ECE 141 Lecture 11:

Structure of Finite Fields

Properties of Finite Fields, Galois Field, Polynomials in Finite Fields,Vector Space

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 1

Abelian Groups
❑ A set 𝐺 and a binary operation denoted by + constitute an
Abelian Group if the following properties hold:
1. (Commutative Property)
For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, we have 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
2. (Associative Property)
For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺, we have 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐
3. (Existence of Identity Element)
There exists an identity element 0 such that for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺,
then 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎.
4. (Existence of Additive Inverse)
For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists −𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 + −𝑎 = 0.
❑ Denoted by 𝐺, +, 0 .

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 2

Finite Fields or Galois Fields
❑ A finite set 𝐹 with two binary operations, addition and
multiplication, that satisfies the following properties:
1. 𝐹, +, 0 is an Abelian Group with 0 as the identity.
2. 𝐹 − 0 , ∙ , 1 is an Abelian Group with 1 as the identity and
the multiplicative inverse is denoted by 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐹.
3. Multiplication can be distributed over addition, i.e., For any
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹, then 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 ∙ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐.
❑ The finite field is denoted by 𝐹, +, ∙ .

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 3

Characteristic of a Field and
the Ground Field
❑ A Galois Field with 𝑞 that satisfies the property of a Finite
Field exists if and only if 𝑞 = 𝑝𝑚 where 𝑝 is a prime number
and 𝑚 is an integer.
❑ Example: GF(2) with elements 0,1 using modulo-2 addition
as the addition and normal multiplication.
❑ Note that modulo-2 addition: 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 mod2.
Addition Table: Multiplication Table:
+ 0 1 ∙ 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 4

Polynomials over Finite Fields
❑ A polynomial of degree 𝑚 over GF(𝑝) is polynomial:
𝑔 𝑋 = 𝑔0 + 𝑔1 𝑋 + 𝑔2 𝑋 2 + ⋯ + 𝑔𝑚 𝑋 𝑚
❑ where 𝑔𝑖 ∈ GF 𝑝 for all 𝑖 and 𝑔𝑚 ≠ 0.
❑ Addition and multiplication of polynomials follow that of
ordinary polynomials except that addition follows modulo-𝑝.
❑ Definitions:
▪ If 𝑔𝑚 = 1, the polynomial is monic.
▪ A polynomial of degree 𝑚 over GF(𝑝) that cannot be expressed as a
product of two polynomials, then the polynomial is irreducible.
▪ A polynomial is prime if it is both monic and irreducible.

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 5

Polynomial Addition
❑ Given two polynomials of degree 𝑚 over GF(𝑝):
𝑚 𝑚

𝑃 𝑋 = ෍ 𝑝𝑖 𝑋 𝑖 𝐺 𝑋 = ෍ 𝑔𝑖 𝑋 𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0
❑ The sum 𝑃 𝑋 + 𝐺 𝑋 is defined as:
𝑚

𝑃 𝑋 + 𝐺 𝑋 = ෍ 𝑝𝑖 + 𝑔𝑖 𝑋 𝑖
𝑖=0
❑ where 𝑝𝑖 + 𝑔𝑖 for all 𝑖 indicates modulo-𝑝 addition.
❑ Polynomial addition in GF(2) is the same as subtraction.

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 6

Examples
❑ 𝑔 𝑋 = 𝑋 2 + 𝑋 + 1 in GF(2).
▪ Monic since the coefficient of 𝑋 2 is 1.
▪ Irreducible since it cannot be expressed as product of two
polynomials.
▪ Prime since it is both monic and irreducible.
❑ 𝑔 𝑋 = 𝑋 2 + 1 in GF(2).
▪ Monic since the coefficient of 𝑋 2 is 1
▪ Not irreducible since 𝑋 2 + 1 = 𝑋 + 1 2 .

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 7

Extension Fields
❑ For a Galois Field with 𝑝 elements with a polynomial of
degree 𝑚, there exists 𝑝𝑚 polynomials with degree less than
𝑚.
❑ Assume that 𝑔 𝑋 is a prime polynomial. Consider the set of
all polynomials of degree less than 𝑚 over GF(𝑝).
❑ Use the operations: addition modulo-𝑝 and multiplication
modulo-𝑔 𝑋 . Then we have defined a Galois Field with 𝑝𝑚
elements called an extension field.

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 8

Polynomial Multiplication
❑ Given two polynomials of degree 𝑚 over GF(𝑝) with prime
polynomial 𝑔 𝑋 :
𝑚 𝑚

𝑃 𝑋 = ෍ 𝑝𝑖 𝑋 𝑖 𝐺 𝑋 = ෍ 𝑔𝑖 𝑋 𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0
❑ The product 𝑃 𝑋 ∙ 𝐺 𝑋 is defined as:
𝑃 𝑋 ∙ 𝐺 𝑋 = 𝑃 𝑋 𝐺 𝑋 mod 𝑔 𝑋
𝑚 𝑚

𝑃 𝑋 𝐺 𝑋 = ෍ ෍ 𝑔𝑗 𝑝𝑖 𝑋 𝑖+𝑗
𝑗=0 𝑖=0

❑ Also referred to as multiplication modulo-𝑔 𝑋 .

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 9

Example: GF(4)
❑ 𝑋 2 + 𝑋 + 1 is prime over GF(2). The polynomials with degree
less than 2 are 0, 1, 𝑋, 𝑋 + 1 .
+ 0 1 𝑋 𝑋+1
0 0 1 𝑋 𝑋+1
Addition Table: 1 1 0 𝑋+1 𝑋
𝑋 𝑋 𝑋+1 0 1
𝑋+1 𝑋+1 𝑋 1 0

+ 0 1 𝑋 𝑋+1
0 0 0 0 0
Multiplication Table: 1 0 1 𝑋 𝑋+1
𝑋 0 𝑋 𝑋+1 1
𝑋+1 0 𝑋+1 1 𝑋

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 10

Notes
❑ Using the definition for modulo-𝑔 𝑋 multiplication:
𝑔 𝑋 = 𝑋 2 + 𝑋 + 1 for GF(2)
𝑋0 1
𝑋1 𝑋
𝑋2 = 𝑋 ∙ 𝑋 𝑋+1
𝑋3 = 𝑋 ∙ 𝑋 ∙ 𝑋 1

❑ The pattern repeats itself. For all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ or 𝑛 = 0:

𝑔 𝑋 = 𝑋 2 + 𝑋 + 1 for GF(2)
𝑋 3𝑛 1
𝑋 3𝑛+1 𝑋
𝑋 3𝑛+2 = 𝑋 ∙ 𝑋 𝑋+1

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 11

Notes
❑ Looking at each row and column of the addition and
multiplication table, different results spanning all elements is
seen.
❑ For a given polynomial 𝑔 𝑋 over GF(2):
𝑚 𝑚

𝑔 𝑋 = ෍ 𝑔𝑖 𝑋 𝑖 → 𝑔 𝑋 2
= ෍ 𝑔𝑖 𝑋 2𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0
2
❑ Example: 𝑋 + 1 = 𝑋2 + 1

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 12

Polynomial Representation of
Binary Sequences
❑ Given a binary sequence:
𝑏𝑁 𝑏𝑁−1 … 𝑏3 𝑏2 𝑏1
❑ The polynomial representation is:
𝑁

𝑃 𝑋 = ෍ 𝑏𝑖 𝑋 𝑖
𝑖=1
❑ Example, for the GF(4) extension:
𝑔 𝑋 = 𝑋 2 + 𝑋 + 1 for GF(2)
0𝑋 + 0 00
0𝑋 + 1 01
1𝑋 + 0 10
1𝑋 + 1 11

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 13

Example: GF(8)
❑ Generate the list of possible polynomials under GF(8).
❑ Knowing that 8 = 23 , then a polynomial of degree 3 that is
prime over GF(2) is needed to generate the field.
Binary Representation Polynomial
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 𝑋
0 1 1 𝑋+1
1 0 0 𝑋2
1 0 1 𝑋2 + 1
1 1 0 𝑋2 + 𝑋
1 1 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 14

 Example: GF(8)
❑ Using the prime polynomial 𝑋 3 + 𝑋 + 1, generate the addition
and multiplication table for GF(8).
+ 0 1 𝑋 𝑋+1 𝑋2 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1

0 0 1 𝑋 𝑋+1 𝑋2 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1

1 1 0 𝑋+1 𝑋 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋2 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋

𝑋 𝑋 𝑋+1 0 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 𝑋2 𝑋2 + 1

𝑋+1 𝑋+1 𝑋 1 0 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋2

𝑋2 𝑋2 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 0 1 𝑋 𝑋+1

𝑋2 + 1 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋2 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 1 0 𝑋+1 𝑋

𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 𝑋2 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋 𝑋+1 0 1

𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋2 𝑋+1 𝑋 1 0

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 15

 Example: GF(8)
❑ Using the prime polynomial 𝑋 3 + 𝑋 + 1, generate the addition
and multiplication table for GF(8).
∙ 0 1 𝑋 𝑋+1 𝑋2 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 𝑋 𝑋+1 𝑋2 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1

𝑋 0 𝑋 𝑋2 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋+1 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 𝑋2 + 1

𝑋+1 0 𝑋+1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 𝑋2 1 𝑋

𝑋2 0 𝑋2 𝑋+1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋2 + 1 1

𝑋2 + 1 0 𝑋2 + 1 1 𝑋2 𝑋 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 𝑋+1 𝑋2 + 𝑋

𝑋2 + 𝑋 0 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 1 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋+1 𝑋 𝑋2

𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 0 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1 𝑋2 + 1 𝑋 1 𝑋2 + 𝑋 𝑋2 𝑋+1

ECE 141: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION I 16