EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY

Evolution is the gradual changes of animals and plants from one generation to another or simpler to complex form,
leading to formation of new varieties, species, genera, etc.
The universe originated 15-20 billion years ago through thermonuclear explosion of cosmogenic materials (Primeval or
Ylem). The explosion which occurred in the cosmic material is called Big Bank (Abbe Lemaitre, 1931). This theory of special
creation of universe is Big Bank theory.
Origin of life: The origin of life on the earth is a most complicated problem for philosophers and naturalists from ancient
time. Different views have been put forward concerning the origin of life by workers. Some of most important hypothesis &
theories regarding the origin of life are as follows:
1. Theory of special creation: This theory was proposed by Hebrew et al. The greater supporter of this theory was Father
Suarez (1524-1617).According to this theory; all the existing plants and animals were created by some super natural
power or God.
2. Cosmogenic Theory: This theory state that life came on earth from other planet in the form of spore called panspermia.
This theory was proposed by Richter (1865) and supported by Arrhenius (1908).
3. Theory of Spontaneous Generation or abiogenesis (Gk. A=not, bios=life, genesis=birth; Life from non-living): This
theory was proposed by Anaximander and this concept further held by Thales, Aristotle, Anaximenes, Empedocles,
Xenophanes and Plato. Von Helmont (1577-1657) was greatest supporter of this theory. Von Helmont in 1652 stated
that young mice could arise from wheat grains when these were put in dark place (room) along with a moist dirty cloth
(shirt).
4. Theory of biogenesis (life from life):
This theory states that the life is originated no from inanimate substances but the living organisms already present in the
atmosphere in pre-existing forms. When they get suitable condition or medium, they grow and multiply.

BIOCHEMICAL ORIGIN OF LIFE (OPARIN-HALDANE THEORY)

This concept was put forwarded by Russian scientist Alexander Ivanovich Oparin in 1923 and supported by John
Bourdon Sanderson Haldane in 1928 A.D. He explained the origin of life along with origin and evolution of earth and its
atmosphere.
Origin of earth: The earth was originated about 4.6 billion years ago. The entire solar system is believed to be formed
by the condensation of clouds of cosmic dust and gases called as “Ylem”. Due to tremendous temperature, the gases existed in
atomic forms and gradually cooled down into molten core, which took hundreds of millions of years. The other elements got
stratified according to their density. The heavy elements like iron & nickel sank to the centre and formed solid core of the earth.
The lighter elements like silicon (Si) & aluminum (Al) formed the middle shell and lightest elements like Helium, H, O, N, C, etc.
flowed to the surface and formed the atmosphere.
Life was evolved about 3.6 billion years ago on the earth. The primitive atmosphere of earth had water, methane,
ammonia, and Cyanamid that underwent a series of reactions and as a result mixtures of biologically important macromolecules
like proteins, sugars, nucleic acids, etc. were formed.
As the biochemical concept life is complex phenomenon, Oparin grouped the theory in following three steps:
(A) Chemogeny
(B) Biogeny
(C) Cognogeny
A) Chemogeny: It involves the synthesis of simple organic molecules. This process is further sub-divided into following sub-steps:
i) Formation of simple compounds (water, ammonia, methane & cynamide): Elements like nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen
and carbon were most abundant on the primitive earth at the beginning. These elements existed in the gaseous state due
to high temperature. As the earth surface gradually cooled, these elements combined each other to form water, ammonia,
methane and cynamide. These molecules were considered as the key molecules in the event of origin of life on the earth.
C + 2H2→ CH4 (methane)
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (water)
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 (ammonia)

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 ii) Formation of hydrocarbons: It is presumed that when the temperature of earth was considerably cooled to 1000C or
even low, the highly reactive free radicals –CH and –CH2 condensed to form varieties of saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
CH + CH → C2H2 (acetylene)
CH2 + CH2 → C2H4 (ethylene)
CH2 + CH2 → CH4 (Methane) + C
iii) Formation of oxy and hydroxyl derivatives of hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons reacted with super-heated steam and
formed oxy and hydroxyl derivatives of hydrocarbon such as aldehydes (-CHO) and ketones (=CO).
C2H2 + H2O → CH3-CHO (acetaldehyde)
iv) Formation of carbohydrates, amino acids and fatty acids: Due to the condensation, polymerization, oxidation and
reduction of these above molecules simple sugar, amino acids and fatty acids were formed.
6CH4 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 (simple sugars) + 12H2↑
2CH3-CHO → CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH
(Acetaldehyde) (Acetic acid) (Ethyl alcohol)
CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH → CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O
(Acetic acid) (Ethyl alcohol) (Ethyl acetate)
2HCHO → CH2OH CHO
(Formaldehyde) (Glycol aldehyde)
CH2OH CHO +H2O → CH2OH CH2 OH + CH2OH COOH
(Glycol aldehyde) (Glycol) (Glycolic acid)
CH2OH COOH + NH3 → CH2NH2 COOH + H2O
(Glycolic acid) (Ammonia) (Glycine)
CH4 + H2O + NH3 → Amino acids

v) Formation of purines, pyrimidines and nucleotides: Above molecules again reacted and aggregated together in hot
water (ocean) and formed new molecules like purines, pyrimidines and nucleotides.

B) Biogeny: This step involves the formation of complex and self-reproducing biological molecules. This can be described under
following sub-steps:
i) Formation of nucleic acids: It is presumed that the sugar, phosphate, purines & pyrimidines combined together to form
nucleotides. A large number of nucleotides were combined to form nucleic acids such as DNA & RNA.
ii) Formation of co-acervates: The nucleic acids along with other macromolecules of primordial soup (a liquid rich in
organic compounds providing favorable condition for the emergence and growth of life forms) in the ocean aggregated
together and bounded by a layer of water to form a colloidal system called co-acervates.
iii) Formation of primary organism: These co-acervates started absorb inorganic substances from oceanic soup and
became multiplying. These grew in size and multiplied and resulted to the formation of anaerobic heterotrophs or proto
cells or first cells. Oparin called them protobionts. These were similar to virus. These first cells gradually gave rise to two
types of cells: Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells.

C) Cognogeny (evolution of mechanism of perception, expression & communication): These involve diversification in protozoa,
metazoan and metaphyta. Due to shortage of food, these organisms change their feeding habitat and became parasitic,
saprophytic, photosynthetic and so on.
Autotrophism:
Origin of chemosynthesis: With the drop of temperature, non-biotic synthesis of new organic substances stopped. Availability of
organic molecules decreased in oceans due to continued absorption by chemo-heterotrophs. At this time some of the living
being developed the ability of synthesize organic food from inorganic raw materials. Energy was provided by chemical reactions.
Synthesis of organic food from inorganic raw materials with help of chemical energy is called chemosynthesis and such
organisms performing chemosynthesis are called chemoautotrophs. Such mode of nutrition occurs in certain bacteria, e.g.
Sulphur bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, iron bacteria, etc.
Origin of photosynthesis: Due to shortage of organic compounds, some chemoautotrophs developed light harvesting pigment
called chlorophyll and started new mode of nutrition in presence of sunlight. This process is known as photosynthesis. The
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organisms performing photosynthesis are called photoautotrophs. They prepare organic food by using water and CO 2 in presence
of sunlight. The first photoautotrophs were bacteria (e.g. Cyanobacteria). They were believed to evolve about 3.5 billion years
ago. They were found in colonial forms in India and Australia. From these organisms complex type of plants and animals were
developed later.
Parasitism: Some forms started living within the living organism for obtaining food from them.
Saprophytism: Some forms obtained their nourishment from dead and decaying bodies. This method of nutrition is called
Saprophytism.
Animalism: in this method one organism eats another in whole or parts.
Oxygen evolution: The liberation of oxygen into the atmosphere, produced by blue green algae due to photosynthesis. This O 2
brought about a number of changes in the primitive atmosphere. The important changes are as follows:
i. Release of free oxygen changed the atmosphere of earth from reducing to oxidizing atmosphere.
ii. Free oxygen oxidized methane & ammonia to form gases like CO 2 & N2.
iii. Thus, the composition of primitive atmosphere changed to the present atmosphere, with the free oxygen.
iv. Accumulation of free oxygen formed a layer of ozone (O3) above the surface of the earth which started absorbing
most of the UV rays of sunlight.
v. The anaerobic was changed into aerobic organisms.
Sequence of evolution of primitive life:
1. Anaerobic, prokaryotic and chemo-heterotrophs
↓
2. Anaerobic, prokaryotic and chemo-autotrophs
↓
3. Anaerobic, prokaryotic and photo-autotrophs
↓
4. Aerobic, prokaryotic and photo-autotrophs
↓
5. Aerobic, eukaryotic and photo-autotrophs
↓
6. Higher forms of metaphyta and metazoa

Miller and Urey experiment:

Stanley Miller and his Professor Harold Urey (1953) designed a classical experiment in favor of Oparin-Haldane theory.
Experiment: Miller designed the apparatus of glass tubes and flasks as shown in figure and created an atmosphere containing
methane, ammonia, hydrogen (ratio 2:1:2) and water vapour in one chamber of the apparatus and allowed condensed liquid to
accumulate in another chamber. Energy was supplied by heating the liquid containing chamber as well as by electric sparks from
electrodes in the gaseous chamber. Water was boiled in the flask to promote steam circulation of water vapour in the chamber.
The condenser was used to cool down the mixture formed by passing steam over the gases. The experiment was run
continuously for a week and then they analyzed the chemical composition of the liquid inside the apparatus.
Observation and result: As a result of series of chemical reactions, products were condensed and collated in a liquid trap.
Chemical analysis products indicated the presence of a number of complex organic compounds including some amino acids like
glycine, alanine & aspartic acid, aldehydes, simple sugars, ribose, etc.
Conclusion: From the result of above experiment suggested that electric discharges produced during lightening in the primitive
atmosphere of the earth containing NH3, CH4, H2 and water vapour might have resulted in the formation of amino acids and
other organic compounds. It provides ample evidence in favor of biochemical origin of life.

ORGANIC EVOLUTION
The term evolution has been defined as a gradual and orderly change from one condition to another. Charles Darwin
(1859) has defined as “descent with modification”. The complex organisms of present day are the outcome of simpler organisms
existed in the past. The existing organisms have been evolved from common ancestors by a gradual process of modification.

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 Organic evolution can be defined as a “slow, continuous, progressive and an irreversible process in which the simple and
primitive organisms existed in the past were changed into the complex and advanced organisms of today over a long period of
time.
Evidences of organic evolution:
There are some evidences which support the organic evolution.
1. Evidences from morphology and comparative anatomy:
Animals show similarities in their organizations. A comparative
study of various structures in different groups of vertebrate revels a
basic plan of organization indicating by modifications. Three types of
organs such as homologous, analogous and vestigial organs in
different animal groups provide evidences in favor of evolution.
i) Homologous organs: Homologous organs are the organs which
are similar in origin but different in functions. Example, forelimbs
of whale (flippers), bat (wings), bird (wings), horse and man. The
forelimbs of whale are modified for swimming, of bat & bird for flying, of horse for running and of man for grasping. Thus,
the functions of forelimbs in these animals are entirely differing but these are originated in same pentadactyle pattern.
Conclusion: The homologous organs suggest that the organisms might be evolved from similar or common ancestors. It suggests
the divergent evolution.
ii) Analogous organs: Analogous organs are the organs which are similar in function but different in origin. These organs have
almost similar appearance and perform the same function but they develop in different groups as different structures. e.g.
a. Wings of a butterfly and bird/bat, b. Fins of fish & flipper of whale.
Conclusion: The analogous organs suggest that the organisms might be evolved from dissimilar ancestors. It suggests the
convergent evolution.
iii) Vestigial organs: Vestigial organs are reduced and functionless
organs present in organisms which are homologous to fully formed and
functional structures in related organisms. Many structures in our body and
in other animals are non-functional and no use but might have been large
and function in their ancestor.
Vestigial organs in human body are vermiform appendix, wisdom
teeth (3rd molar), pointed canines, caudal vertebrae (coccyx), nictitating
membrane, hair on body, etc. The vermiform appendix is large &functional in
all herbivorous animals and helps in cellulose digestion. The presence of
appendix in man indicates that ancestors of man were herbivorous.
Conclusion: The vestigial organs like vermiform appendix suggest that the
human being might be evolved from herbivorous like ancestors.

Atavism (Reversion): The sudden reappearance of some ancestral characters

in some individuals is called atavism or reversion. Sometimes in some
individual, certain characters suddenly appear which were supposed to be
present in their earlier ancestors but were lost during course of
development. Example; Human baby with tail, extra digit in horse, long&
pointed canine teeth, large & thick body hair, extra nipples, etc.

2. Evidences from Paleontology:

Paleontology deals with the study of fossils. Fossils are the remains or impression of organisms that lived in the past.
Process of fossilization: The process of formation of fossils of dead organisms lived in the past is called fossilization. During
fossilization, entire organisms or its parts get buried in the sand or mud. The best place for fossilization is the ocean because salt
water checks the decay of organisms. After death of organisms their soft parts disintegrate& hard parts settle to the bottom and
are covered by sand. Sedimentation of sand goes on continuously in such a way that older fossils are preserved deeper and
recent fossils are preserved in the upper earth strata.

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 Paleontology can be further divided into two groups:
I) Paleozoology: study of animal fossils.
II) Paleobotany: study of plant fossils
Types of fossils: On the basis of the parts of organism preserved, there are several types of fossils, which are as follows:
1. Intact or entire (unaltered) fossil: This is the type of fossil in which entire organisms or its parts may get preserved in
original particularly in cold or dry regions of the world. e.g. ancient elephant (mammoths) preserved in frozen ice of
Siberia, insects in amber, etc.
2. Petrifaction or petrified or altered fossil: It is the most usual type of fossil in which hard parts like bones, teeth and
endoskeleton on organisms undergo mineralization. Replacement of organic parts by mineral deposits is called
petrifaction.
3. Mold or Casts: These are formed when organism get submerged in water containing lime. Sediments get deposited in
the form of a hard coat around the whole body or its parts.
4. Compression: Compression fossil is a fossil preserved in sedimentary rock that has undergone physical compression. The
burial parts became flat due to overlapping pressure of the sediments. In this case, the internal structure of the
organism is completely decayed and lost leaving behind a thin carbon film which provides an outline of the original
organism. It is usual in the study of external morphology.
5. Imprints or Impressions: They are remains representing foot print trails (marking of moving or crawling animal), tunnels,
burrow, etc.
Determination of the age of fossils
The age of the fossil is determined by 3 methods:
1. Clock of the Rock method or “Radioactive clock”:
This method is based on the conservation of unstable radioactive nuclei over a fixed period. Radioactive clock method
was introduced by Boltwood in 1907. It has been estimated that one million gram of uranium produces 17600 gram of
lead in one year. Therefore, by calculating the amount of lead in a rock, one can approximately estimate the age of the
rock and thus the age of the fossil present in it can be calculated.
2. Radioactive Carbon Method: This method was introduced by an American chemist Willard F. Libhy in 1950. He was
awarded with Nobel Prize in 1960 for radioactive dating technique. In every 5568 years half of C 14 will decay back to N14.
3. Potassium Argon method: It has recently been used to determine the age of hominid fossils in East Africa. This method
is useful because potassium is a common element found in all sorts of rocks. Half-life of Potassium40 is 1.3 x 109 years.
4. Electron-Spin Resonance method: This method is the relatively most accurate method of dating of fossils. This method
introduced by E.J. Zeller (1967) measures electrons displaced by natural radiation and trapped in ancient articles, fossils
and sediments.
Importance of paleontology:
i) It explains the evolutionary history (phylogeny) of the organisms. The phylogeny of horse, man and elephant are the
best examples.
ii) It suggests gradual development of the organisms with time.
iii) It helps to study the habits and behavior of extinct species.
iv) Some fossils provide connecting link between two groups of organisms.
e.g. Archaeopteryx, a fossil of bird retained certain reptilian features.
v) It indicates the complex forms of life that exist today arise from simpler
forms of pasts.

Connecting link: The organism possesses characters of two separate groups of

organisms is known as connecting link. One being primitive and other is
advanced. These species act as bridge between two taxonomic groups. They
provide good example of organic evolution and common ancestry.
Some examples of connecting link:
i) Virus: connecting link between living and non-living.
ii) Euglena: between plant and animal.
iii) Proterospongia: between protozoa & porofera.

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 iv) Peripatus: between annelida & arthropoda.
v) Neopilina: between annelida & mollusca.
vi) Balanoglosus: between non-chordates & chordates.
vii) Chimaera (Rabbit fish): between cartilaginous & bony fish.
viii) Lung fish (Protopterus): between fishes & amphibian.
ix) Seymouria: between amphibian & reptiles.
x) Archaeopteryx: between reptiles & birds
xi) Platypus & Echidna: between reptiles & mammals.

Archaeopteryx: It was found in the rock of Jurassic period by Andreas Wagner (1861) from Germany. It lived about 180 million
years ago. The fossil is kept in the museum in London & Berlin. It provides a connecting link between reptiles & birds suggesting
that the birds might have been evolved from reptiles. It possessed following characters:
i) It had a beak like bird but teeth & heavier jaw like reptiles.
ii) Its forelimbs were modified into wings like birds but had claws on its wings like reptiles.
iii) It had feathers like birds but also had scales kike reptiles.
iv) It had feathery tail like birds but had tail vertebrae like reptiles (long tail).
v) It had an intimate fusion of the skull bones like bird but not pneumatic bone like reptiles.
vi) The hind limbs are built as bird but presence of weak sternum as like reptiles.

3. Evidences from Embryology: Embryology is the study of development of animals from egg to adult. The embryological
evidence of organic evolution are as follows:
a. Similarity in early development of animals: The early development stages of all multicellular organisms are similar. All
life is start from a single celled zygote. It develops into morula, blastula & gastrula.
Egg →Zygote →Morula → Blastula → gastrula → Formation of 3 germ layers
b. Similarity in vertebrate embryo: The embryo of fish, frog, tortoise, pigeon, rabbit & man appear to be all alike in
appearance and it is even difficult to distinguish them during their early stage of development. This similarity in the embryos
of divergent forms of vertebrates indicates their common ancestor.
c. Recapitulation theory or biogenic law: Von Baer (1828), father of modern embryology, discovered primary germ layers
and found that the different germ layers produce the same type of structures in different animal. Ernst Haeckel (1866)
proposed the recapitulation theory or biogenic law which states “every organism during its development repeats the
evolutionary history of its ancestors or race” i. e. ontogeny (development history of an individual) repeats or recapitulates
phylogeny (development history of race). When the embryo of various vertebrates compared, it becomes evident that the
embryos of higher group resemble the adult of lower groups, e.g. tadpole of frog, larva of Herdmania, etc.
4. Evidences from biochemistry and serology: Study of biochemistry provides some important and dependable evidences to
support the idea of evolution.
a. Similarity in chemical composition: In all living form four major elements like C, H, O and N form organic compounds. C,
H, & O combine together to form carbohydrates and with N to form proteins. The protoplasm in all living organisms has
same composition. Therefore, on the basis of chemical composition it can be concluded that the living organisms might
have evolved from a common ancestor.
b. Precipitation (serological test): Study of blood plasma is called serum. Serological tests are used to determine and
confirm the natural relationship due to the similarity of blood proteins.
c. Enzymes and hormones: In large groups of animal, there are identical enzymes and hormones available suggesting
organic evolution. Similarly, hormones are quite similar in many animals, which suggest the organic evolution.
Pattern of organic evolution:
1. Divergent evolution: The evolution of varieties of species from a single ancestral species is called divergent evolution. It
is also known as adaptive radiation. A good example of this process is the evolution of the Australian marsupials into
different species adapted as carnivores, herbivores, burrowers, fliers, etc. The divergent evolution leads to the
production of homologous similarity.
2. Convergent evolution: The process by which unrelated species evolve to resemble each other is called convergent
evolution. In convergent evolution, organisms with very different ancestors become more alike because they live in the

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 similar habitats. For example, the wings of insects, bats & birds and streamlined body of whales and fish are the
analogous structures.
3. Parallel evolution (Parallelism): It is the formation of similar traits in related groups of organisms independently due to
similar requirement. E.g., running in two-toed Deer & one-toed Horse, structural resemblances of new world & old
world Porcupines (spine bearing rodent: Mammal).
4. Coevolution: evolutionary changes in one species prompt corresponding changes on other species with ecological
interaction (i.e. evolution of two species at the same time exhibiting relationship). e.g., Parasite & host, Predator & prey.
5. Progressive evolution: Evolution of complex organisms from simpler organisms. e.g., unicellular to multicellular.
6. Retrogressive evolution: Evolution of complex organisms to simpler organisms. e.g., wings in flightless bird, vermiform
appendix in man, wingless insects, etc.
Types of evolution (based on content):
1. Microevolution: It is series of changes within a species (i.e. evolution at genetic level) due to gene mutations and
accumulation of variations. e.g., evolution of sea urchin, Micraster.
2. Macroevolution: It is the evolution in which texa higher than the level of species are formed (i.e. evolution at species
level) due to major morphological & cytological changes. e.g., evolution of horse, elephant.
3. Megaevolution: It is the evolution in which formation of major texa due to development of new organisation plans (i.e.
evolution at the family, order, class & phylum level). e.g., evolution of reptiles from amphibians.

THEORIES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

To explain the cause and mechanism of evolution several theories have been forwarded. However, the major theories
regarding the organic evolution are as follows:
1. Lamarckism or Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters
2. Darwinism or Theory of Natural Selection
3. Neo Darwinism or Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution
Lamarckism or Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters (1744-1829)
The first theory of evolution was put forward by a French biologist Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1801).Lamarck published
his ideas of evolution in famous journal “Philosophie Zoologique” in 1809. His theory is popularly known as theory of inheritance
of acquired characters or theory of use and disuse of organ.
Facts of Lamarckism: Lamarck’s theory consists of following facts:
1. Tendency to grow / Internal vital force: Each and every organism has natural tendency to grow. The internal forces of
life tend to increase the size of an organism. This increase in size up to a certain limit which is determined by the life
itself.
2. Formation of new organs or Doctrine of Desires / Appetency: The formation of a new organ or a part of the body is the
result of the need or want of which has arisen and continuous to be felt by the organisms.
3. Use and disuse of organs and structures: The efficiency and development of an organ or system is directly proportional
to its use i.e. continuous use of organ makes them functional and strong and thus leads to its better development, while
continuous disuse makes the organs undeveloped, weakened and finally disappeared.
4. Inheritance of acquired characters: All the structural changes that have been acquired by an organism during its lifetime
due to direct or indirect environmental effect is preserved by generation and is transmitted to its offsprings. Even in the
offsprings, these modifications became pronounced depending upon continuous use or disuse of the organ or systems.
After certain generations the offsprings produced become totally different from the original parent. The organisms with
new characteristics, therefore, established a new
species.
Examples:
1. Giraffe: In support of his above views, Lamarck put
forward the classical example of giraffe. The long
necked and long limbed giraffe is evolved from short
necked & short limbed giraffe like goat. Due to
shortage of grasses, short necked & short limbed
giraffe started feeding on leaves of long trees. The

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 continuous use of neck and limb made the giraffe long necked & long limbed giraffe of today. According to this theory,
the increase in length of neck and forelimbs was an acquired character and it was passed on to the offerings. This
process continued for generations giving rise eventually to modern giraffe with its long neck and forelimbs. This example
explains the effect of regular use of organs.
2. Horse: The ancestors of modern horse left the soft ground of jungles and took to live on dry land. The change in habit
was accompanied by change in length &structure of legs which were suited for fast running over hard ground.
3. Snakes: The limbs are absent in snakes due to effect of disuse of organ. There is no use of such organs due to creeping
habits & lived in burrows. The snakes were originally four limbed animals.
Objection (criticism) of Lamarckism:
1) Mutilation is not inherited. If the limb or finger is mutilated or cut it does not disappear in offspring.
2) Eyes that are used continuously & constantly develop defects instead of being improved.
3) Boring of ears & nose in women has seen continued as a tradition from centuries but their progeny do not show any
trace of holes in ears& nose.
4) The deadliest blow to Lamarck’s theory came from Weismann. He cut the tails of mice continuously for about 20
generation but size of tail was same as of original parents.

Neo-Lamarckism
It is modification of Lamarckism which tends to remove its drawbacks and introduce evidences about the effect of environment
on germ cells and the formation of germ cells from somatic cells. The various propositions of Neo-Lamarckism are
i. The driving force for evolution is environment.
ii. Environment influences an organism to change its heredity.
iii. A number of variations appear in the organisms. Some variations are transmitted to the off-springs.
iv. Internal vital force and appetency do not play any role in evolution.
v. Only those variations passed on to the progeny which influence germ cells or germ cells are formed from somatic cells.
Theory of Germplasm
This theory was given by Weismann (1892). According to this theory, the inheritance of traits from parents to offspring occurs
only through germplasm which also passes from generation to generation. It is also known as theory of continuity of germplasm.
The theory is based on the finding of Weismann that mutilation of somatic parts of the body does not affect heredity. He
removed the tail of mice for 21 generations. The 22nd generation did not find any difference in the size of tail from that of original
parents.

Darwinism or Theory of Natural Selection

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882), an English naturalist published his famous book “The Origin of Species by Natural
Selection” in 1859.Darwin’s theory of natural selection is based on a mass of accurate observations and prolonged experiments
led the whole scientific world to believe on the doctrine of evolution.
Facts of Darwinism: Darwinism is based on several facts of observation. The five fundamental facts are:
1. Enormous fertility
2. Struggle for existence
3. Natural selection (survival of fittest)
4. Variation and heredity&
5. Origin of species
1. Enormous fertility / overproduction: Every organism has got a tremendous power to reproduce. Such a great reproductive
potential in various species may be easily observed in nature. Some examples are;
i) Housefly: In favorable conditions a housefly can lay about 6 batches of eggs. Each batch has 120 to 140 eggs. The
eggs are hatched in 10 days and became mature in 14 days. If all houseflies survived. Darwin calculated
191,000,000,000,000,000,000 progenies in one year.
ii) Oyster: An oyster lays about 80 million eggs in a year.
iii) Paramecium: Paramecium divides three times in 24 hrs.
iv) Salmon: A salmon produces 28 million eggs in one season. If all of them survived and continued to reproduce, a
single salmon species will occupy all the sea after few generations.
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 v) Elephant: Elephant is a slowest breeding animal. They have life span of 100 years. During their life span a female
may give rise to 6young. If all these young survived and continue to reproduce. Darwin calculated in 750 years,
descents from a single pair would be 19,000,000 elephants.
2. Struggle for existence: Due to excessive rate of multiplication and limited resources, the organisms struggle with each
other for food, space, light, water, etc. The competition amongst organisms for obtaining their essential requirements is
called struggle for existence. Darwin observed three types of struggle for existence:
i) Intraspecific: It is competition among individuals of same species. Intraspecific struggle is the keenest because
individuals of the same species have similar requirements and similar types of characters.
ii) Interspecific: It is competition among individuals of two different species. Struggle may be for similar requirements
as in case of plants of different species growing in same area or herbivorous of different types feeding on similar
types of plants. Prey-predator relationship is also an example of interspecific struggle.
iii) Environmental struggle: It is struggle with the natural calamities and environmental disasters such as excess of
moisture or draught, excessive heat & cold, flood, earthquakes, volcanoes, etc.
3. Survival of fittest: As a result of this everlasting competition or struggle among the organisms, the stronger win and
survive, while weaker are rooted out. Only those individuals survive which are at selective advantage due to the
presence of useful variations. The individuals with favorable variations have a better chance of survival in the
competition but others die.
Nature is the super power that select best fitted individuals and rejects those that are poorly developed and
thus, they usually die. This process is known as natural selection.
4. Variation and heredity: The everlasting competition among organisms has compelled them to changes according to the
conditions so that they can utilize the natural resources and can survive successfully. This change is called variation.
Darwin noticed two types of variations: harmful or useless and useful. Harmful or useless variations make the
individuals unit for struggle for existence whereas the useful variations are quite significant and make the organisms fit
in the nature. Such variations are transmitted (inherited) to the next generation so that the progenies are more suited or
better chances of survival.
5. Origin of species: The surviving individuals selected by nature are the fittest and possess the maximum number of useful
variations. They interbreed and passed on their useful variations to the progeny. The progeny will further show
variations. Due to continuous variation, organisms became better adapted to their environment. The variation gets
inherited to its progeny. Progeny also preserved or accumulated these changes or adaptations. After successive
generation, the organisms became different from its parent. As a result, new species is established which was quite
distinct from ancestor.
Some examples of Darwinism;
i. Variation in finches (Darwin’s finches): A group of small black birds which are known today as Darwin’s finches, in the
Galapagos Islands. Darwin observed different finches on the various islands though they were closely related to each
other. Then Darwin concluded that finches were derived from same ancestral stock.
ii. Industrial Melanism (Biston betularia- Peppered moth). Industrial Melanism
is the appearance of dark forms in industrial regions in response to soot and
pollution. Prior to 1845 in Britain and England, the light grey variety of
Pappered moth (Biston betularia typica) was abundant. Spread of industrial
produced a lot of smoke, soot and other pollutants on the tree trunk, the light
peppered moth was replaced by darker variety of melanic peppered moth
(Biston betularia carbonaria) to match the colour of bark of tree and protect
from enemies. With the passage of clean air legislation in Britain in 1956, the
emission of smoke and Sulphur dioxide had declined. The grey non-melanic
variety was again appear at several places along with lichens. It is revere
evolution.
iii. Resistance of mosquito to DDT: DDT was discovered by Muller (1939). It was
found to be highly effective against mosquitos, flies and insects. Among
original population of mosquitoes (when DDT first was used) there were some
forms which had unique ability of resistance to DDT. With repeated spray of

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 DDT the susceptible mosquitoes were killed while resistance mosquitoes started to multiply very fast. Hence, the
population of resistance mosquitoes increased enormously and DDT has no effect on these mosquitoes. This experiment
was an evidence in favour of Natural Selection.
iv. Sickle Cell Anaemia: It is a genetic disorder disease in which the RBCs become sickle shaped and disintegrate. The
person bearing this gene are mostly reported from the area where malaria is very common. It is supposed that when a
RBC in heterozygous person becomes sickle-shaped, it kills the malaria parasite. Therefore, the heterozygous person for
this abnormal haemoglobin can cope better with malarial infection than those person which is homozygous for normal
haemoglobin.
v. Extinction of Dinosaurs: Dinosaurs were dominated in Mesozoic Era because they lead very successful life in that period.
As they did not follow the process of natural selection, the mass extinction occurred.
Objections to Darwin’s theory of natural selection:
i) Darwin’s theory stressed upon small variations but it did not explain the usefulness of an organ in incipient stage
(underdeveloped organ).
ii) It did not explain the effect of use and disuse of organs and the presences of vestigial organs.
iii) He did not differentiate between somatic and germinal variations.
iv) Darwin explained the survival of fittest but not the arrival of the fittest.
v) Natural selection did not explain the over specialization of particular structure.
vi) The pangenesis hypothesis of Darwin was kept in dark.

Neo-Darwinism or Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution

Darwin’s theory of origin of new species was supported by a number of scientists like Wallance, Haeckel, Weismann,
Mendel, etc. These supporters are known as the Neo-Darwinians and the concept are known as Neo-Darwinism. The modern
synthetic theory explains the genetic basis of the adaptation of a population to new environmental conditions. It includes
following concepts:
1. Mutation
2. Genetic recombination
3. Natural selection
4. Isolation
5. Genetic drift
1. Mutation: It can be defined as the sudden, random and heritable changes in the organisms. New species are formed due
to discontinuous variations caused due to mutation. There are two types of mutation:
i) Chromosomal mutation: The sudden and random change in the structure or arrangement of chromosome is
called chromosomal mutation.
ii) Gene mutation: The change in the structure of gene or DNA due to addition, deletion, inversion or substitution
of nucleotides is known as gene mutation.
These mutations cause variations in the population which plays significant role in bringing evolution in organisms.
Mutations are now considered as the ultimate source of organic evolution. Due to mutations some old genes can be
replaced by new genes in a population to develop changes and thus, mutation play important part in the process of
organic evolution.
2. Genetic recombination: It is the process of recombination or reshuffling of genes between different organisms. As a
result, the new recombination with new genotypes are produced. It occurs in sexual reproducing populations. Gene
recombination occurs during;
i) Crossing over during prophase I of meiosis,
ii) Free assortment of genes at the time of gamete formation,
iii) Random union of gametes at the time of fertilization.
Genetic recombination is the major source of observable genetic variation in the population which is significant event in
evolution and the formation of new species.
3. Natural selection: Natural selection is the principal element of Darwin’s theory. According to him, in nature, organisms
face everlasting competition or struggle among them. In that competition the stronger win and survive, while weaker
are rooted out. The individuals with favorable variations have a better chance of survival in the competition but others
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 die. Thus, nature is the super power that select best fitted individuals and reject those that are poorly developed. This
process is known as natural selection.
Due to continuous variation, organisms became better adapted to their environment. The variation gets
inherited to its progeny. Progeny also preserved or accumulated these changes or adaptations. After successive
generations; the organisms became different from its parent. As a result, new species is established which was quite
distinct from ancestor.
4. Isolation: Isolation is the process of separation of organisms from their original population. It results in the prevention of
mating amongst interbreeding groups. Isolation occurs due to physical (e.g. geographical, ecological) and biotic (e.g.
physiological, behavioral, mechanical, genetic) barriers.
Types of isolation: There are two main types of isolation:
a) Geographical isolation: It is the most common type of isolation and occurs when an original population is
divided into two or more groups by geographical barriers such as mountain, river, glacier, ocean, forests,
desert, etc. All of these prevent interbreeding between them.
b) Reproductive isolation: It is prevention of interbreeding between the populations of two different species.
When potential mates are present in the same area but are either unable to mate due to morphological or
psychological or physiological differences. It maintains the characters of the species but can lead to the origin
of new species.
5. Genetic drift: The random changes in allele number and allele frequencies in a gene of population occurring by chance
alone rather than natural selection are called genetic drift. It causes variation in gene frequencies within population.
Population of particular species might decease considerably due to some epidemic. Some individuals migrate to a new
habitat or to some remote island and variability is reduced rapidly. This genotype tends to differ and such population
starts differing from the original population to become distinct stocks or different race. This process is called genetic
drift. Genetic drift may be an important mechanism in evolutionary change in small or isolated population. It is thought
to have been a significant factor in the origin of new species.

Evolution of Horse
The evolution of horse was described by O. C. Marsh in 1879. It was evoluted
in Eocene period in North America. There was following changes occurred
during evolution of horse;
1. Increase in the body size.
2. Elongation of head and neck.
3. Lengthening of fore and hind limbs.
4. Reduction in number of toes from four to one.
5. Increase in length and thickness of the third digit.
6. Development of straight and stiff back.
7. Improvement of brain and sense organs.
8. Increase in length and mobility of neck.
9. Specialization teeth for grazing habit.
The evolution of horse is briefly:
1. Eohippus: Eohippus appeared in the early Eocene, about
60 mya (million years ago). It was an animal approximately the size of a fox
(25–45 cm in height), with a relatively short head and neck. It had 44 low-
crowned teeth, in the typical arrangement of an omnivorous, browsing
mammal: three incisors, one canine, four premolars, and three molars on
each side of the jaw. Its limbs were long relative to its body, already showing
the beginnings of adaptations for running. However, all of the major leg
bones were unfused, leaving the legs flexible and rotatable.The forelimbs had
developed five toes, of which four were equipped with small proto-hooves;
the large fifth "toe-thumb" was off the ground. The hind limbs had small
hooves on three out of the five toes, while the vestigial first and fifth toes did
not touch the ground. Its feet were padded, much like a dog's, but with the
small hooves in place of claws.
2. Mesohippus: About 40 million years ago, Eohippuschanged into
Mesohippus during Oligocene epoch. It was like modern sheep, about 60 cm height. Fore feet had three fingers and one splint.
The hind feet had three digits, but middle one was longer than others. Molar teeth were low-crowned.

11 | NABIN K. PANDIT
3. Merychippus: Merychippus (ruminant horse) evolved from Mesohippus in Moicene epoch about 25million years ago.
The size of Merychippus was about 100 cm height like the size of an ass. The neck was longer. The fore and hind limbs had three
digits on each, but 3rd digits were longer. Molar teeth were long crowned and suited for chewing grass.
4. Pliohippus: It was developed from Meryhippus about 10 million years ago in Pliocene epoch. It was similar to the
modern horse except size. The size was 108 cm height at the shoulder. Both fore and limbs had only one functional digit i.e. 3rd.
Two splints 2nd and 4th were present. The molar teeth were high-crowned adapted for grinding grasses.
5. Equus: the modern horse was developed from Pliohippus about 1 million years ago in Pleistocene epoch in North
America. It has only one toe on each foot; two side toes are reduced to splint bones. It has long neck and head. It is about 150 cm
height. It has high crowned molars for grinding grasses. It is cosmopolitan in distribution.

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

 Study of human evolution and culture is called anthropology.
 “T.H. Huxley” made first attempt to explain origin of man on scientific basis in his book “Man’s Place in the Nature”
(1863).
It is assumed that the modern man might have been evolved from some primitive eutherian mammals during the
cretaceous period. About two million years old human fossils were found in different parts of world. Fossils of pre-human were
also recorded from various parts and attempts have been made to show relationship among these fossils.
The primate order contains two suborder: Prosimii (prosimians) and Anthropoidea (anthropoids)
1. Prosimii (Gr. pro=before & simia=ape): It includes tarsiers, lemurs and lorises.
 Most are nocturnal and have large ears and eyes to help them see and hear at night.
 Snout is elongated, adapted for high sense of smell.
2. Anthropoidea (Gr. antthropos=human and oid=like)
 Anthropoids differ from the prosimians in the structure of their teeth, brain, skull & limbs.
 It is diurnal & have evolved colour of vision.
Anthropoids are classifeied into three superfamilies: Ceboidea (New World Monkey), Cercopithecoidea (Old World Monkey) and
Hominoidea (Hominoids)
Difference between New World Monkey and Old World Monkey
Characters New World Monkey (Platyrrhini) Old World Monkey (Catarrhini)
1. Habitat Mainly arboreal Arboreal or terrestrial
2. Size Relatively small Relatively large
3. Nose Nose is flat and nostrils are outward directed. Nose is narrow and nostrils are downwardly directed.
4. Teeth Number of teeth is 36. Number of teeth is 32.
5. Tail Tail is long and prehensile for grasping. Tail is short and non-prehensile.
6. Limbs Not used for grasping Used for grasping
7. Check pouches Absent Present
8. Offspring Usually more than one Usually one
9. Examples Spider monkey (Ateles), Marmoset (Callithrix) Rhesus monkey (Macaca), Langur (Prebystis)

The hominoids include all the anthropoid apes and humans.

Hominoids are classified into three families: Hylobatidae, Pongidae and Hominidae
1. Hylobatidae: It includes small-sized arboreal apes; the Gibbons (Hyalobates)
 They were separated from the main line of hominoids about 10 million year ago.
 Now, Gibbon is found in India. It has remarkable vocal power
 Gibbons are the smallest apes weighing 4-11 kg; they live in tropical rain forests and leap & swing from tree to tree.
2. Pongidae: It includes semi-arboreal great apes; Orangutan (Pongo), Gorilla (Gorilla) & Chimpanzee (Pan).
 They were separated from the main line of hominoids about 4 million year ago.
 The orangutan is found in Sumatra and Bornea but gorilla & chimpanzee are found in Africa.
 These apes are much larger than gibbons.
 The orangutans are about the size of humans, weighing between 50 to 100 kg.
 The gorillas are the largest apes, weighing about 160kg and spend most of their time on the ground.
 Chimpanzee is the closest relative of modern man, weighing between 40 to 50 kg.

12 | NABIN K. PANDIT
  Human & chimpanzee DNA differs in only 1.27% of their nucleotide sequence.
 A human haemoglobin molecule and that of chimpanzee differ in only a single amino acid.
3. Hominidae: They were separated from the main line of hominoids about 2.3 million year ago. It is represented by a
single living species modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens)
Similarities between apes and man
 No tail, larger head, longer neck and limbs, broad chest large brain & cranial capacity, prominent brow ridges, capacity
of communication, facial expression, live in pairs, menstruation in female and similarities in blood antigens.
 Common origin of chimpanzee and man is best shown by chromosomal number and banding pattern.
Difference between apes and man
S. N. Characters Apes Man
1. Habitat Semi-arboreal. Terrestrial.
2. Posture Semi-erect & move on outer edges of feet. Fully erect & plantigrade (move on
palm).
3. Toes Toes in feet are opposable, hence, used for Toes in feet are not opposable.
grasping.
4. Limb size Fore limbs are longer than hind limbs Hind limbs are long & more
developed than fore limbs.
5. Simian gap (between Present. Absent.
incisor & canine)
6. Body hair Long & coarse. Short & soft.
7. Cranial capacity Gibbon-100cc, 1400-1600cc.
Orangutan- 395cc,
Chimpanzee- 400cc,
Gorilla- 520cc.
8. Face Prognathus (Protruding) Orthognathus (Flat)
9. Chin Indistinct Distinct in lower jaw.
10. Power of speech Lacking & less ability to work. Intelligence & can use tools, power
of speech developed.

EVOLUTION OF MODERN MAN STARTING FROM THE HOMINID ANCESTOR

The hominoids (Proconsul & Dryopithecus) were the ancestors of modern apes and man. They appeared about 24 million years
ago.
Evolutionary Trend: Evolutionary trend is the general direction of changes and modifications followed by the ancestors of man in
order to evolve into modern man. These are:
i) Bipedal locomotion and freeing of fore limbs from the ground.
ii) Loss of opposability of great toes.
iii) Erect posture by development of lumber cure.
iv) Increase in the size and complexity of brain.
v) Reduction in the size of eyebrow ridges and the size of canine and incisor teeth.
vi) Development of chin.
Evolutionary time scale
The fossil records suggest that men and modern apes had a common ancestor known as “Homonids”. It is presumes that
Homonids existed 24 million years ago. Apes and modern man diverged out from the main line of Homonids evolution at
different periods.
i) Gibbon diverged from the main lines about 10 million years ago.
ii) Orangutan diverged from the main lines about 8 million years ago.
iii) Ancestor of Gorilla and chimpanzee diverged from the main lines about 4 million years ago.
iv) Human evolved about 2.3 million years ago.
Position of Modern Man in Animal Kingdom:
Kingdom : Animalia (Holozoic nutrition)
Phylum : Chordata (Notochord)
Group : Craniata (Cranium or Brain box)
Sub Phylum : Vertebrata (Vertebral column)
Division : Gnathostomata (True jaws)
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 Super class : Tetrapoda (Four limbs)
Class : Mammalia (Mammary glands)
Sub-class : Theria (Viviparous)
Infra class : Eutheria (True placenta)
Order : Primates (Binocular vision, nails over digits, opposable thumbs)
Sub-order : Anthropodea (Facial muscles for emotional expression)
Series : Catarrhini (Narrow nasal septum, downward directed nostrils, non-prehensile tail or rudimentary tail)
Family : Hominidae Erect posture, bipedal locomotion
Genus : Homo (Man)
Species : sapiens (Wise)
Subspecies : sapiens

Ape like fossil [Pre-Ape men / Prior to Ape men]:

Some primitive apes or pre-man ancestors associated with evolution of man are as follows:
1. Proconsul:
 P. africanus is primitive ape like fossil found in Lake of Victoria of Kenya (East Africa) reported by Leaky in 1930.
 It was present in early Miocene epoch.
 Its face was like apes and it walked on four limbs.
2. Dryopithecus: 20-25 million years ago.
 Dryopithecus africanus, fossils discovered from rocks of Africa and Europe (middle Miocene to early Pliocene).
 It had semi erect, ancestor of man and great apes (Orangutan, Gorilla & Chimpanzee).
 Its face was flat and probably walked in ape like manner.
 It was assumed that Dryopithecus might the ancestor of evolution of ancient human fossils such as Sivapithecus,
Ramapithecus, and Australopithecus.
3. Shivapithecus:
 Its fossils were recovered from rock of Shivalik Hills in India (late Pliocne).
 Fore limbs, brain and skull were like monkey and face, jaws and teeth like apes.
4. Ramapithecus: [14-15 million years ago].
 Its fossils were recovered by G. Edward Lewis (1930 AD) from Shivalik Hills in India and Lake of Victoria in Africa.
 Arboreal, upright posture.
 Teeth found in Dang, kept in Natural History Museum, Kathmandu, also in Butwal.
 Brain capacity was 400 cc
There is a gap of about 9 to 10 million years ago between Ramapithecus & Australopithecus.

PREHISTORIC MEN [ANCIENT HUMAN ANCESTORS]

5. Australopithecus: It is the first human like form which existed about 5 million years ago in the dry land of Africa. Because of
good fossils record, many more information is known. The characters of Australopithecus were:
 Brain capacity was 600 cc.
 They walked upright and showed more similarity to man.
 They probably weighted about 40-50 kg.
 They were about 3.5-5 feet tall.
6. Homo habilis [Early Pleistocene]: Homo habilis was named by famous anthropologist Louis Leakey. He believed that Homo
habilis to be the ancestor of modern man.
i) It existed about 2 million years ago. Its fossils were recorded from Africa,
ii) It was 4.5 feet tall, walked erect and weight about 40-50 kg,
iii) It lived in open grassy land and was omnivorous,
iv) The cranial capacity was about 700 cc.
v) Bipedal locomotion & move erect.
vi) Tool maker or handy man.
vii) It used first tool of stones for hunting and defense.
7. Homo erectus [Middle Pleistocene]: It existed about 1.7 million years ago. Two similar fossils were recorded from Java and
Peking about 50000 years ago.

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 a. Java man (Homo erectus erectus or Pithecanthropus erectus):
i) Its fossils were recorded by Dubois in 1891 from Central Java (Island of Indonesia).
ii) It had cranial capacity of about 900 cc.
iii) Skull flat, legs long and strong.
iv) Used fire first for cooking, hunting and defence.
v) It was more than 5 feet tall and weight nearly 70 kg.
b. Peking man (Homo erectus pekinensis or Sinanthropus pekinensis):
i) Its fossils were recovered by W. C. Pei (1924) from Peking (Beijing) in China,
ii) It was very similar to Java man,
iii) It had undeveloped chin but developed eye ridges,
iv) Its cranial capacity was larger than Java man i.e. about 1075 cc.
v) First to have omnivorous habit.
vi) Used sharp tools for killing, cutting up animal and defence.
c. Homo erectus heidelbergensis
i) Heidelberg man, Germany
ii) Cranial capacity of about 1300 cc.
iii) Teeth were human like.

MODERN HUMAN ANCESTORS [TRUE MEN]

8. Neanderthal man (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) [Late Pleistocene]:
It was first found in Neanderthal Valley near Dusseldorf in Germany (1856) and later in Europe, Africa and W. Asia. It
lived about 1 lakh years ago. It shows following features:
i) It resembled modern man and was relatively shorted, stocky, heavily built and 5 feet tall.
ii) Its cranial capacity was almost similar to modern man (1,450 cc).
iii) Its brain was almost as large as modern man.
iv) They made tools for hunting and defense.
v) They used animal hides (skin) for clothing.
vi) Not only hunters but also true predators, also cannibals.
vii) Buried dead bodies with ceremonies, religious feeling and worship.
viii) Believed in immortality of soul.
ix) First lived in caves.
x) They were capable of communicating with each other and had primitive type of social life, division of labour, religion
and culture.
9. Cro-Magnon man [Holocene]: It is an early form of Homo sapiens fossilis appeared about 34,000 years ago. It was much
advanced than the Neanderthal man. Its fossils were recorded by Mac Gregor (1868) from Cro-Magnon rocks of France. It
flourished in western and central Europe. It lived 20,000 years ago in the last glacial period. It had following characteristics:
i) They resembled to the modern man in size and appearance.
ii) Narrow skull, broad face, prominent chin, orthognathous face.
iii) The forehead was broad and had raised narrow nose and prominent chin.
iv) The cranial capacity was 1600 cc.
v) They were about 5 feet tall.
vi) They were great hunters and used stone tools, weapons, spears and arrows.
vii) Expert in colour paintings in caves and rocks.
viii) They lived in the caves of Europe and left some beautiful pictures of animals.
ix) They did not know about the agriculture, domestication and socialization.
x) Omnivorous.
MODERN MAN
10. Homo sapiens sapiens [Holocene]: The modern man Homo sapiens sapiens as present today began its expansion about
10,000 (10,000-25,000) years ago after the last glacial period.
i) It spreads all over the globe and became a dominating species.
ii) It has changed from cave dwelling hunting life to the crop raising life.
15 | NABIN K. PANDIT
 iii) It has cultivated plants, domesticated animals and brought about the Cultural Revolution with its superior
intelligence.
iv) Back bone vertical & basin-shaped pelvic girdle.
v) Erect posture & bipedalism; CASPEAN & MEDITERRANEAN SEAS.
vi) Cranial capacity is about 1450CC (1300-1600CC)
vii) Speech development, ability to learn, share experiences.
viii) Facial expression and language.
ix) A good sense of civilization.
Modern man migrated in three directions- westwards where they changed into the present day white race found in Europe,
South West Asia and North Africa; eastwards where they changed into the present day Mongolian race found in the China and
Siberia; and southwards where they changed into the preset day Negroid race found in India, South Africa and Malaysia.
Conclusion: It may conclude that origin and evolution of man has occurred from ape like ancestors. These ancestors would have
been like Dryopithecus which evolved into Shivapithecus, Ramapithecus and Australopithecus. After sometime, these ancestors
became extinct and Java and Peking man came into evolutionary scene. These were like modern man and exhibited high degree
of intelligence. Thereafter, Neanderthal man appeared in evolutionary scene; these were cruel in nature and finally became
extinct nearly 50,000 years ago. The Neanderthal man was followed by Cro-Magnon man who gave rise to the man of today i.e.
Homo sapiens sapiens.

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