Let us sum up what we have studied in this unit.
 Hydrothermal process is one of the significant ore forming processes
that results in the formation of many important metallic ore deposits.
 The hydrothermal solutions that help in the ore forming processes are
produced by the igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary activity.

 The hydrothermal fluids are diverse in nature, display variable chemical

activities and chemical potentials.
 The concentration and different categories of dissolved elements present
in the hydrothermal fluids depend on the source of origin of the ore rich
fluids.
 The hydrothermal fluids are mainly concentrated within the saline solutions
that circulate in the crustal part of the Earth derived from various sources.
 The openings in the host rocks act as channels for the migration of the ore
fluids which are of primary and secondary in nature.

 The movement of hydrothermal fluids is influenced by deformation of rocks,

porosity and permeability and temperature or pressure gradient, of rocks in
the Earth’s crust.

 Hydrothermal deposits are classified based on temperature and depth of

formation as: i) hypothermal; ii) mesothermal; iii) epithermal; iv)
xenothermal; and v) telethermal deposits.

 On the basis of mode of formation these deposits are also divided into
cavity filling and replacement deposits.
 The wall rock alteration results in change in mineralogy, texture and
chemical composition of surrounding rocks by the reaction between the
solutions and host rock.
 Different types of wall rock alterations are greisenisation, silicification,
carbonatisation, feldspathisation, prophylitic, sericitic and argillic alterations.

6.6 ACTIVITY
The table given below shows the classification of hydrothermal deposits. Fill-in
the blanks in the given table :
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Type Pressure Minerals

Temperature Range
Ore Gangue

Hypothermal _______________ Gold, pyrite, Quartz, garnet,

cassiterite, pyroxene, topaz
galena,
magnetite

Mesothermal 200 - 300 °C Gold, sphalerite, _______________

Moderate pressure galena, silver

______________ 50-200°C Gold, stilbite, Quartz, calcite,

Shallow depth galena, chalcedony,
marcasite sercite

Telethermal Low temperature and ______________ Quartz, calcite

pressure and shallow Dolomite
depth

Xenothermal _________________ Mineralogy complex, both hypo and

epithermal type minerals present

6.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain briefly the nature of the ore-bearing fluids in hydrothermal deposits.
2. Describe the classification of hydrothermal fluids with a neat diagram.
3. Discuss the different types of cavity filling deposits.
4. Write about the criteria established for identifying deposits of hydrothermal
deposits of replacement origin.
5. What is wall rock alteration? Add a note on the factors controlling the wall
rock alteration.
Audio/video material-based questions
 Write any two types of early magmatic deposits.
 Late magmatic deposits mainly occur in association with which type of
rocks.

6.8 REFERENCES
 Alexander, P.O. (2009) A Handbook of Minerals, Crystals Rocks and Ores.
New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. 655p.
 Evans, A. M. (2015) Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals An Introduction. 3rd
Edition. Wiley Blackwell Publishers. 389p.
 Jensen, M and Bateman, A.M. (1976) Economic Mineral Deposits. 3rd
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York. 604p.
 Robb, L. (2005) Introduction to Ore-Forming Processes. 1st Edition.
Blackwell Publishing. 373p.
 Misra, K.C. (2012) Understanding mineral deposits. Springer Publishing,
Netherlands. 845p.
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 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
 https://www.wiley.com/en-br/Introduction+to+Ore+Forming+Processes-p

The above websites are accessed between 1/1/2021 to 8/3/2021.

6.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Evans, A.M. (1992) Ore Geology and Industrial minerals An Introduction. 3rd
Edition. Wiley Blackwell Publishers. 389p.
 Robb, L. (2005) Introduction to Ore-Forming Processes. 1st Edition.
Blackwell Publishing. 373p.
 Misra, K.C. (2012) Understanding mineral deposits. Springer Publishing,
Netherlands. 845p.

6.10 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) argillaceous
b) fluid inclusion, thermodynamic
c) sedimentary
d) H2O, CO2, and CH4
e) magmatic
SAQ 2
a) Uranium and molybdenum.
b) Shear zones are the sheet like connected openings which act as channel
ways for the transportation of hydrothermal fluids.
c) Fluid/rock ratio and chemical potential of the fluid are some of the two
factors that control the wall rock alteration.
d) Granitic rocks

Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to subsection 6.2.1.
2. Please refer to section 6.3.
3. Please refer to subsection 6.3.1.
4. Please refer to subsection 6.3.2.
5. Please refer to subsection 6.4.

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