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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Objectives

By the end of this chapter students should be able to

-Define research
-State the purpose of research
-Outline motives what motivates doing a research
-State and identify Scientific and Non Scientific method of acquiring knowledge

RESEARCH DEFINED

1. Is a systematic, objective analysis and recording of controlled observations

that may lead to development of generations, principles or theories resulting in
prediction and possible ultimate control of events

2. Is an objective formal process of systematically collecting, analyzing and interpretation of data for the purpose of
providing functional information to managers for decision making.

3. Is a fact finding activity

Conclusions which can be derived from the definition

1 Is an intensive and purposeful search for knowledge and understanding of a phenomena and establishing of facts,
theories and laws
2 Is a method of discovering the truth
3 Is not haphazardly but is done systematically and takes time.
4 Involves collection of data using acceptable research tools on which data is recorded
5 Is done with a purpose so as to solve a problem

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
Is a fact finding activity and its purpose is to discover answers to questions through the use of certain pre-defined procedures.
These procedures were developed over time in order to increase the likelihood that information that is gathered is relevant,
reliable and unbiased.

Research helps managers to make better informed and less risky management decisions. Accordingly the information obtained
through research must be objective, impartial, current, translatable and relevant.

MOTIVES (REASONS) FOR CARRYING OUT A RESEARCH

a) Desire to face challenges in solving the unsolved problems
b) Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
c) Desire to get a research qualification together with the subsequent benefits. In some cases it may be a course
requirement being studied e.g. HND, PHD etc. The research is not self initiated by a requirement that a student should
fulfill to get a full qualification.
d) Desire to offer service to the society
e) To fill the gap in knowledge
f) Government directive – Research can be directed by the government to try and get a solution for the nation or society
g) Employment conditions – There are some established research stations that specializes in research. In such research
stations people are employed to carry out research e.g. Grasslands Research Station which specializes in Agricultural
Research
h) Organizational problems may motivate research e.g. a company may have high rate of staff turnover

The research Process in brief

Basically, the research process follows a series of steps as follows:
-Defining the problem and set research objectives
-Developing the research plan(proposal)
-Collecting the data
-Analyzing the data and derive information
-Presenting of findings
*Research is one of the methods of acquiring knowledge.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE

Ways of acquiring knowledge can be grouped into:

a) Non scientific methods

b) Scientific methods

a) NON SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ACQURING KNOWLEDGE

-Are subjective methods of acquiring knowledge.
-Depend mostly on human judgment
-Issues addressed incorporate the existence of God, whether a person is good or
bad and issues relating to moral values.
- Issues addressed do not require investigation and are even difficult to verify or
investigate
-Mostly used in social research
*Social research is the collection of methods and methodologies applied systematically to
produce scientific based knowledge about social world
-no variables can be deduced to be tested

Non scientific methods include: (to continue)

i) Appealing to custom and tradition
ii) Appeal to authority
iii) Mystical method
iv) Rationalistic method/ use of personal experience
v) Empirical method
vi) Common Sense
vii) Media Myths

i) Custom and tradition

-Is the earliest human search for truth or knowledge which has been
passed from generation to generation since time immemorial. Specify how things
have been done since time immemorial
-Reference to custom and tradition is used to solve problems
-Determines or dictate people’s conduct in societies, living style, food, language, articulating problems,
making judgments, specify human food and speech etc
-Is a special case of authority of the past

People obey custom and tradition avoiding is much as possible to violet them and seek explanations to
various situations and problems through custom beliefs.

Advantages
-Is the simplest way of acquiring knowledge
-Knowledge acquired may be universally accepted
-May result in standard approach to problems

Disadvantages
-Traditional knowledge although once true may be come distorted as it is passed on and may no longer be
true
-People may clinch to traditional knowledge without real understanding it
-May instill development of new ideas

ii) Authority method

This method depends upon acquiring knowledge and wisdom from prominent people who are considered to
have vast social and environmental knowledge more that an ordinary person
-Is mostly used by a child to acquire knowledge from parents and also by elders from village heads, chiefs,
priests, presidents etc
-Is based on faith inputted into a person
 *Man appeal to tribal wise- man and to gods in times of crisis. Tribal chiefs remain the supreme authority
and considered as all-knowing and all-competent supermen
-Chiefs are sought for guidance and advice in social, religious, political and even private affairs.
Moreover, priests in churches assumed the role of authority, people turning for knowledge, advice,
explanations, domestic problems etc

-Authorities spend time and effort to learn more things (researching) to remain up to date and others may
benefit from their experience and work

Advantages of Authority
-Is a very cheap, quick and simple way of learning something
-Not seriously dangerous because people placed in authority will rely on continuous researches and strategies
to justify and preserve their positions, using professional jargon and emphasizing the uniqueness of one’s e.g.
It is true because I the Minister …….
-Do not require carrying out a sophisticated research in order to understand the world and events

Disadvantages of Authority
-May result in individuals hiding their superficiality of their knowledge until they
are in authority
-May create conflict in the society due to struggle for power
-Authorities may speak on fields they know little about explaining things in the
wrong way thereby misleading people.
-Authority may be frequently misused or abused
-May result overestimating the expertise of other people when they are not
-Overdependence on experts or authority keep others in the dark, loosing ability
to make own meaningful judgments
-Authorities may only promote ideas that strengthen their power and position

iii) Mystical method

Is when or where the correctness of the knowledge is assumed to reside in a supernatural source.
-One’s ability to appeal to irrational feelings by using rituals, ceremonies, emotionally loaded situations and
explanations and using unusual languages is necessary and remain from being questioned e.g. Medium
spirits, traditional healers, prophets etc

iv) Rationalistic Method/Personal experience/Self Knowledge

This methods is based on human reasoning, ability to think logically and discovery of laws and principles
using pure, abstract intelligence in solving problems

-Is when man thinks that cannot refer his difficulties or problems to others but should try to solve them by
him-self. Uses his experience and trials to solve problems not outsiders
-What a person, personally sees or experience is accepted as true, has a strong impact and is a forcefully
source of knowledge. Based on seeing and experiencing is believing.

-Observation of reality and collections of facts using the five human senses is
necessary

-Rationalistic may lead to astray due errors of personal experience which are:

a) Overgeneralizations Are statements that go far beyond what can be justified based on the data or
empirical observations that one has experienced. Occurs when one has evidence that he/she can believe
and assume that is applies to many other situations. Is caused by misjudging.
b) Selective observation is making observations in a way that reinforces pre-existing thinking rather than
observing in a neutral and balanced manner. Is determined or governed by preconceived ideas.
c) Premature closure Is making a judgment or reaching a decision and ending an investigation before one
has the amount or depth of evidence required by scientific standards. Operates with and reinforces
overgeneralization and selective observation. Occurs when one feels has all the answers and do not
need to listen or seek more information or raise more questions. A person or researcher take few
pieces of evidence (information) and believe to have all necessary information to make a decision
d) Halo effect Is allowing prior reputations of persons, places or things to colour (overshadow) one’s
evaluation rather than evaluating all in a neutral, equal manner. Eg. People do not scrutinize what is
said or written by a respected person, highly educated or from a prestigious university or college
 v) Empirical method
-Is where facts observed in nature are the only elements to rely on.
-Is not based on theories but experience and observable factors
-What is observable and can be perceived by human senses constitute knowledge e.g. A wood floats on water
but a metal does not but surprisingly a boat made with metal cannot sink

vi) Common Sense

Is form of ordinary reasoning. Is when people rely on what everyone knows and what makes sense to be the
truth. What is believed by an ordinary reasonable person to be good and true is taken without any further
analysis.

Disadvantages
-Can allow logical fallacies to slip into thinking eg if wind blows eastwards it will rain
-Contain contradictory ideas that may go unnoticed because people use the ideas at different times eg Unlike
poles attracts and birds of the same feather flock together.

vii) Media Myths

Television shows, movies, newspaper and magazine articles are important sources of information about
social life. The main advantage of this method is that what is learned is permanent

Disadvantages
-What is portrayed distorts reality ( do not accurately reflect social reality) e.g
movies (eg flying vehicles), crimes, sports(eg wrestling)
-Tend to perpetuate the myths of a culture
-People are misled by visual images more easily than other forms of lying (Has
powerful effect on people)
-Is a forum in which competing interests try to win public support (propaganda)

b) SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE

This is known as scientific research or scientific thinking. Therefore research is regarded
as scientific thinking

Scientific thinking is regarded as the men’s unending search for truth which has brought him to the stage of science as
the main source of evidence

-Refers to a systematic investigation of a question, a phenomena or a problem using certain principles. Considered as
the integration of empirical and rationalistic methods of acquiring knowledge because is based on observations made
during experiments followed by reasoning ability.

Types of Research
Scientific enquiry methods are descriptive research, experimental research or quasi- experiment research. This
classification is based on the nature and approach of the research activities

i) Descriptive research (Comparison research)

Is a research intended to produce an accurate description of a variable under study ,relevant to the problem being
faced without necessarily demonstrating exactly the degree of relationship that exists between variables.

Attempts to determine the frequency with which something happens or the extent to which 2 or more variables
are related, which would permit only inference to be drawn about causation.

Ranges from simple data gathering to investigating possible relationships between 2 or more variables, but
without determining to what extent are variables related, so that predictions of future events can be possibly made

Is a research is which the primary purpose is to “paint picture”, using words or numbers and to present a profile,
a classification of types or an outline of steps to answer questions such as who, when, where, and how. But
mainly focus on how and who questions
 Research is conducted to describe a well-defined subject accurately. Outcome is a detailed picture of the subject
eg 80% of subjects.

A great deal of social research is descriptive research.

Most data-gathering techniques are surveys, field research, content analysis and historical- comparative research

*Descriptive and exploratory research have many similarities and are blurring together in practice

Purpose of Descriptive Research

-To provide a detailed, highly accurate picture of a thing or problem
-To locate new data that contradict past data
-To create set of categories or classify type of situations
-To clarify a sequence of steps or stages
-To document a causal process or mechanism
-To report on the background or content or a situation

ii) Experimental research

Is a type of research intended to demonstrate the cause-end effect relationship between variables being studied
An experiment entails a test which allows the researcher to determine the effect of an independent variable on a
dependent variable and controlling other external factors that might influence the outcome. The researchers have
direct control over at least one or more independent variables and determine the effects of the independent
variable on the dependent variable

NB a) A variable is an empirical property that is capable of taking two or more values, thus, can change
in value or king e.g. water can be solid, liquid, or gaseous

*Attributes are the categories or levels of a variable

b) Constant is a property that cannot take more than one value e.g. citizenship of a specified country

c) An independent variable is the one which can influence the value or state of another variable. Is a
factor in an experiment over which the researcher has some control and manipulates its value, this
being expected to have some effects on the dependant variable. Is a cause variable that produces an
effect or results on a dependent variable in a causal hypothesis

e) Dependent variables are factors whose values are influenced by the value of other variables. This is a
response measure understudy in an experiment whose value is determined by the independent variable
e.g. height of a child depends on age
-Is the effect or result variable that is caused by the independent variable in a causal hypothesis

d) Intervening variable is a variable that is logically or temporally after the

Independent variable and before the dependent variable, and through which
their casual relation operates. is a variable which appears in more complex
causal relationships. Comes between the independent and dependant variables showing a link or
mechanism between them. Acts as a dependent variable with respect to the independent variable and
also acts as an independent variable towards the dependant variable. Found in theories with multiple
independent, intervening and dependent variables.

NB Casual relationship requires only an independent and dependent variables

iii) Quasi-experimental research

Sometimes know as semi experimental research
Is an experiment which does not possess the pre-requisite of control. It lacks the control attributes of a truly
experimental research. It takes short-cuts in experiment requirements thus it lacks valid demonstration of
variables’ association but still it is not descriptive because it does not yield some quantitative indicators of
association between variables

iv) Exploratory research

Is one in which the primary purpose is to have a little understanding of an issue or phenomenon, to develop
preliminary ideas, to have an insight into the problem and move towards refined research questions by focusing
 on the “what” question. The goal is to formulate more precise questions that future research can answer. Can be
the first stage in a sequence of research studies. Can be done to know appropriate designs to use and execute a
second more systematic and extensive study

Purpose of Exploratory research

-To become familiar with the basic facts, setting and concerns
-To create a general mental picture of conditions
-To formulate and focus questions for future research
-To generate new ideas, conjecture or hypothesis
-To determine the feasibility of conducting a research
-To develop techniques for measuring and locating future data

v) Explanatory research Is a research in which the primary purpose is to elaborate, extend or test theories. Its
emphasis is to explain why something happens although the issue is known and there is description of it. Looks
for causes and reasons.

Purpose of Explanatory research

-To elaborate and enrich a theory’s explanation
-To extend a theory to new issues or topics
-To support or refute an explanation or prediction
-To link issues or topics with a general principle
-To determine which of several explanations is best
-To test a theory’s predictions or principle

STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC THINKING PROCESS

1 Location and definition of a problem through exploratory research techniques

2 Survey of past experiences with the problem and available data to get ideas about the past and possible future
solutions and methods of investigation (Review of related literature)
3 Formulation of a hypothesis
This represent a tentative solution to a problem under investigation and employed as a guide in the collection of
additional data which may lead to an accepted solution to the problem

Mental elaboration of the hypothesis checking for agreement with facts, verifiability and logical consistency
4 Collection of data i.e. additional data by means of research tools, measurements, observation, experimentations
and interviews
5 Analysis , classification and summarization of the data collected
6 Formulation of new generalization representing observed uniformities, explanatory principles or scientific law.

7 Formulation and communication of recommendations

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH/SCIENTIFIC THINKING

1 Research requires expertise, systematic logic and an accurate investigation

Researcher should:
a) be an expert in the field of research before undertaking an investigation
b) plan procedures carefully and detailed eg no prediction before description and explanation of observed
phenomena
c) gather, record and analyze data with complete accuracy
d) standardize and ensure that valid data gathering tools are devised and used
e) ensure that mechanical means are employed to improve the accuracy human observations, recordings,
and computations of data

2 Is based on facts and empirical events

Framework is constructed basing on facts which are observable leading to the formulation of important theories.
Research is aimed at knowing reality and each step is based on observation

3 Employs methods of analysis

 This involves breaking down of a phenomenon into small manageable parts and attending to each part separately
to enable the investigator to give each part separate and undivided attention. This ensures full appreciation of the
problem is a whole

4 Employs hypothesis to guide thinking process.

Experience is used to show that two phenomena are related and follows one another

5 Employs quantitative methods in the treatment of data

Scientist/researcher does not rely upon estimates, guess and general impression but measures a phenomena under
consideration as accurately as possible

Results are recorded in units that can be counted, added, subtracted, multiplied and divided

Make use of new and exact language of mathematics to make the analysis, classification, summarization of data
more reliable

Fact are summarized into mathematical values such as means, medians, modes, deviations etc which are less
ambiguous than ordinary language terms

6 Employs objective measurement

Scientists measures, weighs, tests and accurately determine amount of phenomena under investigation

7 Free from emotional bias

Research demands alertness, flexibility and open minded ie mind free from emotional bias. The researcher needs
to be alert and watch for new ideas and ready to modify old ideas in the light of new evidence and never allow
personal likes and dislikes colouring the facts

Personal feelings and preferences should be prevented from research activity. These argues with a scope and
relevance of data

8 Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary sources

Restating and re-organising what is already known is not research. Research endeavours to reach first hand
sources of data and not from second-hand sources

9 Requires patience, unhurried and courage

A researcher has to work patiently towards sound conclusions and need to realize that significant findings do not
come as a result of hurried and careless procedures

10 Research is highly purposive

Research deals with a significant problem demanding solution(s). Usually places much emphasis upon the
discovery of general principles and scientific generalizations that can be applied to the solution of wide range of
problems

11 Is carefully recorded and reported

Terms of references and unique technical terms should be clearly defined for easy understanding by readers.
-Procedures are described in detail
-Limiting factors are recognized
-References are documented
-Results are objectively recorded
-Conclusions and generalizations are cautiously arrived at considering limitations, data collected and errors
minimized
-Non essential details are omitted

12 Is replicable and transmittable

Anyone placed in the same circumstance can observe the same event and make reasoning leading to the same
explanations and predictions because of logistic and objectivity.

13 Is reductive (Reductionism)
Complexity of reality is reduced by grasping the main relationship of laws. No essentials are omitted. Necessities
and chances are distinguished
 Disadvantages of Scientific Method of acquiring knowledge
-Is not possible to observe systematically every phenomena
-Is expensive in terms of time and resources ie money and instruments
-Some characteristics remain unknown so that explanations and predictions cannot be accurate.

CLASSFICATION OF RESEARCH

A- Basic research or fundamental research

-referred to as pure research
-Carried out to provide broad and general principles, theories, results or
information
-Aimed at discovering basic truth laws on which action research may be based on
-Not carried out to provide specific information or for a specific problem hence
not concerned with day to day solutions but to provide basic information in general eg educational research on aims of
education, motivation, environment etc
-Results are public
-Used to advance fundamental knowledge about the social world
-Is a source of most new scientific ideas, methods, theories, ideas used in applied research.
-Ask questions that seem impractical eg causes of cancer in chickens
-Stimulates new ways of thinking about deviance etc
-Provides foundation for knowledge and understanding that are generalized to many policy areas, problems and
studies
-Demand higher level problems, procedures, tools and expertise
-Acts like an exploratory research aimed at gaining ideas and insights about a
research problem.
-Basic research can take 2 forms:
i) Discovery of new theories
ii) Development of the existing theory

B Applied research or field research

-Is a research designed to offer practical solutions to a concrete problem or address the immediate and specific needs of
clinicians or practitioners. Is that type of research work of which its results find direct application in the field of work.
It is devoted to problems of field work and other affected individuals
-Used to answer a policy question
-conducted for a specific problem
-Results are private
-carried on a small sample
-is based on application of known theories derived from basic research
-is used to test theories and laws discovered through basic research and applying them into practice ie application of
known theories eg use of learning devices (aids), textbooks, library
-Is sometimes known as decision making research because is used for decision making
-Rely on quick, small scale study that provides practical results that provides practical results that people can use in the
short term
-Primary audience or consumers are teachers, counselors, practitioners, decision makers (managers) etc
-Its results may generate conflicts if the desired outcome is not expected

B Action research
-Is similar to applied research in many ways, hence regarded as another form of applied research with the primary goal
of facilitating social change or bring about a value oriented social change.
-The difference is that applied research is carried out on a larger sample resulting in more universal applicable findings
while action research is conducted on an immediately available small sample in order to solve the immediate problem
for the same group
-Is a research conducted on a small sample to solve immediate problem for the same group on which applied research is
being done.
-Is the process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to guide, correct and
evaluate their decisions and actions
-Primary concerned with field workers eg teachers to try to improve own teaching and also by school administrators to
improve administration behavior.
-Represents a more disciplined, objective and scientific approach to a problem
-Tries to keep problem solving in close touch in reality at every stage and focused on the immediate application of
know laws
 -Deals with really practical problems

Characteristics of action research

-Those who are being studied participate in the research process
-Research incorporates ordinary or popular knowledge
-Focuses on power with a goal of empowerment
-Seeks to raise consciousness or increase awareness
-Is tied directly to political action
-Used to advance or improve conditions by expanding public awareness

*Researchers try to equalize power relations with research subjects, avoiding more control, status and authority that
those they study.

C) Evaluation research
-Is an applied research in which one tries to determine how well a program, theory or policy is working or reaching it
goals and objectives. Is the mostly used applied research
-Ethical and political conflicts may arise in this research because people may have opposing interests in findings of a
program or theory. Is part of the administration applied by many organizations
-Types of evaluation research are formative or summative evaluation

Formative evaluation is built- in monitoring or continuous feedback on a theory or program.

Summative evaluation is one that looks at the final program or theory or end result

D) Social impact research

Is an applied research that document areas of social life if a major new change is introduced into a community?
Estimate the consequences of a planned change.

*It should be therefore being concluded that Action, Evaluation and Social impact researches are types of applied research.

Differences between Basic and Applied Research

ASPECT BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH

i) Primary Audience Scientific Community & Other researchers Practitioners, Participants, Supervisors, Non-
researchers
Researcher peers
ii) Evaluators Practitioners , Supervisors
High
iii) Autonomy of Low moderate
researcher
Very High
iv) Research rigor Varies, Moderate
Verified truth
v) Highest Priority Relevance
Create new knowledge
vi) Purpose Resolve a practical problem
Publications, Impact on knowledge or
vii) Success Indicators Scientists Direct application to address specific
problem or concern

Research can be classified as quantitative or qualitative research

Quantitative research is a research which looks at a large group of cases, people, units and measures a number of features. Can
be a single point in time (cross-sectional) and multiple time points (longitudinal research). Collects hard data, that is inform of
numbers. Measure variables and test hypotheses that are generalized to the entire population
Qualitative research is a study or research which focuses on one or few cases during a limited time period. Is used in or as a
case study. Collects soft data, that is, data in form of impressions, words, sentences, photos, symbols etc

Quantitative research distinguished from Qualitative research

Quantitative research Qualitative research

Measure objective facts Construct social reality, cultural meaning

Focus on variables Focus on interactive processes and events
Reliability is key Authenticity is key
Value free Values are present and explicit
Theory and data are separate Theory and data are fused together
Independent of context or situation Situational constrained
Many cases or subjects are considered Few cases and subjects
Employs statistical analysis Employs thematic analysis
Researchers are detached Researcher is involved

CHAPTER TWO

OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

This is just a rundown of the process or procedures when doing a research

1) PROBLEM AND OPPORTUNITY

A problem arises when a decision maker faces uncertainty regarding which action to adopt in a situation. Or is a
situation where management needs to make s decision but do not have enough information to make a sound
decision. Posses a negative connotation

An opportunity is a situation with a positive potential if recognized and capitalized, is profitable to the enterprise.
Possesses a positive connotation

Researcher must identify and define the research problem or opportunity, sometimes known as research question.
Distinction between the two is difficult, hence research problem is used to refer to either problem or opportunity.

Research problem may come from the desire to solve a current problem or pursue an opportunity

2) PRELIMINARY STUDIES
-Is exploratory research to gain insights and ideas about a problem
-Undertaken in order to:
a) Discover the problem and define it
b) Analyze the problem’s environment
c) Determine correct definition of the problem
Common preliminary research includes desk research, observation and discussion. Data is collected through
discussion and observations

Other necessary techniques are expert opinion, focus groups, secondary data analysis, etc

3) DEVELOPMENT OF HYPOTHESIS
-Hypothesis is a suggested answer to a problem, which is tested, and empirical
-Gives direction
(For details refer to detailed notes on hypothesis

4) STATEMENT OF AIMS, OBJECTIVES, DELIMITATION AND LIMITATIONS

a) Aims are broad goals of the research. Sometimes are called institutional objectives
b) Objectives are the specific clearly goals that are developed from aims. Are the precise and measurable goals
to be achieved by the research process.. Are also specific tasks the researcher carries out in order to achieve
or test the aims
 c) Delimitations are statements of limits or scope of the investigation. Determines the study boundaries.
Indicates what the researcher should include or exclude from the investigation. Outline breadth and depth of
issues to be covered e.g. the entire industry or part of it. Defines radius of the research, timeframe of the
research process, and time to be covered by the research process.

5) REVIEW OF LITERATURE
-Is a summary and analysis of related literature, which provide background of the research. Researchers look into
theories put by other experts, and authors and analyses their model and make opinions. Contain the following:
a) Conceptual view of experts
b) Comparisons of the views from experts
c) Nature of issues being researched on

6) DESIGNING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Is a research plan. Is a formal written document that discusses the problem for research. Acts as a marketing in a
research process

Purpose of research proposal

a) State the purpose of the study
b) State how the research will be executed by:
-Outlining research methodology to be used e.g. interviews
-Outlining in detail resources to be used that is time, finance, human, & material
d) Provides the researcher with a guideline in carrying out the research work

7) DECIDING ON A METHODOLOGY AND JUSTIFYING IT

The researcher should decide on research methodology and justify why he or she opted for each

8) PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS DATA

- collected data is edited, coded, summarized and tabulated before the statistical designs. Testing of hypothesis is
done and relationship noted, with characteristics revealed

9) INTERPRETATION DATA OF DATA

Is done derive meaning from data after analysis. Findings are deduced. These should be supported
10) CONCLUSIONS are deduced from findings in light of objectives and hypothesis

11) RECOMMENDATIONS BASSED ON FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

-Are based on findings and conclusions
- Are formulated course to action to solve the problem
-Should be specific, applicable and justified

12) PRESENTING OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

Is the reporting or communication of research results either orally or in writing?

RESEARCH TOPIC OR RESEARCH QUESTION

A research topic/ problem is the starting point in any research. A topic is too broad for conducting a study. This must be
narrowed down to or focused on a specific research question that can be addressed in the study. Topic can be narrowed or
focused during exploratory stage, planning and gathering data, therefore is an ongoing process. As already alluded a research
problem may result from an opportunity or problem.

Techniques for narrowing a topic into a research question

1 Examine the literature – published articles are an excellent source of ideas for research questions. These articles
suggest questions that focus on:
-Replicating of previous research project exactly or with slight variations
-Exploring unexpected findings discovered in previous research
-Following suggestions an author gives for future research at the end of an article
-Extending an existing explanation or theory to a new topic or setting
-Challenging findings or attempt to refute a relationship
-Specifying the intervening process and consider linking relation
 2 Talk over ideas with others
The researcher should ask people who are knowledgeable about the topic for questions that they have thought. Seek
out those who hold opinions that differ from yours on the topic and discuss possible research questions with them.

3 Apply to a specific context

Focus the topic onto a specific historical or time period. Narrow the topic to a specific society or geography unit.

4 Define the aim or desired outcome of the study

-Will the research question be for an exploratory, explanatory or descriptive study, will the study involve applied or
basic research.

Sources of topics or ways to select topics

1. Personal experience, knowledge and Interest-One can choose a topic based on something that happens to him
or her. Also may choose a topic only because has interest in that area or topic or thorough knowledge in that area
eg a doctor can research related to medicine

2. Curiosity based on something in the media. One can read a newspaper, magazine article, see TV program and
left with questions. What is read or seen raises questions and suggest researches

3. The state of knowledge in a field – Basic research is driven by new research findings and theories that push at
the frontiers of knowledge.

4. Solving a problem- Applied research topics begin with a problem that needs a solution

5. Personal values – people highly committed to a set religious, political or social values select topics to further their
knowledge and understanding of those values

6. Everyday life- topics can be found throughout everyday life in old saying, novels, songs, statistics etc

7. Social premiums- topics can be selected because are “hot” or offer an opportunity eg reward for conducting a
research etc

Identification of a good research problem is one of the most difficult phases of any research project. In the discovery of a
problem, the investigator can take the help of the following procedures so as to save from wild search and aimless wondering:

 Select field of specialization and become a scholar in that specialization as early as possible
 Develop a concern for that field
 Study critically the available research literature on the field of specialization
 Accept the difficulties or obstacles of that field as a challenge and try to exercise own originality and ability to tackle
them
 Should be prepare a record of problems already studied by others in the area of specialization
 Should acquaint him or herself with a research under way in that area
 Should analyse the trends in his/her field of specialization
 Acquaint himself or herself with the possibilities, commitments and prophecies in that particular area
 Should widely discuss any problems that comes to his mind

Criteria of a good research problem/topic

Before the proposed research problem can be finalized, several conditions and considerations have to be satisfied. Although
there are no standard rules that will guarantee the suitability of a research problem, a number of criteria in the form of conditions
might be listed for guidance in the selection of a topic.

1 Novelty
It should be sufficiently original so that it does not involve objectionable duplication. Originality is the basic credit
point of any research. Ignorance of prior studies may lead to students spending time on a problem already investigated
by some other workers. Moreover, the study should employ the most recent data. However, the fact a problem has
been investigated in the past does not mean that it is longer fit for study. There is constant need for verification of the
findings of previous investigations using other methods or newer or better devices

2 Interesting
 Problem should be motivating and interesting for the investigator. If not interesting for him or her, will not be able to
face and overcome the obstacles which may come at every stage in the research. If it seems to him dull and boring,
there is little hope that he would do justice to it. His interest should b e purely intellectual and should not be there only
for a reward, material benefits, advancement in position, increased authority etc

3 Important
Research problem should be significant enough and involve an important principle or practice. If it is not worthwhile,
if it neither adds to knowledge nor leads to any improvements in the current practices, it would be in vein (vain)

4 Feasibility or amenability
The suitability of a plan for a particular research worker is the matter of its feasibility. Researcher should be able to
carry it out to a successful conclusion. Should possess the special qualifications, training and experience and should
have the required competence, knowledge and understanding
.
5 Availability of data
The research worker should ensure the availability of valid and reliable data, data gathering devices and procedures,
although confidential, sensitive and classified information may not be possible to obtain

6 Availability of cooperation
The study may require cooperation from various institutions, authorities and individuals. Researcher must make sure
that necessary permission and cooperation will be readily available

7 Availability of guidance
A research activity needs the patronage of a guide and the approval and sanction of a competent authority, that is,
sponsorship guidance from a qualified member of the faculty

8 Availability of other facilities

The should availability of necessary financial resources to carry out the study. Researcher should be able to meet the
expenses involved in data gathering, equipment, printing, test materials, travel, computerization, clerical help, postage,
etc plus enough time

9 Immediate application
The research should help in solving an agent problem

10 Aim of the research

The aim of the research also influence the selection of the problem

11 Level of research
The nature and scope of a study will be determined in the light of levels, like Master’s Degree, HND, PHD etc. It may
simply be an action research or a research to produce a research paper or an experimental project.

12 Experience and creativity

Good research problem stem from a clear understanding of the theoretical, empirical and practical aspects of the subject
derived from personal experience and from thorough review of the literature. Another major contributor to the wise
choice of a problem is creativity and the other personality factors that make for are originality, flexibility, initiative,
ingenuity, and foresight.

13 Courage and confidence

Researcher should have the courage and determination to pursue the study in spite of the difficulties and social hazards
that may be involved. Should be willing to risk the criticism, suspicious or even opposition that a delicate or a
controversial study may arise etc

Common errors in selecting and formulating a research problem are:

a) Naming a broad field or area of study instead of a specific problem e.g. Higher Education System in Zimbabwe is too
broad
b) Stating it such that the investigation is impossible e.g. huge costs required
c) Narrowing or localizing a topic, such that it becomes too small or insignificant from research point of view e.g. A
critical study of the poems in book
d) Including in it terms of an unscientific, emotional or biased nature e.g. “The blessing of teaching profession”
e) Lack of precision in the instruments. The tools, tests, or devices which are proposed to be used in data collection may
not be precise enough resulting in another error.
HYPOTHESIS
-Is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory used as a guide in the investigation of other facts and theories that
are yet unknown
-Acts as a temporary solution to a problem or suggested answer which is tentative, concrete and testable

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
-Is a guess
-Is in agreement with the observed facts
-Does not conflict with any law of nature, which is true
-Be stated in simplest possible terms and clear
-Serves to explain facts
-Must be specific not generalize the problem
-Should be conceptually
-Guide the search for new truth
-Must have empirical events and or evidence
-Looks forward
-Must be testable with available techniques
-Must show expertise and stated in scientific and research terms

FUNCTIONS OR IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS

a) Provides direction by:
-Defining what is relevant and what is irrelevant in any research process
-Directing the collection of data and state what the researcher is looking for
-Prevents collection of useless or excess data and review of useless data
*Should precede the gathering of data

b) Organize the efforts by giving direction

Provide a framework for collecting, analyzing and interpretation of data
It is a guide to the thinking process and the process of discovery. Act as researcher’s eye into the world of darkness

c) Places specific goals before the researcher, which enables the researcher to select samples and procedures to
meet the goals. Prevents blind research

d) Save as framework for drawing conclusions by making possible the interpretation of data
e) Enables the researcher to understand the problem clearly and data required. Clarify necessary procedures and
methods in solving problems

f) Sensitizes the individual to facts. It focuses research

g) Link together facts and information and organize them into comprehensive whole

h) Guide the search for new truth and thinking process

i) Set boundaries and indicate limitations

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESS
i. General culture is source of ideas, theories and laws of existing problems e.g. prejudices against women
education.

ii. Personal experience. Hypothesis can emanate from personal experience eg. Teacher’s punctuality enhances
student’s punctuality

iii. Scientific theories and laws can be put into use. Sound mind in a sound body

iv. Analogies – formulated basing on likenesses and similarities between objects. Similarities means something in
common
THE DISCOVERY OF HYPOTHESIS
To discover or formulate hypothesis the researcher should have been:
i) Well read and informed about the problem
ii) Examined with care features of the objects. Be alert to new and incidental features of the objects and obvious
features. Look with care ordinary and extra-ordinary aspects of phenomena object
iii) See beyond the superficial aspects of objects. Search for vital relationships and underlying principle conditions
and uniformities
iv) Recognize the importance of analogies in the formation of hypothesis
v) Recognize the importance of thinking about things

DIFFERENT FORMS (TYPES) OF HYPOTHESIS

A) Directional and No-directional form

i) Directional form – Indicates the way in which the dependent variable will be influenced by the
independent variable. Is preferred because is more precise and gives more information.
ii) Non- Directional form is opposite of directional

*Use of directional and non-directional depends on the ability to predict future relationship between variables

B) Null and Alternative Hypothesis

i) Null Hypothesis (HO)
-States that no relationship exists between variables being studied nor significance difference will found
between the treatment. Results of studied population group will not show any differences whatever
factors will be measured.
-Assumes that all groups are equal
-Does not reflect the researcher’s expectations
-Better fitted to statistical techniques and defines the mathematical model to
be utilized.
-Is the original hypothesis
-Is a positive hypothesis which assumes that everything is ok and not worth investigating

ii) Alternative Hypothesis (HA)

-Reverse of HO
-Can be either directional or non-directional
-States that the differences shown in results reflect real differences between population groups.

C) Prediction form
-Allows the researcher to state principles, laws, etc expected to merge from the study or experiment
-Mainly used in action research

D) Declarative form
-States the relationship between the variables concerned

E) Question form
-Ask whether there is a relationship between variables concerned.

A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Is a research plan, which is a formal written document that discusses the problem for research. Acts as a marketing tool to in a
research process
Is a description of work o be performed
Helps to convince funding agencies to fund and support the research therefore is a persuasive tool which should be factual,
accurate and complete.
Reveals the image, characteristics, qualifications, and ability of the researcher in doing the research process
Organise ideas and thoughts of a research process and communicate these effectively
Should be easy to understand and comprehensive, be in simple direct language and in writing. Unique terms be clearly defined
Should be justified, be specific not vague
Reveal what should be expected from the research that is its benefits to the funding agency

Steps in Proposal writing

1. Identify the need for research, that is, define the problem through exploratory research techniques
2. Critical analyze the need for the project
3. Plan and design the research
4. Estimate the research costs and time
5. Write a research proposal

Characteristics of a good research proposal

i) Should communicate the importance of the research
ii) Bears an idea that is worthwhile and account part of community problem
iii) Should make it clear that the applicant has made a suitable approach to the problem and that the plan of action is
likely to succeed
iv) Should indicate that the research falls within the area of interest of the sponsor by being properly delimitated
v) Should indicate the probable results of the proposed project results so as to justify the expected expenditure
vi) Should indicate that the researcher has the required capabilities, knowledge etc of the area of research
vii) Should clearly indicate the delimitation (scope) of the research project

Purpose of research proposal

a) State the purpose of the study
b) State how the research will be executed by:
-Outlining research methodology to be used e.g. interviews
-Outlining in detail resources to be used that is time, finance, human, & material
a) Provides the researcher with a guideline in carrying out the research work

ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1. Title of the research project. This should be specific not general and not too broad. Should be not
more than 15 words

2. Background of the study: addresses the environment of the problem. It outlines the history of
the company, its objects, and partially introduce the problem

3. Statement of the problem. The problem should be clearly defined, quantified, effects on the
operations of the organization should be highlighted. The research proposal should clearly,
specifically and physically define the problem. The problem should be separated from symptoms

4. Sub- problems. Are problems contributing to the main problem? These can be framed in form of
questions

5. Aim of the study. - what is to be achieved by the research. Aim is developed from terms of
reference of the research. Is a broad goal of the research process?

6. Objectives of the study

These should be specific, measurable, attainable (achievable), realistic, and time bound, hence
people talk of SMART objectives

7. Hypothesis
This is a tentative solution or answer to the problem. (Refer to detailed notes)

8. Assumptions are conditions taken for granted and on which the research depend on.

9. Importance or significance of the study- relevance of the research should be highlighted both to
the researcher and the client company. Are the benefits of the study?

10. Delimitations of the study-refers to boundaries or scope of the research. Specifies what, who,
when etc to be included in the research process
11. Limitations are obstacles or difficulties to be faced in the research process.

12. Definition of key terms – only unique terms are defined. Ordinary words or meanings are not
necessary

13. Review of related literature – categories of books to be used should be presented

14. Research methodology. This discusses how the research is to be done. Discusses the processes
the researcher uses to meet the stated research objectives.

a) Research design is a programme to guide the researcher in collecting, analyzing and

interpreting g observed facts. The research designs to be used include:
i) Exploratory research designs. These are case studies, depth studies,
experience survey, secondary data analysis, and background analysis
ii) Conclusive research designs, which includes descriptive
research design, experimental, quasi experimental,
evaluative research design
These should be fully discussed and justified
b) Types of data: required and to be sourced should be clearly disclosed and identified.
These include Primary, secondary and tertiary. Data can be qualitative or quantitative
c) Sources of data. Researcher should identify and explain sources of required data.
These should be clearly specified and quantified
d) Data collection methods or plan. This refers to how the data is to be collected.
Methods include interviews, observation and abstraction.
-Interviews can be personal interviews (face to face), mail interview (questionnaire)
telephone or telephone interviews etc
-Observation can be mechanical or personal observation, which can be participant or
non-participant
The researcher should identify and justify methods to be used. Specify to whom these
are to be applied, how many etc
e) Research instruments or tools. The researcher should explain the research instruments
(tools) on which data is to be recorded during collection. These should be quantified;
method of distribution (administration) cleared, and the subjects to who there are
administered identified and quantified. The tools include questionnaire, interview
schedule, observation form, and checklist, action forms.
f) Population of study. The researcher should define the population of study, which is
refers to all elements or objects to be possibly considered in the study. Is the totality of
subjects of investigation? Include both human beings and non-human beings
g) Sampling frame is the list of element of the population from which the sample is to be
drawn.
h) Sampling versos Census. The researcher defines whether is to use census (all population
elements) or sampling (part of the population) should justify the reason for his or her
option. For population elements more than 30, sampling can be done.
i) Sampling methods. The researcher to select, explain and justify the sampling designs to
be employed. Sampling methods are probability and non-probability. The objects
(subjects) to which these are to be applied should be specified. Should also explain how
these are to be done that is sampling steps
j) Determination of sample size. The researcher should specify how the sample size is to
be determined. This can be mathematical approach, judgmental approach etc
k) Sample size is a list of sample elements. This should be indicated

15. Data presentation and analysis

The researcher should outline how data is to be presented (tables, graphs, charts) and statistical
designs (computations) and other tests to be
applied on summarized data to test hypothesis

16. Research Project budget

 Budget is a plain expressed quantitatively. The proposal to include estimated project costs, time
for activities, human resources, and material resources

17. Prepared by, approved and supervised by. There should be an indication of the person s who
prepared, approved and supervised the proposal

It should be noted that the research proposal is a plan, should be in future tense, single line
spacing and at least 3 pages and not more than 5 pages

RESEARCH DESIGN
Is a plan of how to proceed in determining the nature of the relationship between variables.
Is a formal written set of specifications and procedures for conducting and controlling the research project.
Is a form of the framework or strategies of the entire research process
Act as a programme to guide the researcher in collecting, analyzing and interpreting observed facts relevant to the variables
understudy
The researcher must decide and justify the research design after formulating the problem

What is the difference between research design and methodology?

Research design depends on:

-Value of the information provided by alternative courses of action
-Requirements of the research objectives and hypothesis

Characteristics of a good Research Design

-Should ensure that information obtained is relevant to the research problem
-Should be capable of managing or detecting errors
-Should collect data objectively and economically using less costing procedures

Types of Research designs

Research designs can be classified into:
a) Exploratory research designs
b) Conclusive research designs

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXPLORATORY AND CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

ISSUES EXPLORATORY RESEARCH CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH
1 Objectives To provide insights and understanding of a -To test specific hypothesis and examine
problem relationships

-To provide information for decision making

2 Characteristics -Information needed is loosely -Information clearly defined

defined
-Research process is flexible and
unstructured
-Sample is small and may not be a
representative of the population
-Data analysis qualitative
-Research process is formal and structured
-Sample is large and representative of the
Population
-Data analysis is quantitative

3 Findings -Tentative -Findings are conclusive

4 Outcome -Generally followed by exploratory -Findings used as input is decision making

or conclusive research
Exploratory research may define hypothesis which is then tested by conclusive research, but a by-product conclusive research
may be a suggestion of new opportunity or a new problem. The following diagram suggests the process.

VAGUE PROBLEM

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

DEFINITION OF HYPOTHESIS
AND RESEARCH PROBLEM

CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH NEW IDEAS

DECISION MAKING

In summary, research design, can be defined as the arrangement of conditions for the collection, analysis and interpretation of
data in a manner that aims to collect data relevant to the problem.

A EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGNS

All research projects of any significant scope must begin with exploratory research. This preliminary
phase is absolutely essential in order to obtain a proper definition of the problem at hand.
Exploratory research studies are not characterized by formal research design, nor are there basically
very scientific in nature. The purpose is to bring the central problem into focus.

-Used to gain ideas and insights. Insights is the capacity to understanding hidden truths
especially
of situations or characteristics
-Useful in breaking broad, vague problems statements into precise simple small and easy to
understand ones.
Objective is to provide insights and understanding of the problem, that is, to discover ideas, insights
and tentative explanation of the problems

Characteristics of exploratory research designs

-Information is loosely defined
-Research process is flexible and unstructured
-Sample is small and not representative of the population
-Analysis of data is qualitative
-Often the front end of total research project

Findings or Results of Exploratory research designs

-Temporary or tentative
-Not applicable in decision making but in understanding the problem
-Outcome is followed by further exploratory or conclusive research

Exploratory designs are used for the following purposes

-Formulating or defining a problem for precise investigation
-To develop hypothesis.
-To identify alternative courses of action when solving a problem
-Establish priorities for further research
-Isolate variables and relationships for further investigation
-To gather information about the practical problems of carrying out research of particular issues
-To gain insights for developing an approach to the problem
-To clarify unclear concepts
-To familiarize the researcher with the problem

Encourages the development of creative, alternative research strategies. Provides guidance as to how of the entire research
programme, eg sampling methodology to use
Act as a preliminary and used to lay down principles and theories

COMMON TECHNIQUES OF CONDUCTING EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

1. Secondary data analysis

This refers to the process of searching for and interpreting existing information or existing literature relevant to the
research problem. It takes the form of abstractions from research done by other researchers, publications in
newspaper, journal and magazines, company reports etc

Secondary data analysis is the core of exploratory research because there are many benefits of examining secondary
data and the costs are less. Also known as literature search/ review/ survey

2. Experience surveys or executive opinion or expert opinion

This refers to gathering of information from those thought to be knowledgeable in the issues relevant to research
problem. Taps the knowledge and experience from people familiar with a general subject being investigated. It is in
the form of interviews with people having knowledge about the general subject being investigated. Where
discussions are held with company executives, executive opinion is obtained and where discussions are held with
experts, expert opinion is obtained. The term expert is used in this context to include anyone with knowledge
relevant to problem being addressed.,

3. Case studies
This refers to a reveal of available information about former situations having similarities to the research problem.
Usually, there are few research problems that do not have some similarities to some situations in the past. Even
when the research problem deals with a radically new product, they are often similar past experience which may be
observed. By studying a small number of cases, it is possible to obtain a good understanding of the relevant
characteristics that might be operating in a given decision, situation of the broad inter-relationship that might exist in
a specific decision situation.

Since a case study is an in-depth investigation based on a small number of cases, it helps clarify the nature of the
problem, identify relevant variables and show relationships between variables. The analysis of selected cases involves
examining existing records, observing business activities and conducting unstructured interviews.

4. Focus groups
These are small groups of people, about 6 to 12, brought together and guided by a moderator through an
unstructured discussion for the purpose of gaining information relevant to the research problem. While a focus
group should encourage openness and everybody’s participation no member must be allowed to dominate the group
discussion.
The moderator’s task is to ensure that the discussion is focused on some general interest and objective of the
research, while the conversation is free-wheeling. The purpose of a focus group is to learn what people think about
some specific aspects of any business under research.

Is a useful technique for gathering information from a limited sample of respondents. The information can be used to
gather ideas or to gain some insights into basic needs and attitudes of respondents.

Screening questionnaires can be used to obtain information from focus group members. These questionnaires set
qualifications a person must possess to be in the focus group.
 A discussion guide being as used as an agenda establishes the plan of the focus group interview, including topics to
be covered and to some extent time allocation.

Advantages of focus groups

- Allow the client to get first hand, close-up picture of the largest population
- Provide more complex answers about the set of relevant issues than a structured questionnaire
- Are flexible

Disadvantages of focus groups

- It is impossible and expensive to assemble and reach geographically spaced persons and working class.
- Cannot provide hard and fast conclusions.
- Can result in quarrelling if not controlled
- Results cannot be projected to a whole population

4. Depth study/interview
Often referred to as “One on One”

Depth study is a form of exploratory research to gain insights and understanding of a problem. This is done through
an intensive unstructured, direct and personal interview in which a single respondent is probed by highly skilled
interviewer to uncover underlying motivations beliefs, attitudes and feelings on sensitive issues or topics.

Useful when dealing with confidential, emotionally and embarrassing matters and when group interviews are difficult
to schedule for the target population. The depth interviewer must follow the following rules:

- Avoiding appearing superior or condescending

- Use familiar words
- Ask questions indirectly and informative
- Do not accept “yes or No” answers
- Should remain detached and objective

6. Projective techniques

Is an exploratory technique in which participants are allowed to project themselves into a situation and then respond
to specific questions regarding the situations. Used when respondents cannot can not or will not communicate their
feelings and belief directly. This provides a structured questions format in which respondents can respond indirectly
their own feelings and beliefs. The most common projective techniques are:

(a) Word association. Respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a time and asked to indicate what
word comes immediately to mind.

(b) Sentence completion. Respondents are asked to complete an incomplete sentence.

(c) Unfinished scenario story completion. Respondents complete the end of a story

(d) 3rd person or role playing. Respondents are presented with situations and asked to relate to feelings and beliefs
of a third person to the situation, rather than to express their own feelings and beliefs about the situation.

(e) Cartoon completion test. Respondents are presented with a cartoon of particular situation and asked then to
suggest a dialogue that cartoon character might make in response to the comments of another cartoon
character.

7. Situation investigation

Consists of scanning or over viewing both the internal environment and the external environment of the organization
to identify potential, political and practical consequences of the research project.
 Determine whether the research is being proposed to discredit on individual, to prove a point, to support a decision,
postpone a decision etc.

- Result in a description of possible research project boundaries on terms of broad time and dollar resource
requirements.
- Provides guidelines for further avenues of both formal and informal inquiry.
- Major purpose is to place a problem in perspective and this is accomplished by posing a service of “ what if
question”
- Should conclude with an impact statement which self form one potential impact of one resulting information on
one problem, organization and its general environments.

Back ground analysis

Is a type of exploratory research that aims at generating ideas and insights about the problem.
Can be carried out prior to, during or after problem identification
Background analysis activities require the researcher to understand the topic by
undertaking extensive reading and participating in discussions with numerous
individuals both in and outside the organization. Case studies, experience surveys situational
investigation and desk researches are considered to be background analysis activities.

Enables the researcher to determine why and how the problem arose

2) CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Is a design with the major emphasis of demonstrating the true explanation of problem
Its objective is to test specific hypothesis and examine relationship between variables under investigation

Characteristics of Conclusive research design

-Information needed is clearly defined
-Research process is formal and structured ie is guided by principles and procedures
-Sample is large and representative of the population
-Data analysis is quantitative

Findings of Conclusive research

Are conclusive that is, final and used as input is decision making

Types of conclusive research designs

Conclusive is classified depending on objectives as Descriptive Research, Experimental, Evaluative, Correlation and
Historical research design

A) Descriptive Research design

Its objective is to have a clear and accurate description of characteristics and functions of variables relevant to the
decision or problem being faced without necessarily demonstrating to what extends some relationship exists between
or among the variables

Emphasis is on determining the frequency with which something occurs and extent to which two variables co-vary,
which would only permit inferences being drawn about causation.

Descriptive research ranges from simple data gathering to investigating possible relationships between two or more
variables so as to make predictions about future events

It also includes the use of techniques such as comparisons, contrasting measurements, classification and evaluation.

-Is guided by the initial hypothesis, that is the null hypothesis

-Require a clear specification of the who, what, when, where, or how of the research
-Is more of qualitative and subjective in nature
 Is used for the following purposes
-Description of the characteristics or functions of variables relevant to the decision being faced
-Estimating precisely percentage of the specified population units
-Determining how relevant variables are related or associated
-Making specific predictions

Descriptive research may be classified as time dimensi0n in research as follows:

True Panel
i) Longitudinal designs
Omni Bus Panel

Field study
ii) Cross-sectional designs
Sample survey

i) Longitudinal designs
-Is a multiple time points measuring . Measures or examine features of subjects at more than
one time
Enable changes that took place over a time to be noted
Is an investigation involving repeatedly measuring of a fixed sample of elements throughout a considerable time. The
sample is called the panel

A panel is a fixed sample of elements which remains relatively constant through a time, maintained by replacing drop
outs

Types of panels are

a) True panel which is a fixed sample of elements which is measured repeatedly over
time in respect of the same variables
b) Omnibus panel is a fixed sample of elements which is measured repeatedly overtime on variables that change
from measurement to measurement. Measured variable is not re- measured
Types of longitudinal research are time series , panel and cohort research.

a) Time series research is a longitudinal research in which information can be about different cases or people in
each of several time periods. The same type of information is collected from a group of people or units across
multiple time periods. Information can be very revealing of time changes

b) Panel study is a longitudinal research in which information is about the same identical cases or people in each
of several time periods. The same people, group or organizations are observed across time periods. Different
information is gathered. Is the most powerful type of longitudinal. Is formidable to conduct and costly.
Tracking the same people is difficult because people die or relocate. Results of panel study may be very
valuable.

c) Cohort study is a longitudinal research in which information about a category of cases or people that shared a
common experience at one time period is traced across subsequent time periods. Is similar to the panel study
but observes not the same people but people who shared similar life experience in a specified time period is
studied.

(ii) Cross-sectional designs

Is an investigation involving measuring the select sample once at a single point in time. Is a single point time measurement.
There is one time measurement of the sample. No need for maintaining the sample. Is the simplest and least costly research
design.
Can be a single cross sectional or multiple cross sectional

Cross-sectional designs can be:

 a) A field study which is a in-depth investigation of a few cases of the targeted
population, emphasizing the interrelation of a number of factors

b) A sample survey or field survey which is investigation of the population sample in

which the emphasis is on the generalization of summary statistics such as averages
and percentages

Cross – sectional designs cannot capture changes over time. It can be exploratory or explanatory design but is more
of descriptive research design.

Techniques used in conducting descriptive research

a) Abstraction which is the use of secondary data
b) Survey is a cross-sectional investigation of a sample which is a representative of the
target population
c) Panel as discussed
d) Observations which a systematic watching and recording of behavioural patterns of
variables to obtain information about the issues of interest

B) Experimental research design

-Also known as a casual research
-Refers to observations under controlled conditions.
-Researcher manipulates and controls one or more variables and observes the dependent variables for variation
concomitant to the manipulation of the independent variables
-Determine cause and effects relationships dependent and independent variables
-Because of the control, provide more convincing evidence of causal relationships than exploratory and descriptive
research
-There is need to identify other conditions

Types of experiments

i) True experiment or laboratory experiment

Is an investigation in which the researcher creates a situation with exact conditions so as to
control some and manipulate other variables
Investigator can observe and measure the effects of the manipulated variables while the effect of
other factors are minimized

ii) Quasi experiment

Is an experiment which lacks the control aspect of other variable. Is an experiment which does not
possess the pre-requisites of control. Lacks the control attributes of truly experimental research
and takes short cuts in experiment requirements. Thus quasi experiment research lacks valid
demonstration of association of variables. It is not descriptive because it does not yield some
qualitative measures of association of variables

Ex-post facto research is a type of experimental research. This is whereby the research has to use
experiment information which is already exists

C) Evaluative research design

Is a conclusive design aimed at testing interventions and their effectiveness
-Represents an important means of linking actions and their outcomes
-Is very specific in its purpose of accessing the results of a programme
-Evaluative research may be used in social intervention as:

i) Diagnostic tool
Help the people implementing an intervention to identify neglected areas, neglected targeted group and problems
with organizations and programme

Diagnostic tool evaluations are designed to inform the researcher and project managers about:
 -the present situation within the organization
-highlighting current problems trends forces, resources and any possible consequences of various
interventions

Is a technique for gathering crucial information and is usually carried before a project is designed

ii) Formative tool

-Designed to promote the effectiveness of a programme
-Relates to the development and implementation of a programme
-Aimed at shaping a programme to achieve greatest beneficial impact upon the organization and the community
-Evaluate the programme in order to improve its performance
-Form part of the initial programme planning and is an on going process
-Formative evaluation can be used at regular intervals.
-Mostly used in pilot study or survey

NB Pilot study is the testing of the actual programme on a small sample taken from the community for whom the
programme is being planned. This enables the researcher to identify the materials, methods, difficulties to be faced,
accuracy and appropriateness of instruments eg questionnaires

iii) Summative tool

-Set out determine the extent to which programme meet their specified aims and objectives. This is done at the end
of the programme
-Used to gain credibility with targeted communities

Process of summative evaluation research occurs according to the following steps:

i) Identification of a programme’s aims and objectives
ii) Formulation of aims and objectives in measurable terms
iii) Construction of research instruments
iv) Evaluation of study designing and data collection
v) Reporting back

The use of Evaluative research is determined by

-Characteristics of the problem
-Initial level of knowledge of the researcher
-Properties of the variables
-Purpose of the investigation

D) Correlational research design

-A type of a conclusive research between descriptive and experimental research
-Researcher is able to use this design to state a hypothesis, express the relationship
between at least two variables
-Results obtained provide more than just a description of reality
-Used when relationship between variables cannot be determined precisely and co-
variation is expected
-Does not give an explanation of why variables vary
-Its purpose is to detect the existence of relationship between variables and suggest a base
for causality
-Is useful as a first step in experimental research
-Does not imply causation but causation implies correlation
-Can also used to assess the type of strength of the relationship between 2 variables

-The correlation is the value -1 < r < 1 inclusive , where

r = 1 indicates a perfect positive correlations
r = -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation
r = 0.5 indicates a positive correlation

0.5 < r >1 the relationship is said to be strong relationship

 0<r > 0.5 represents a weak positive correlation
-0.5 < r > 0 is a weak negative relationship

r = 0 means no relationship

E) Historical research design

Is the application of scientific method of enquiry to historical problems. Is viewed in 3 ways
i) Historical approach refers to the organization of historical facts in support of the new concepts to
be developed
ii) Historical subjects refers to the biography of great man, places, sketches of ideal, thoughts and
traits
iii) Historical technique refers research which is conducted on the basis of historical records and
documents

Purposes of historical research design

-To gain and arrive at an accurate, clearer perspective of the past and the present problem
-Greater appreciation of the culture in the progress of the society
-Effects of certain past practices may suggest future actions
-To avoid past mistakes
-To understand to the deep rooted causes of present day problems
-Develop ability to locate, analyze and approve historical events and understand
limitations of evidence

Characteristics of a good research design

-Adopt a strategy for managing errors
-Supply accurate and error free information
-Should be economic in terms of time and costs

Errors that may affect Research designs

Errors affecting research designs may be classified into
a) Sampling errors are errors resulting from the chance specification of the population from elements accorded to the
sampling plan
b) Non- Sampling error refers to all other errors associated with the research project.

Sampling errors

1) Population specific error

Result from the selection of an inappropriate population or wrong population to obtain data

2) Sampling error
-Arise when the probability is used to select a sample and the sample may not be a representative of the population
concerned
-Is affected by the homogeneity of subjects. The more the homogeneity, the smaller the sampling error. Increase in
sample size, sample error is reduced

3) Selection error
-Also known convenience error
-Results from a sample selected by a non probability method
-Investigators select only respondents who are mostly accessible and agreeable or friends especially if there is a
gratitude for being included in the sample or only available at the time of research. Results from bias error.

4) Sampling frame error results from failure to account for all the elements of the population or including other twice.
Results from poor definition of a sampling frame

5) Non response error

 Is failure to get valid response from the sampled respondents. Affects validity of the survey because some segments
of the population might be omitted from being counted or heard Also exists where obtained sample differs from the
originally selected sample or expected sample. Types of non-response errors or response rates are:

a) Non location error is failure to find a sampled respondent. Results in location rate which is percentage (%)
of located respondents in the sample who are located over sampled elements. Location rate can be
improved by better sampling frames, use of maps and telephone directories
b) Non Contact error – happens when respondents were not at home or nor reached after many attempts.
Researcher not able to contact all or some sample members Contact rate is the percentage of located
respondents who are contacted. Can be improved by many repeated calls and varying time of calls and
lengthening periods of call

c) Ineligible error is when respondent was reached but was not the proper person due to age, sex, citizenship
etc fort he survey. Eligibility rate is the % of contacted respondents who are eligible. Can be improved
through careful screening of respondents, better sampling frame definition and multilingual
interviewers

d) Refusal error Researcher is able to contact but respondents refuse to answer all
or part of question items. Result when some respondents were not willing to
be interviewed. This error is also known as cooperation response error.
Cooperation rate is the percentage (%) of contacted eligible respondents who
complete the survey. Refusal can be reduced by sending letter in advance of
an interview (appointments), rescheduling interviews, offering incentives,
adjusting interviewer behavior and statements, using alternative interviewers
in terms of age, sex etc. Can also be reduced by using alternative methods,
review benefits of the survey to respondents (salient to respondents), clear
introductions and instructions to respondents etc

e) Incomplete participation error result when respondent stopped answering be the end of the questionnaire
or began answering every question with “Do no know” or “No opinion or idea”. Completion rate is the
percentage (%) of cooperating respondents who completed the survey.

Can be reduced by prepaid calls, pre-testing of questionnaires, more incentives for fully completed
questionnaires.

NB Total response rate is the percentage (%) of all respondents in the initial sampling frame who are
located, contacted, eligible, agreed to participate and completed the entire questionnaire. Is a product of
all other response rates.

Question
A researcher began with 1000 respondents in a sampling frame, located 950 by telephone and address, can
contact 800 by interview, established that 750 were eligible due to language and mental problems, 700
respondents cooperated but only 690 completed the entire questionnaires. Calculate all the possible six
response rates.

Location rate = 950/1000 = 0.95 = 95%

Contact rate = 800/950 = 0.84 = 84%
Eligible rate = 780/800 = 0.975 = 97.5%
Cooperation rate = 700/780 = 0.897 = 89.7%
Completion rate = 690/700 = 0.9857 = 98.57%

Total response rate = 0.95x0.84x0.975x0.987x0.9857 = 0.688 =68.8%

Non – sampling errors

1 Response errors are errors made by the researcher or respondents

 These can be:
a) Surrogate which is the provision of substitute information for what is required, arising from inability or
unwilling to provide needed information and even failure to understand the question
b) Measurement error result from using the wrong measurement processes
c) Experimental error arises from may sources eg measuring what is not the effect of the independent variable
or failure to manipulate and control variables

2 Data analysis errors

Occurs while raw data from questionnaire are being transformed into research findings eg incorrect interpretation of
data and findings. This may result from response errors made by either interviewer or respondents.

Response errors made by the interviewer

a) Questionnaire error or bias is made from questioning to the respondents eg using wrong wording,
ambiguous questions, improper sequence or phrasing of questions
b) Recording error arises from lack listening skills, interpreting and recording answers given by the
respondents e.g. neutral to mean positive or negative
c) Cheating error results from the interviewer fabricating answers to a part or whole of the interview e.g. not
asking sensitive questions when it is necessary to do so

Response errors made by respondents

a) Inability error results from inability to provide accurate answers because unfamiliarity, fatigue, boredom,
questioning format or content. Questions may be outside the respondent’s personal knowledge or interest.
b) Unwillingness errors
Unwillingness by respondents to provide answers. Respondents may misreport answers because of
undesired or avoid to embarrassment or to please the interviewer

Other error affecting research designs are:

a) Response by a non targeted population
b) Inter-respondent bias
c) Yea saying error
d) Respondent fatigue
e) Incompetent interviewing

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
-Is a summary and analysis of related literature, which provide background of the research. Researchers look
into theories put by other experts, and authors and analyses their model and make opinions. Contain the
following:
Conceptual view of experts
Comparisons of the views from experts
Nature of issues being researched on

Is reviewing the accumulated knowledge about a question (Research topic) Is based on the assumption that knowledge
accumulates and that people learn from and build on what others have done(collective effort)

Goals of a literature review

i). To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establish credibility. A review tells that a researcher
knows the research
ii) To show the path of prior research and how a current project is linked to it. Places the research in a body of
knowledge
iii) To integrate and summarise what is known in an area. Points out areas where prior studies agree, disagree, and what
major questions remain unanswered. Indicate the direction for future research.
iv) To learn from others and stimulate new ideas. Reviews divulges procedures, techniques and research designs worth
copying and improving on to gain new insights

Types of literatures review

a) Meta analysis
Is a type of literature review in which a researcher or writer organizes the results from many studies an uses statistical
techniques to identify common findings in them.

b) Context review
A type of review in which the author links a specific study to a larger body of knowledge. Often appears at the
beginning of a research report. Introduces the study by situating it within a broader framework. Show how it
continues or builds on a developing line of thought or study

c) Historical review
A review in which the author traces an issue over time. Can be merged with a theoriteical or methodological review
to shoe how concept, theory or research method developed over time.

d) Integrative review
A review in which the author presents and summarises the current state of knowledge on a topic, highlighting
agreements and disagreements with it.

e) Methodological review
Is a special type of integrative review in which the author compares and evaluates the relative methodological
strength of various studies and show how different methodologies (Research designs, measures, sample) account for
different results.

f) Self-study review
A review in which an author demonstrates his or her familiarity with a subject area. Often part of an educational
program or course requirement.

g) Theoretical review
A review in which the author presents several theories or concepts focusing on the same topic and compares them on
the basis of assumptions, logical consistency and scope of explanations.

Where to find Research literature

i) Periodicals/Publications such as newspapers, popular magazines, TV and radio broadcasts, Internet, encyclopedias

ii) Scholarly journals is a type of periodicals filled which peer-reviewed reports of research studies. Citations (details of
a scholarly publication’s location that helps people to find it quickly) may be necessary

iii) Books e.g. textbooks, short story

iv) Dissertations – original research produced by students doing degrees etc

v) Government documents
vi) Policy reports and presented papers

Conducting a systematic literature review

Literature review should be conducted systematically for it to achieve its purpose. The following steps may be followed.

a) Define and refine a topic

Literature review should begin with a clearly defined, well focused research question and a plan. A review topic
should be as focused as a research question. NB Review helps to bring greater focus to the research question

b) Design a search strategy or plan

Is after choosing a focused research question for review. It Involves
 - deciding on the type of reveiew and its extensiveness and
- deciding on the types of material to include
- Setting parameters on the search eg, time to devote it, how far back in time to consider, minimum number of
research reports(books) to examine and libraries to visit
- Deciding how to record the bibliography
- Developing a schedule of visits

c) Locate research reports(published articles)

This depends on the type of report or of research being searched. Major ones are scholarly journals, periodicals,
dissertations, government documents, policy reports and presented papers.

d) Evaluating research articles

Is done to determine relevance of articles. Evaluation of articles includes:
-Evaluating the title. A good title is specific, indicates nature of research, describes the topic, tells about the setting or
people being studied
-Reading the abstract. Good abstract summarizes critical information , gives purpose of study, methods used,
highlights major findings
-Scanning introduction and conclusion sections. Introduction section has 3 purposes:
-Introduce a broad topic and show a transition to a specific research question, that
is, primacy focus of the study
-Establish the significance of the problem
-Outline the theoretical framework and define major concepts being used
Amount of time required for reading an source of review is influenced by:
-Article’s high quality. Well defined purpose, clear writing and smooth and
logical organization of work
-Reader’s sharply focus on a research issue or question
-Reader’s solid background on the theoretical issues, knowledge of
substantive topics, and familiarity with multiple research methodologies
NB A good literature review is selective, comprehensive, critical and current.

e) Decide what to record about an article, book or other sources

Is governed by hypothesis being tested, major concepts measured, the main findings, basic design of the research. Is
advisable to record too much than too little. Photocopying relevant articles or reports may save time than recording
notes and may result in:
-having an entire report , which is good
-Notes can be made on the photocopy

Disadvantages of photocopying
-Can be expensive for a large literature search
-Should obey copyright laws
-May end up photocopying entire article, and forget citation information
-Organising entire articles can be cumbersome especially for several different parts of a
single article
-May result in re-reading the entire article later

f) Organize notes
Gathered references and notes should be organized. Organizing scheme(method)
depends on the purpose of the review and type of review.:
i) Context review implies organizing recent reports around a specific research question
ii) Historical review – organizes by major theme and date of publication
iii) Integrative review- organizes around core common findings and the main
hypothesis
iv) Methodological review- organize studies by the topic and within a topic by the
design or method used
v) Theoretical review implies organizing studies by the theories and major thinkers
being examinee
SAMPLING PROCEDURES
Sampling is the process of selecting a representative sub-set of elements from the population to determine the characteristics
of the variable understudy and to draw inference about the larger group or population . Is the process of selecting a
representative of population to determine the characteristics of the variables of population understudy. The larger group is
known as the population being the totality of cases being studied

JUSTIFICATION FOR SAMPLING or REASONS OR PURPOSE OF SAMPLING

Some of the advantages of sampling as compared to the collection of data on the whole population or census
i) Gathering data on a sample is less time consuming
ii) Gathering data on a sample is less costly since the costs of research are proportional to the number of hours
spent on data collection
iii) Sample study permits concentration more on study rather than worry about collecting data from the field. If
the entire population is to be studied, a great deal of effort is exhausted, simply in pooling up the data rather
than on its analysis and interpretation. P
iv) Sample study permits higher overall level of accuracy. More checks and test for accuracy can be afforded at all
stages.
v) Sampling may be the only practicable method of data collection especially in studies where the characteristics
under investigations necessitate the destruction of the object.
vi) Sampling is the only practical way of collecting data when the population is infinity or extremely large
vii) Only way of collecting information where the population is widely distributed
viii) Offers easy control of procedures

What are the disadvantages of sampling?

TERMS USED IN SAMPLING

a) Population/ Universe
The entire set of objects and events which is the object of research, about which the wants to determine some
characteristics e.g. all college students in Zimbabwe. Is the large pool of sampling units.

Target population is a specified large group of many cases from which a researcher draws a sample and to which
results from a sample are generalized. Is a specific pool of cases the researcher wants to study. eg students at
Kushinga Polytechnic

b) SAMPLE FRAME
Is a list of all the elements of the defined target population from which the sample is to be selected or drawn e.g. a
list showing all college students at Kushinga Phikelela Poly, telephone directories, driver’s licence records etc

c) SAMPLE
The sub—set of the whole population which is usually investigated by the research and whose characteristics will be
generalized to the entire population. Is a small proportion of the population selected for observation and analysis

d) CENSUS means the same as population. Counting all the elements of the population

e) Sampling element is the unit of analysis or a case in a population or a unit to be sampled

f) Sampling ratio is the number of cases in the sample divided by the number of cases in the population or the sampling
frame or the proportion of the population in the sample

g) Population parameter is a characteristic of the entire population that is estimated from a sample. Is the true
characteristics of the population eg % of residents who smoke cigarettes
h) Sampling error is the deviation between the sample results and a population parameter due random process
SAMPLING PROCEDURES /STEPS

Below are common sampling procedures or steps:

i) Population definition is a large group of many cases from which the researcher draws a sample and to
which results from the sample are generalized.
This is the target population the researcher wishes to make an inference. The population must be defined in
terms of time, ages and characteristics. First there is need to understand the research topic and objectives
because objectives specify the specific information to be sort, hence identification of who can provide
necessary and important information

ii) Census Vs Sampling

There is need to decide where the survey is to be conducted after definition of population ie on the whole
or sub-set of the population. Choice depends on:
a) Size of the population
b) Size of the precise boundaries of the population
c) Accuracy required
d) Administration consideration
e) Ability to control sampling and non-sampling errors
f) Costs and time

Census may be called for when:

-Population is small
-Where cost of error is high
-Fixed costs of sampling are high
-Where the variance in the characteristics being measured is high

iii) Determine and select the appropriate sampling frame

Sample frame is a list of study objects from which the sample is to be drawn. The list can exist in physical
and non-physical form and should contain all characteristics of the population once and information is both
complete and accurate
-Can be acquired through commercial research

vi) Select sampling methods

The researcher should choose between probability and non probability sampling methods
a) Probability sampling methods is where all elements of the population have equal chances of being
included in the sample. Is an objective and scientific method of sampling. Make use of
randomness when selecting sample elements

b) Non-probability sampling methods is where sample elements are selected using other methods
other than randomness. Elements do not have equal chances of being included in the sample.
Elements are purposively included or excluded from the sample at the discretion of the researcher
hence is a subjective method of sampling. Sometimes known as purposeful sampling method

vi) Determine the most adequate sample size

Number of elements or size of sample should be decided using either mathematical approach or judgmental
approach among other methods

vii) Select the sample and gather data

viii) Validate the sample by comparing the characteristics obtained from the sample with those present in
entire population
Attributes of sample so as to meet requirements of management and researcher

i) The sample should be a representative of the population. The larger the sample the more representative of the
population
ii) Sample should be sufficient, accurate and provide stable results
iii) All research resources should be used as efficiently as time permits
TYPES OF SAMPLING DESIGNS

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative sub-set of the population to determine the characteristics of the variable
under study. There are two basic methods of sampling techniques which are non-probability sampling methods and
probability sampling methods.

The method to use depends on:

-Objectives of data collection
-Cost of sampling
-Time factor
-Expertise of the researcher
-Accuracy required or expected. Probability produces accurate sample, results etc

Non- Probability Sampling Designs

- Are sampling methods in which the sample units are not selected randomly.
- Criteria other than randomness are the basis for selecting elements from the population. Rely heavily on personal
judgment. Prohibit estimating or chancing. Useful in exploratory research to probe ideas and insights. More
subjective or biased method
- Mostly used by qualitative researchers
- May not require determination of sample size in advance before sampling

Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling

- The sample may not be representative of the population from which it is drawn. This is likely to produce biased
results. Influences based on an unrepresentative sample are likely to be misleading
- The sampling error cannot be predicted and quantified. This means that statically inferences based on a non-
probability sample data would be invalid.

What are the advantages of Non-Probability Sampling?

*Despite the above weakness, non- probability sampling designs are useful tools in the exploratory phase of research, a phase
in which ideas and insights are more important than scientific objectivity.

Non-profitability sampling procedures include convenience sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling.

1. Convenience Sampling
- Also known as haphazard or accidental sampling
- This represents a sample drawn to suit the convenience of the researcher e.g. it may be convenient to interview only
employees within one company instead of selecting employees from a number of companies or those available during
the study or readily accessible with minimum effort and costs or friendly to the researcher
- The researcher may also selects anyone he or she happens to come across

- Saves costs and time

- Systematic errors are unpredictable and not measurable on the resultant sample.
- The sample may not be a representative of a the defined population

Convenience sampling is a useful tool in the exploratory phase of research, phase in which h ideas and insights are
more important than scientific objectivity.

2. Judgment Sampling
- The sample consists of sampling units deliberately selected from the population on the basis of the experience,
judgment and expertise used by the researcher to select the best sampling units to include in the sample e.g. a
sample of four of the most influential economists is asked to estimate the next year’s rate of inflation
- Researcher uses his or her judgment to select what he or she thinks to be the best satisfactorily
- This type of sample may be subject to error which although relatively, can still not be measured or predicted.
- Pilot studies are based on such samples
 Advantages of judgmental sampling
-Greater elimination of costs and time
-Non-essential are dropped immediately
-Since the researcher is aware of objectives hence only relevant elements and data is gathered

Disadvantages of judgmental sampling

-Bias in estimation
-Strong assumption based upon thorough knowledge of the population may
mislead
-Elimination of the use of inferential parameters and statistical tools increase
sampling errors

3. Quota Sampling
- Is a non random sampling in which the researcher first identifies general categories into which cases or people will be
fall and then selects cases from each category to reach a predetermined number of cases in each category.
- The population is divided into a number of segments and the researcher arbitrarily select a quota e.g. a certain
percentage of sampling units of each segments eg under 10, 20 etc
- Chosen in a way that the proportion of sample elements possessing a certain characteristics is approximate the same
as the proportion of the elements with the characteristics of the population
- Elements are assigned a quota that specifies the characteristics of elements to be contacted believed by the
researcher to be more realistic

Advantages of quota sampling

- Permits substitution in case of inability or refusal
- Less expensive and quick sampling method
- Suitable for a population on which no stable population frame is possible

Disadvantages of quota sampling

There is high increase in errors in that:
- Characteristics are not the same characteristics of the population and the sample
- Sample size is not determined using a consistent method
- danger of an error of omission
- Supervision of the interview work is impossible

4 Snowball sampling
Used where respondents are difficult to identify and are based on referrals network.
An individual is initially discovered mostly using a non-probability method, although probability can be used, and is
used to locate others who posses similar characteristics through referrals, who in turn identifies others until the
desired sample size is attained.
This method is used on issues which individuals are unwilling to come up openly; hence incentives can be used to
encourage elements to participate

5 Purposive sampling method

-Considered a form of judgmental sampling
-Selection of the cases is governed by some criterion acting as a secondary control
-A group is selected by the researcher to constitute a sample because is considered
to mirror characteristics in question
-There is purposively selecting and leaving some elements of the population
-Selected sample is to yield quickly averages and proportions of characteristics to
be studied e.g. an editor can be selected to represent the public
-Units are restricted to units considered to be a typical of the population

Advantages
-Only cases considered judgmentally make the sample quite representative
-Unnecessary elements are dropped out
 -Purpose of the study can be fulfilled even if the sample is small
-The investigator clearly knows the objective of the research hence only necessary
elements are included

Demerits
-Selection can be biased and the resultant sample not representative of the
population
-Method cannot be used by an average investigator to select sample units
-Difficult to detect mistakes and inaccuracy till end

6) Deviant case sampling also called extreme case sampling. Is a nonrandom sampling in which a researcher selects
unusual nonconforming cases purposely as a way to provide greater insight into processes or a setting. Used to seek
cases that differ from predominant characteristics of other cases

7) Sequential sampling is a non random sampling in which a researcher tries to find as many relevant cases as possible
until time, financial resources or his or her energy is exhausted or until there is no new information or diversity from
the cases. Is similar to purpose sampling in that it tries to find as many relevant cases as possible

8) Theoretical sampling is a non-random sampling in the researcher selects specific times, location or events to observe
in order to develop a theory or evaluate theoretical ideas. A growing theoretical interest guides the selection of
sample cases

Probability Sampling Designs

- Probability sampling includes all selection methods where the sampling units to be included in a sample are selected
on a purely random or chance basis from the population.
- All elements of the population have equal chances of being selected
- Is a more objective method of sampling, that is, not subjective and not biased because is not dictated by human
feelings
- The sample is thus representative of the population
- The sampling error can be measured and predicted
- Valid statistical inferences can be applied to data collected from probability sample
- The common type of probability sampling designs are sample random, systematic, stratified, cluster and multi- stage
sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

- Also known as accidental sampling
- Each sampling unit in the entire population has an equal chance of being selected. This method of sampling is used
when it is assumed that the population is relatively homogenous in respect of the variables or characteristics
understudy.
- Uses the lottery system. The sampling units can be selected using numbered pieces of paper put in a drum or hat and
the numbers are selected one at a time until the required size is reached or by using random dig its or numbers. One
unit at a time is picked form a pool of units. Lucky ones are picked and included in a sample. A picked element is not
returned into the pool or drum

1 2 3 45 = 1 4

2. Systematic Sampling
- Follows a systematic or uniformity process when selecting sample element. Sampling begins by randomly selecting
the first sampling units, thereafter subsequent sample units are selected at a uniform interval, relative to the first
sampling unit.

Procedures on systematic sampling

i) Population elements are numbered and put on a list on ascending order
ii) Determine sample size
iii) Divide the population by the sample size to get the sampling interval(population
segments). Sampling interval is the inverse of sampling ratio
 iv) An element is picked randomly from the first segment of the population
v) Subsequent sample units are selected at a uniform interval relative to the
first selected sampling unit being governed by sampling interval

3. Stratified Sampling
- Use when the population is believed to or regarded as heterogeneous with respect to the various variables or
characteristics understudy
- The population is divided into mutual exclusive segments or strata where the sampling units in each strata are
relatively homogenous
- Thereafter random sampling can be done from each stratum. The researcher needs to estimate the average mass of a
large group of people. First divides the group into strata e.g male and female and then selects a sample from each
stratum.

Steps for stratified sampling

i) Divide the population into mutual exclusive and exhaustive segments or strata which are homogeneous
ii) Determine the sample size
iii) Determine the proportion of elements in each stratum to the size of the population
iv) Determine the number elements to be picked from each stratum
v) Pick randomly elements from each stratum until the required number from stratum is reached
Heterogeneous Homogeneous Sampled
Population Stratas Elements
a,b,c,d,e,f,
1,4,5,6,78
1,4,5,6,7,8,,a.b.c.d,e,f,
1,5,8,a,c, e

4. Cluster Sampling
- The population is divided into clusters where each cluster is similar in profile to every other cluster, which is,
containing the required number of elements and characteristics of the population. A cluster is a unit that contains
final sampling elements but can be treated temporarily as a sampling element.
- Used when researchers lack good sampling technique for a dispersed population and the cost to reach a sampled
element is very high
- A cluster is randomly selected from other clusters for investigation. The sampling units within this randomly selected
cluster maybe then be randomly selected to provide a more representative sample from the population.
2,C, IV
2, B,III
1,A, II
A
i

5. Multi- Stage Sampling

- Multi-stage sampling is an extension of cluster sampling.
- It involves the process of selection at two or more successive stages
- The population is divided into clusters and a sample cluster is randomly selected.
- The randomly selected clusters are divided into smaller clusters and are randomly selected. The procedure is
continued until the clusters are small enough and the required sample size for investigation is attained.
ZIMBABWE
A
C
B
PROVINCE

5
4
3
2
1
DISTRICTS

6 Multiphase or Double sampling

-Is where the same elements are involved at each phase but with other units (elements) asked to give more
information or different information than others. This result in differentiating details of questions to asked to
respondents.
-The process also involves collecting data from a sample using a previously defined technique basing on the
information found from the previous sample and hence a sub sample is selected for further study.

Other statistical sampling methods are:

Block sampling
Discovery sampling
Acceptance sampling

DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE

Is done before sampling to know the size of the sample
In order that the study be logical and meaningful the sample size should be adequate to fulfill the objective of the research.
Although various methods of determining sample size are described separately below, rarely, will the researcher rely only on
one approach.

1. JUDGEMENT/SUBJECTIVE APPROACH
-The judgmental approach involves the researcher using informed intention to
determine the most adequate sample size. Determination of sample size is
arbitrary, subjective and doesn’t consider the likely precision of the survey results
or the cost of obtaining.
-Is a qualitative approach or subjective method depending on individual’s feelings
-Is a convenient sample size determination technique, which is based on the
researcher’ judgment
-Is a cheaper and faster to obtain the required sample size and information required
although the sample might not be a representative of the population

2. MATHEMATICAL APPROACH
- This is a quantitative approach based on statistical precision which relies on the
traditional statistical formulae for determining sample size.
-Is objective, reliable, transmittable and measurable
-The sample size depends on 3 factors:
a) The level of confidence desired, obtained from the values of Z scores
b) Maximum allowable error
c) The standard deviation of the population.
3. BAYESIAN DECISION ANALYSIS
This is a process that bases a decision on sample size on the expected value of the
information obtained by the sample and the cost of taking the sample. The approach
involves computing difference known as expected net gain from sampling for various
sample size and choosing the sample size with the largest positive net gain.

4. COST LILMITATION
- This cost limitation methods determine sample size on the basis of budget allocated to
the research project. This approach involves deducting from the available budget all
non-sampling related cost such as fixed cost of designing the survey questionnaires
preparation, data analysis and report generation to arrive at the desired sample size.
This approach is unsatisfactory because its emphases on cost to the exclusion of all
other factors especially precision. Time may also be considered.

5. INDUSTRY STANDARDS
- It refers to those rules of thump developed from experience that have become
standard industry guidelines for determining sample size. Convectional guidelines on
sample size vary with the type of research study.

Size of sample is also determined by

-Kind of data analysis the researcher plans
-How accurately the sample has to be for a researcher’s purpose
-Population characteristics
-The degree of accuracy required
-The degree of variability or diversity in the population elements
-The number of different variables examined simultaneously in data analysis

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE

a) It must be representative of the population, that it should contain the majority of the
characteristics of the universe, if not all.
b) It should be free from bias. Bias may creep into selection of the sample due to reasons
like convenience substitution, mistake in the adoption of the sampling method and
failure to cover the whole of the chosen population.
c) The sample should be adequate to yield reasonable conclusions regarding the
population from which the sample is drawn.
d) The sample must enable the researcher to measure the sampling errors.
Representative-ness of the sample and the validity of the conclusions depends to a
large extend on these errors. The results of a good sample must be applicable to all
items of the population with a reasonable level of confidence.
e) Should yield results applicable to all items of the population with a reasonable confidence
f) Should be economic, that is, cost saving.

DISCREPANCIES (ERRORS) ARISING FROM THE SAMPLING FRAME

1 OMISSION DISCREPANCY
Result when the defined population is extrme larger than the sampling frame. Some objects in the population
have no chance of being in the sample because do not appear in the sampling frame although having the
required characteristics. This result in a less representative sample

Sampling frame Population

2 COMMISSION DISCREPANCY
Occurs when a sampling frame is larger than the defined population. Results in objects being included more that
once and also including of unnecessary objects. Arises due to lack or incomplete information about potential
study objects. This can be reduced by screening before data collection by using qualifying questions.
 Sampling frame Population

3 COMMISSION-OMISSION DISCREPANCY
Is a combination of omission and commission discrepancies. Caused by, not including all objects in the
population in the sampling frame although these essentially containing the required characteristics or not all
objects in a sampling frame are in the population. Other elements in the population are excluded while other
objects in the sampling frame are not from the population Sample

Population Sampling frame

METHODOLOGY
Types and Sources of data of Data

TYPES OF DATA

Data can be primary and secondary Data

1) Primary Data

Is data which is captured by the researchers at the point where it is generated, that is, at the point of origin. The data is
captured for the first time and specifically for the purpose of investigation at hand.
Some times called source data

Some of the advantages are:-

(i) the data is directly relevant to the problem at hand

(ii) the researcher generally offers greater control over data accuracy.
(iii) Because of (i) and (ii) above, the data is considered more meaningful and reliable.
Some of the disadvantages are:-

(i) the data could be time consuming to collect

(ii) the date is generally more expensive to collect

Characteristics of Primary data

It’s accurate, sufficient, current, relevant and reliable

Types of Primary data

Primary data can be Overt and Non Overt data

a) Overt data

Is data that is collected verbally by asking people questions e.g.- data through telephone, mail and personal
interviews

It requires consent and co-operation of the study participants. Responses are given orally or in writing.
Respondents take an active role during the collection of data

Moreover overt data can be:

i) Socio, economic and demographic data
This include personal characteristics of study participants e.g age,
income, education, status, occupation etc
-The characteristics can be verified and as profiling information
 ii) Psychological data
This includes internal or mental characteristics of the participants e.g.
attitude, opinions, personalities, motives, behaviour,
perceptions, preferences, etc
-Used as independent variables to classify study individuals
-Necessary to understand behaviour occurrence

b) Non – Overt data

Is data collected by other means other than asking questions e.g. data collected by traffic counts sales, audits or
observations methods.
Refers to all data other than that derived through oral or written responses given by the individuals being
studied

Do not require person interactions with study participants since it do not involve questioning study participants.

2) Secondary data
Is Data collected and processed by others for other purposes not for the problem
at hand. Is data extracted from other sources as a result of the research or work done by other researchers.
Originally, it was not for the study at hand but is only tailored to meet or related to the problem being faced or
solved..

Mostly used in exploratory research to have an insight into the problem understudy, to supplement the definition of
the problem or developing a statement of hypothesis

Such data is already in existence either within or outside the organization- that is, one can get both internal and
external secondary data.

Advantages
(i) The data is already in existence therefore readily available
access time is relatively short.
(ii) The data is generally less expensive to acquire
(iii) May be adequate to solve the problem at hand

Disadvantages
(i) The data may not meet specifically the needs of the current problem and may be difficulty to be fitted into it.
(ii) It maybe difficult to assess its accuracy, reliability and sufficiency
(iii) The data maybe outdated and not relevant to the problem at hand
(iv) The data may not be subject to further manipulation
(v) Combining various sources could lead to errors of collation and introduce bias.

NB A researcher can purchase data from a firm that specializes in providing research data. Such data is called commercial
data, since its source is commercial.

Considerations when using secondary data

i) Privacy and integrity of the source
ii) Primary sources of data
iii) Integrity of the researcher who collected the data
iv) Purpose of publication
v) Quality of the data collection methods
vi) Data presentation methods used
vii) Period , that is, when the data was collected
viii) Relevance considering the characteristics of the data

Evaluation of secondary data

 Is done to determine the extend to which the data meet the criteria of accuracy, current, sufficiency, reliability availability
and relevance

Questions to be answered by evaluation of secondary data

i) Who was responsible for collecting the data
ii) Why was the data collected
iii) Is the data available, accurate, reliable, relevant, complete etc
iv) Which methods and techniques were employed to collect the data

SOURCES OF DATA

1) Primary data
Is data extracted through data gathering methods like, surveys and observations constitutes are the principal
sources of primary data .

Examples of primary data and respective sources are:

i) Financial data- Sales vouchers, credit notes, accounts receivables, accounts payables, asset
register etc
ii) Production data - Production cost records and stock sheets etc
iii) Human resources data – time sheets, wages and salaries schedule, employee personal final
records etc
iv) Marketing data – sales data, advertising expenditure etc
v) Survey data – Personal surveys, salary surveys, research surveys etc
2) Secondary data
Publications constitute the principal sources of secondary data. It should be noted that results of using primary
data, if used for another problem becomes secondary data

Sources of secondary data can be internal, external and literature review

i) Internal sources of secondary data are records found within the

organization for which the research is being done eg;
-Aged market research figures
-Company reports like financial statements for previous years
-Past sales reports
-Employees records
-Internal company publications
-Reports, memos etc

ii) External sources of secondary data is when data is obtained from other
organizations’ publications, periodicals, industry and research institutions
eg-Commercial and industrial Associations like CZI, ZNCC,
Zimtrade, Zimbabwe Investment Centre(ZIC) and SEDCO
-Research organizations such as Africa Research (Pvt) ltd,
-Central Statistical office which is the government’s data capturing and dissemination instrument
-Publications in newspapers, trade journals, and trade magazines etc
-Libraries, universities
-Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe and other banks economic reports

iii) Literature review

-Text books are used
-Information is derived from the author’s point of view
-Researchers identify texts relevant in:
a) Problem definition
b) Building the statement of hypothesis
c) Suggesting recommendations

*Mostly secondary data constitutes basic research and be used to

understand the problem and develop statement of hypothesis
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA
Both primary and secondary data can be qualitative or quantitative data

(a) Qualitative data

Qualitative data refers to data which cannot be subjected to mathematical computations, that is, addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division
In qualitative data the values of variables represent categories. The categories can be coded using either
numbers or letters –eg- gender is a qualitative random variables where the categories male and female can
be represented by using letters M for male and F for female.

Another example is rating of “communication skills”, which is also a qualitative variable, where the
categories can be represented by numbers:- 1 for good , 2 for average, and 3 for poor for a person’s
communication skills. These numbers are used as labels and are meaningless as quantities.
(b) Quantitative data
In quantitative data the values of variables are always numeric(numbers) and
represent a measure. The data can be subjected to mathematical
computations, that is, addition, subtractions, multiplication and division

There are two types of quantitative data – Discrete and Continuous data.

Discrete data refers to data to which the attributes can be measured with only a limited number of distinct
separate categories. Data values have distinct values with no immediate points and usually arise from a
counting process. Have relatively fixed set of separate values or variable attribute.

This means that the elements of discrete quantitative variables can only take certain specific values. Data
attributes can be measured with only a limited number of distinct, separate categories

Usually discrete quantitative variables have an integer values –eg- the number of employees in a
department may be 0 or 1 or 2 or 3 etc, but not 0,5 or 7,31 etc.

Not usually measured over a time

It is possible for discrete quantitative variables to have non integer values –eg- ladies shoe sizes can be size
3; 3 ½; 4; 4 ½ etc but not 3,17; 4, 231 etc

However discrete data can be conceptualized as a continuous data eg

i) Temperature can be continuous variable ( eg degrees, fraction of a degree) and
can be measured with discrete categories as hot or cold (qualitatively
measured)
ii) Age can be continuous eg 2 years, 2.5 years , months, days, hours and minutes
or can be in discrete categories (qualitatively) eg infants, adolescence, young,
adulthood, old
age etc

Continuous data refers to data which can have any values over a range either as whole number or as
fraction. Arise from measuring process. Measuring is done over time. Have an infinite number of values or
attributes that flow along a continuum.

This means that the elements of a continuous quantitative variable can take any value over a range or
internal eg if weights are recorded, there might be any value –eg- 11,27kg ; 23,05kg ; 19kg ; 7,002kg etc. The
values can be divided into many smaller increments, that is, infinite number of increments.

Age is also a continuous quantitative variable since it is measured over a time.

However, age is usually rounded to the nearest year

 Primary data can be either discrete or continuous, and likewise secondary data.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Measurement is the assignment of numbers (by quantitative researchers) or other symbols (by qualitative researchers) to
characteristics of variables according to certain pre-specified rules. Note that what are measured are not the variables but
some characteristics of the variable. Measurement extends human sense and helps people observe what is otherwise invisible.
Levels of measurements are significant when collecting data.

There are four levels of measurement – ie nominal, ordinal, and internal and ratio. The level of measurement depends on :
-how a construct is conceptualized, that is, assumptions about whether it has particular characteristics
-the type of indicators measurement that a researcher use

(a) Nominal scale

Is where data of a qualitative random variable such as marital status, ender etc, is assigned to one of a
number of categories of equal importance

Is the lowest least precise level of measurement for which there is a difference in type only among the
categories of a variable. Only indicates that there is difference among categories but cannot indicate to
what extend the categories differ. Consists of putting responses or observations into classes such as yes or
no, red or green or blue, or other qualitatively interpreted names for each category.

It is based on classification and is not often subject to numerical interpretation except from a frequency of
a response observation of view.
Nominal scaled data is associated mainly with qualitative random variables such as gender, type of car,
marital status etc.

There is no implied ranking or ordering between the groups of the random variables. No or limited
statistical measures can be applied on the data.

b) Ordinal scaled data

Like nominal scaled data, ordinal scaled data is assigned to only one of a number of coded categories, but
there is now a ranking implied between the categories in terms of better, longer, older taller or stronger
etc.

Is a level of measurement that identifies a differences among categories of a variable and allows the
categories to be rank ordered.

Ordinal measurement simply means the ranking of the characteristics of a variable according to some
criterion such as preferences, importance etc. While there is an implied difference between the categories,
this difference cannot be exactly measured, that is, the distance between categories cannot be quantified
nor assumed to be equal. Eg agree, Strongly agree, Disagree, Strongly disagree.

In research, ordinal scaled data is generated from ranked responses. In ranking, one cannot say that the
item ranked as one is twice as preferred as that ranked two or that the difference between ranks is
constant. There is limit on statistics on this data.

c) Interval scaled data

-Is a level of measurement that identifies differences among variables, attributes, ranks categories and
measures distance between categories, but there is no true zero origin
-Is data associated with quantitative random variable.
-differences can be measured between values of a quantitative random variable. Thus interval scaled data
possess both order (implied ranking) and distance properties.
-An interval scale is one where an item is assigned a score and the distance between scores is constant e.g.
the distance between an item scored fourth and that scored second is the same as that between one scored
 tenth and that scored eighth. Interval scaled data does not possess an absolute origin; therefore the ratio
of values cannot be meaningfully compared for interval scaled data. Only absolute differences make sense
when interval-scaled data has been collected.
Do not have zero origin eg Temperature can be 5 degrees, 45 degrees

d) Ratio scaled data

Is the highest, most precise level of measurement. Variable attributes can be rank ordered, the distance
between them precisely measured and there is an absolute zero
-Is data associated mainly with quantitative random variables such as income, time, age, distance, prices
etc. It is numeric data with a zero origin. The zero origin indicates the absence of the attribute being
measured and zeros are there to help keep a score
Thus ratio scales have intrinsically physical interpretation, in absolute terms rather than being
measurement which are relative to an arbitrary zero point.
-Ratio scaled data is the strongest form of data which can be collected and lends itself to the widest range
of statistics methods.

-However, it should be noted that if ratio scaled data is grouped into categories, the data type becomes
ordinal scaled data. This then reduces the scope of statistical analysis on the random variable

METHODS OF EXTRACTING /COLLECTING DATA OR DATA

COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Data need to be systematically collected so that can be able to answer research questions in conclusive way. Data collection
methods include:
a) Interviews these can be personal, telephone, mail or internet interviews
b) Observations can be personal, mechanical, content analysis, trace analysis, audit, and abstraction

Interview is a method of collecting overt primary data. Collection of data requires cooperation and interaction of study objects.
The study objects take an active role.

a) PERSONAL INTERVIEWS/ FACE TO FACE INTERVIEWS

-Used for collecting overt primary data
-data is collected by means of face to face communication between the
interviewer (researcher) and the respondents or study participants
-Respondents are contacted, asked questions and the responses are recorded,
therefore, the interviewer’s tasks are to meet the respondents, ask questions and
record the responses on the interview schedule.
-Interviews can be either structured or unstructured.

Structured interview is a method of interviewing where questions are predetermined. Interviews are purposefully
standardized so that each respondent is exposed to the same questions or questionnaire (interview schedule) as well
as the questioning process. This means that the interviewer cannot alter the interview either by:
-adding or deleting questions from the interview schedule or questionnaire
-changing the sequence of the questions
-changing the wording of the questions

Highly structured interviews contain structured questions, that is, questions which require short answers like “Yes”
or” No”

Have a low degree of flexibility. Questions are fixed.

Useful when the respondents are large
Data from such interviews are is to present and analysis

An unstructured interview is a method of interview where questions are not completely pre-determined and the
interviewer is free to probe for all details and underlying feelings. Such interviews are used when the researcher
 wants to the flexibility of being able to ask questions in different orders to determine the working of specific
questions for different respondents or to be able to probe respondents to clarify certain answers to questions

There is high degree of flexibility. Wording can be changed and also order of questions. Additional questions not,
included on the questionnaire, may be asked to gain more information. Interview schedules are only used as a guide
in questioning

Frequently used in exploratory studies and when the researcher has little understanding or knowledge of the
problem.

Questions are open ended. Respondents are not restricted in their responses

Advantages of personal interviews

i) Higher response rate is generally achieved because respondents tend to be more cooperative in personal
interviews
ii) Questioning allows probing for reasons
iii) Greater data accuracy is generally ensured because the interviewer can help the respondent to understand
the questions
iv) Data collection is immediate, that is, there is immediate feed back
v) Non-verbal responses and visual aids can be observed and noted. Face to face contact can tell the
interviewer a lot about the respondent therefore more data can be collect at one goal. Is a two in one
method of collecting data
vi) Generally more questions can be asked, permits the longest questionnaire, open-ended and complex
questions to be asked
vii) Responses are spontaneous, that is, spontaneous answers can be obtained
viii) The use of aided- recall questions is possible
ix) Difficult in one question does not result in the loss of answers to all of them
x) The respondent does not know what other coming questions when answering so these cannot influence
replies

Disadvantages of personal interviews

i) Time consuming and very cost especially when the responses are many
ii) Respondent anonymity is lost
iii) It may be difficult to find convenient time for interviewing certain busy people
iv) Respondents do not have time to consider replies or look up for information therefore pre- mature or
incomplete data can be collected
v) Possibility of gathering biased data is introduced by the interviewer’s interest or respondents answering
questions to please the interviewer or the interviewer may influence the respondent’s answers.
Appearance, tone of voice etc of the interviewer may influence responses.
vi) The method is expensive if the interviewers/ees have to be paid. Interviewers may need to be trained and
paid. In addition, the interviewee may require an incentive if to be involved in the process.
vii) Very difficult in case of geographically spaced respondents
viii) Other respondents may not be interested in well-coming unfamiliar visitors in doors
ix) Generally fewer interviews are conducted because of time and cost constraints. This means that the
sample size is usually restricted by high costs and may not be a representative of the population

Personal interviews are conversations, but differ from ordinary conversations in many ways

Ordinary Conversation Structured Conversation(Interview)

1 Questions and answers from each
participant are equally balanced
2 Open exchange of feelings and opinions
3 Judgments’ are stated and attempts made
to persuade the other’s point of view
Interviewer asks and respondent answers most of time
Only respondents reveal feelings and opinions
Interviewer is non-judgment and no attempt to change
respondent’s opinions or beliefs
Interviewer tries to obtain direct answers to specific
questions
4 Person can reveal deep inner feelings to
gain sympathy or as a therapeutic release
5 Ritual responses are common eg “Uh”,
Shaking head, fine
6 Participants exchange information and
correct the factual errors that they are
aware of.
7 Topics rise and fall. Any person can
introduce new topics. Focus can split
directions or digress to less relevant
issues
Interviewer avoids ritual responses and seeks genuine
answers, not ritual responses.
Respondent provides almost all information and
interviewer does not correct a respondent’s factual errors
Interviewer controls the topic, direction and pace.
Respondent is kept on task and irrelevant diversions are
contained
Interviewer attempts to maintain a consistently warn but
serious and objective tone throughout

8 Emotional tone can shift from humor, to Difficult or impossible to evade and ignore questions.
joy, to affection, sadness, anger etc Should give truthful and thoughtful answers.

9 People can evade or ignore questions

and give flippant or non-committal
answers

Stages of a face to face interview

1 Introduction and entry stage

Includes getting into the doors, welcoming remarks, showing authorization, reassuring and securing co-
operation from respondents

2 Interview process is the second stage is the main part of the interview which consists of asking and
recording answers. There is also probing, that follow-up questioning asking respondents to clarify or
elaborate on an incomplete or inappropriate answers

Forms (types) of probing are:

-Non verbal communications eg raised eyebrows, tilt of head etc
-Repeating the question or repeat a reply and then pause
-Asking a neutral question eg Any other reasons, Can you tell me more about that, what do you mean? etc

3 Exit stage is the third and final stage: Interviewer thanks the respondent and leaves.

Interviewer bias may chip in and affect the interview. Interviewer bias is when an interviewer influences the
responses from the respondents. Interviewee may also result in interviewee bias

Categories of interview bias

i. Errors by the respondent eg forgetting, embarrassment, misunderstanding or lying because of the

presences of others. Is an interviewee bias

ii. Unintentional errors or interviewer sloppiness is caused by contacting the wrong respondents,
misreading a question, omitting questions, reading questions in the wrong order or recording the
wrong answer to a question or misunderstanding the respondent

iii. Intentional subversion by the interviewer –is the purposeful alteration of answers, omission or
rewording of questions or choice of alternative respondent
iv. Influence due to the interviewer’s expectations about the a respondent’s answers based on the
respondent’s appearance, living situation etc
 v. Failure of an interviewer to probe or to probe properly

vi. Influence on the answers due to the interviewer’s appearance, tone, attitude, reaction to answers
or comments made outside of the interview schedule

b) TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS
-Is means of collecting overt primary data
-data is collected by means of telephone communication between the researcher or interviewer and the respondents
or study participants
-Involves phoning a sample of respondents asking them a series of questions and recording the responses on
questionnaire or interview schedules

Advantages of telephone interviews

i) Allow quicker contact with geographically dispersed respondents
ii) Call backs can be arranged and made if the respondent is not initially available thereby increasing response
rate
iii) The cost is relatively lower as compared to personal interviews
iv) People are more willing to talk on telephone from the security and comfort of their own homes or offices,
even when not seeing the person on face to face
v) Interviewer probing is possible
vi) Interviewer has control of sequence of questions, time of questioning, and can use contingency questions
effectively
vii) Clarity on questions can be provided by the interviewer
viii) The use of aided-recall questions is possible
ix) A larger sample of respondents can be reached in relatively short space of time
x) Is a flexible method of collecting data and contacting respondents

Disadvantages of telephone interviews

i) Respondent anonymity is lost and there is element of interviewer bias
ii) Non-verbal responses cannot be observed
iii) Respondents may terminate the interview prematurely by putting the telephone down or switching is off
iv) Sampling errors are compounded if significant numbers of the target population do not have telephones.
These cannot be reached or contacted
v) Trained interviewers are required and this increases costs
vi) There is no possibility of check backs to check on the validity of responses after termination of the interview
when doing data analysis if data was incorrectly captured/recorded.
vii) Calls may come at an inconvenient time eg meetings
viii) Open ended questions are difficult to use

c) MAIL INTERVIEWS (Postal questionnaire method)

-Is method of collecting overt primary data
-data is collected by means of mail communication between the researcher and the
respondents
-Questionnaires are mailed (posted) to pre-selected potential respondents
-A complete mail interview package consists of the out- going envelope, cover
letter, questionnaire, return stamped envelope and possibly an incentive for
participation
-Respondents complete and return the questionnaires to the interviewer
-There is no verbal oral interaction between the researcher and the respondents
-Is appropriate when the target population from which the data required is large
and geographically dispersed
-Questionnaires may personally hand administered to respondents and re-
collected

Advantages of mail interviews

i) A larger sample of respondents can be reached. Questionnaires can be distributed widely and to many
people
ii) More cost effective, that is, cheaper than personal interviews and can be conducted by a single researcher
 iii) Respondents have more time to consider their responses. They have time to consider their opinions and
check on accuracy and current information or records
iv) Anonymity of respondent is assured, generally, result in more honest responses hence avoid interviewer
bias
v) Respondents can complete the questionnaire at their own convenient spare time
vi) Questionnaires can be sent out periodically to update the data

Disadvantages of mail interviews

i) Response rate is very low unless there is incentive or legal obligation to reply
ii) Respondent cannot obtain clarity or misunderstood questions and such questions may not be answered or
wrongly answered or answers may be meaningless
iii) Postal or mail questionnaires must be shorter and simpler to complete hence not all questions may be
asked
iv) The possibility of probing or investigating further are limited
v) Data collection takes a long time. It is difficult to or no control over how long people take to reply
vi) There is no control over who actually answers the questionnaire. The answers may not be entirely the
respondent’s own. No control over conditions under which the questionnaire is completed
vii) Data cannot be collected from illiterate people.
viii) There is no possibility of check backs to check on the validity of responses.
ix) Knowledge of what questions are to come, later may influence answers to earlier ones
x) There is no spontaneity feedback
xi) Postal questionnaires are difficult to design
xii) Non verbal responses cannot be observed

What can be done to increase mail interview / questionnaire response

1 -Address the questionnaire to a specific person not “Occupant or office” and send it first class
2 -Include a carefully written, dated cover letter on letterhead stationery. Request respondent co-operation,
guarantee confidentiality, explain purpose of the survey, and give the researcher’s name and contact details
3 -Include a postage paid, addressed return envelope
4 -Questionnaire should have a neat, attractive layout and reasonable page length
5 -Questionnaire should be professionally printed, easy to read and with clear instructions
6 -Send two follow-up reminder letters to those not responding. First should arrive about one week after sending a
questionnaire, the second a week later. Gently ask for co-operation again and offer to send another questionnaire in
case the first got lost
7 -Do not send questionnaires during major holidays periods
8 -Do not put questions on the back page (on both sides of a page)
9 -Leave enough blank space after each question for responses. Mostly ask the respondent for general comments
10 -Sponsors that are local and seen as legitimate eg gvt, universities, get a better response
11 -Include a small monetary incentive and promise more for fully completed questionnaires
12 -Avoid ambiguous questions, wording etc

Comparison of personal, telephone and mail interviews

Characteristics Personal interviews Telephone interviews Mail interviews
1. Unit cost of data collected Most expensive Moderately Least
2. Speed of data collection Moderately slow Fastest Slowest
3. Quantity of data collected Most least Considerable
4. Control of data collection environment Very good Good None
5. Control of data collection process Very good Moderately good Potentially difficult
6. Size of staff required Large Moderate Small
7. Diversity of questions possible Good Limited Moderate
8. Flexibility of data collection Very flexible Moderately flexible Least flexible
9. Use of facilitating aids Very good Limited Moderate
10. Geographical dispersion of respondents Limited Good Very good
11. Refusal & Non response problems Least Moderate Greatest
12. Perceived anonymity of respondents Low Moderate high
13. Interviewer bias High Moderate None

d) Internet Interviews also known as web survey or email survey. Are becoming the most fast due to technological
advancement. Interviews are done the network.

Advantages of web survey

-Are very fast and inexpensive
-Allow flexible designs. Can use visual images, audio or video communications
-Very efficient. Eg completely eliminate paper, postage, data entry costs.
-Overcome international boundary limitations

Disadvantages of web surveys

-Coverage. Many people especially less educated, lower income and rural people do not
have access to internet.
-Privacy of respondent’s responses not 100% assured
-Design issues- requires the researchers to check and verify compatibility of software and
hardware combination used by computers of respondents

2) OBSERVATIONS
Used for collecting non- overt primary data
-Are methods of data collection in which the situations of interested are
systematically watched or scrutinized and relevant facts, actions or behaviours
are recorded on the observation form or schedule.
-Observer does not question or communicate with the people being observed
-Data is recorded as the events occur or from records of past events
-Observations can be applied on both human beings and non-human beings

*Observation methods can be classified by the mode of administration as personal

observation, mechanical observation, audit, content analysis and trace analysis

a) Personal observations
Used to collect non-overt primary data
-The researcher observes the events as they occur and does not attempt to control or manipulate the
phenomenon being observed
-The observer merely records what takes place on the observation form or
Schedule

-Personal observation can be participant or non-participant observation

i) Participant observation is when the researcher will involve him or

herself in the activity being observed, that is, doing the work being
done by those being observed. This form enables the researcher to
assess demands of the activities being done and also how those
experienced in the work are doing. Can even get data by doing the
activity under investigation. No undivided attention in recording data.
Researcher can be absorbed in the work not recording

ii) Non Participant observation is when the researcher may not take part
in the activities being observed. Observation is done from a distance or
taking a passive role in the activities being done. Allows undivided
attention in the recording of data. Participants may react to the observer
 b) Mechanical observation
-Used for collecting non-overt data
Mechanical devices rather than human beings record the phenomenon
being observed. The devices may or may not require the respondents’
direct participation. Example of mechanical observation devices include
devices used to record weather changes, robots, over speed detecting
devices used by police

c) Content analysis
-Used for collecting non-overt data
Is appropriate method when the phenomenon being observed is
communication rather than events or physical object.
-is defined as the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the
manifest content of communication
-It includes observation as well as analysis. Unit of analysis may be type
of words ,characters (individuals), things, space, time and measurements
(length or duration) of the message or topic(subject of the message)

d) Trace Analysis
-Used for collecting non-overt data
-In trace analysis, data collection is based on physical trace or remains or evidence of past behaviour.
-The traces may have be left intentionally or unintentionally by the respondents
-Eg. The number of different finger prints on a page can be used to gauge the readership of various topics in
a text book, Bushmen paintings used to understand their living style

e) Audit
-Used for collecting non-overt primary data
-In an audit, the researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing inventory analysis eg
auditing of financial statements by auditors so as to verify authenticity of financial statements

f) Abstraction
-Used for collecting non-overt primary data
-Is applied on secondary data
-Abstraction or desk research is the collection of secondary data already available that is closely related to
the investigation on hand. The data is collected from sources of secondary data already discussed.
-Recording of collected data is done on a check list

Advantages of observations
-Can give accurate additional information than any other means of data
Collection
-Can collect information on sensitive issues
-Information can be collected from non-human beings eg toilets

Disadvantages of observations
-Time consuming
-Appropriate on small groups
-Participants may react to the observation resulting in collecting wrong data

TRIANGULATION IN RESEARCH
Is the use of 2 or more methods of data collection in the study of some aspect of human behavior or an aspect from which data
is being collected. Is observing something from different angles or viewpoints to get the true location. The idea is that looking at
something from multiple points or view improves accuracy
Is used for verification or validation purposes to ensure collect and accurate data is collected
Types of triangulation

i) Time triangulation
-Take into consideration time factor of changes and process by utilizing cross-sectional and longitudinal designs
over time
-The same phenomenon is measured repeatedly over time to note any changes

ii) Space triangulation

-Attempts to overcome the limitations of studies conducted within one culture or sub-culture.
-This involves testing of theories among different people or differences between populations by using several
different measuring instruments (cross-cultural studies)

iii) Combined levels of triangulation

-Uses more than one level of analysis

iv) Theoretical triangulation/Triangulation of observers

-Is when a researcher uses multiple theoretical perspectives in the planning stages of research or when
interpreting the data
-This draws upon alternative or competing theories in preference to utilizing one viewpoint only. The researcher
should be more active in designing his or her research so that competing theories can be tested.

v) Investigators triangulation
-This engages more than one observers, interviewers or investigators recording data from the same subjects
being investigated in respect of the same characteristics.
-Is used to ensure that corrected data is collected by comparing data from different investigators.
-Discrepancies can be analyzed if any and investigated
-Prevents the limitations of a single observer to affect the entire study

vi) Triangulation of measures is when researchers take multiple measurements of the same phenomena either
using the same measuring instrument or different instruments

vii) Methodological triangulation

-This type uses either the
(a) The same method on different occasions or
(b) Different methods on the same objects of study
(c) Mixing quantitative styles and qualitative styles of research and data

SURVEY DIFFERENTIATED FROM CASE STUDY

Survey method
-Is a quantitative research in which the researcher systematically asks a large number of people the same questions and records
their answers. Written questionnaires or formal interviews are used to gather data/information
-Is associated with the deductive approach
-Used to answer who, what, where, how much and how many questions
-Tend to be used for exploratory and descriptive research
-Allow collection of large amount of data from a sizeable population in a highly
economic way
-Allows collection of quantitative data which can be analyzed quantitatively using
descriptive and inferential statistics
-Data collected can be used to suggest possible reasons for particular relationships
between variables and to produce models of these researches
-Researcher has more control over the research process but does not manipulate a situation or
condition to see how people react but only ask and record answers
-Sample is a representative of the entire population. Sample elements are randomly sampled
using random sampling technique
-Data is collected through questionnaires, structured observations and structured
Interviews and then summarized in charts, graphs or tables and analyzed statistically
-Surveys are mostly used in descriptive and explanatory research
* is the collection of information on a wide range of cases, each case being investigated only on
a particular aspect under consideration

Information or data which can be sourced through survey include

- behavior - Attitudes, beliefs and opinions -Characteristics -Expectations
-Self – classification

Factors which contributed to growth in survey

1) Computers- made the sophisticated statistical analysis of large-scale survey data sets feasible and easy
2) Organisations- new research centres with an expertise and interest in quantitative research were
established.
3) Data storage- Collection, storage and sharing of information on hundreds of variable for thousands of
respondents expanded the use of surveys
4) Funding by governments, NGOs etc
5) Methodology – survey technique advanced as errors were identified and corrected through prior
researches. Improved statistics for data analyzing data were devised.

Case study
-Is a research that is an in-depth examination of an extensive amount of information about very few cases or units for one
period or across multiple periods of time. Many features are examined in depth of few cases over a duration of time

Is a strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its
real life context using multiple sources of evidence. Is the detailed and thorough investigation of a few cases.

-Elements are not a representative of the population

-Non probability sampling methods are used to select cases
-Cases can be individuals, groups, movements, geographical units
-Data can more detailed, varied and extensive
-Researcher intensively investigate 1 or 2 cases focusing or several factors
-Uses the logic of analytic instead of enumerative induction
-Is a or use a qualitative approach
-Mostly used in exploratory research.

RESARCH INSTRUMENTS/ RESEARCH TOOLS

- Are data collection forms on which data is recorded as it is collected. As a tool to collect data, a research instrument
must be a reliable and validly measure what the researcher seeks to measure. Its designs must ensure that the
correct research issues are addressed and that accurate and appropriate data for statistical analysis is gathered.
- The common research instruments are questionnaires, interview schedules, observation forms, check lists,
document schedules and evaluation schedule are discussed below.

QUESTIONNAIRE
- This is a formalized set of questions to obtain and record specified and relevant data with tolerable accuracy and
completeness. It is a set of questions which will help in meeting the objective of the research through directing the
questioning process and promoting clear and proper recording.
- Is a data collection tool on which written questions are presented to be answered by the respondents.
- Can be defined as a systematic compilation of questions to assemble desired information
- Is an important tool in normative survey for gathering widely scattered data from scattered sources where seeing the
respondents personally is impossible for verbal oral communication
- Is flexible data collection tool for quantitative and qualitative data
 - Suitable if large respondents are to be reached

OJECTIVES OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
- To translate the data needed into a set of specified questions that the respondents can and will answer.
- To uplift, motivate and encourage the respondent to become involved in the interview, to co-operate and to
complete the interview.
- To minimize response error which is the error that arises when respondents give inaccurate answers as their answers
are mis-recorded or misanalysed.

TYPES (FORMS) OF QUESTIONNAIRES

a) Structured questionnaire
Is a closed form of questionnaire containing closed ended questions. Contain definite, concrete and direct questions.
Contain questions requiring short check responses and or restricted answers. Answers are fixed and the only best
answer is chosen. Are in form of multiple choose questions. Can be dichotomous ( eg Yes or No) or multi-chotomous
(with more than alternatives) multiple choose questions. Restricts respondent’s response by selecting a response
from the supplied alternatives or providing short answers without any further explanations

Mostly questions are presented in the same wording so that respondents reply to the same questions

Easy to fill, requires less time, keep respondents on the subject, more objective and acceptable.

Easy to administer, tabulate and analyse

b) Unstructured questionnaire
Are open form, open ended or unrestricted questionnaires. Respondents are not restricted in their responses. Can
respond in their own words (free response). No clues are provided (Is non-directive). Calls for depth interview or
depth response to solicit attitudes and motives
Mostly used in motivational research.

Rearrangement of the form and questions as well addition or subtraction of questions can be made

May contain partially completed questions or statements

Both structured or unstructured questionnaire can be disguised or undisguised. Disguise refers to the amount of
knowledge concerning the purpose of the study or data communicated to respondents by the data collection method.

Disguised Questionnaires- Is a questionnaire which attempts to hide the purpose of study, that is, purpose of the
study is not made known to respondents. Therefore there can be a structured disguised questionnaires or
Unstructured disguised questionnaires

Undisguised Questionnaire- Is a questionnaire in which the purpose of the study is made obvious. The researcher can
use projective methods to conceal the truth subject of the study. Similarly can be unstructured undisguised
questionnaire or unstructured undisguised questionnaire.

NB A questionnaire containing both closed questions and open ended questions is a semi structured questionnaire.
This happens because it may be impossible to have a completely closed or open ended questionnaire

c) Fact questionnaire require factual information not opinions or attitudes

d) Opinion questionnaire (Opinionnaire) requires opinions, attitudes or preferences

of respondents. Attempts to measure the attitude or belief of an individual i.e. opinionaire or attitude scale. How
people feel, or what they believe as their attitude. Attitude in the inner feeling is an individual which is difficult,
impossible to describe. Opinion is what a person says on certain aspects of the issue under consideration. It the
outward expression of an attitude holds by an individual.
 An opinionaire is defined as a special form of inquiry used by researchers to collect the opinions of a sample of
population on certain facts or factors of the problem under consideration. The opinions will then be be further
quantified, analyzed and interpreted. Opinionnaire makes use of statements or questions on different aspects of the
problem under investigation. Solicits responses on either a three point or five point scale eg Agree, disagree,
undecided agree or strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree and strongly disagree.

Mostly used in researches of the descriptive type which deamand surveys of opinions of the concerned individuals

NB Sociometry is a questions technique for describing social relationship that exist between individuals in a group. Is a tool to
measure social distance. Is the study of measurement of the social choices that people make. Is used to reveal group structures
by showing preferences that persons in the group have for each other and the way in which individuals persons are chosen or
preferred or ignored or rejected. Eg of questions : “Whom would you like to be a monitor of your class?”

DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

The process can be presented as a series of steps as shown below:

1. DETERMINE SPECIFIC DATA TO BE SOUGHT

2. DETERMINE THE TYPE OF INTERVIEW that is administration method

3. DETERMINE CONTENT OF INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONS

4. DECIDE ON THE QUESTION STRUCTURE

5. DETERMINE QUESTION WORDING

6. DETERMINE ORDER OF QUESTONS

7. IDENTIFY THE FORM AND LAYOUT

8. REPRODUCE THE QUESTIONNAIRE

9. ELIMINATE BUGS BY PRE- TESTING

10 FINAL DRAFT

DISCUSSION STEPS WHEN DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE

1. SPECIFY THE DATA BE SOUGHT (NEEDED)

The first step in questionnaire design is to specify the data needed. The researcher must
determine exactly what is to be measured.

2. SPECIFY THE TYPE OF INTERVIEW

The researcher should determine the type of interview to use, in which the
questionnaire is the be used, that is personal, telephone, or mail. The type of interview
influences questionnaire design and how the questionnaire will be administered.

In personal interview, respondents may not see the questionnaire. There is face to face
interaction with the interviewer, therefore length, complex and varied questions can be asked.
The interviewer records the responses on the interview schedule.

In telephone interview the respondents interact with the interviewer but they do not see
the interviewer. This limits the types of questions that can be asked to short and simple
ones.

In mail interviews, the questionnaires are self administered thus the questions must be
simple and detailed instructions must be provided. The interviewee records his or her
responses
3. DETERMINE CONTENT OF INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONS
In determining what to include in individual questions, the researcher must ensure that
every question in the questionnaire contributes to the exact requirements of some
specific required responses, and collection of required data for the objective of the study

4. DECIDE ON THE QUESTIONS STRUCTURE

A question may be structured or unstructured
.
(a) Unstructured questions – are open ended questions, that is, respondents answer in
their own words. These are also called free answered questions. Open ended
questions are good as first questions on a topic. They enable the respondents to
express general attitudes and opinions which can help the researcher interpret their
responses to structured questions

(b) Structured questions –are close ended questions that pre-specify the set of
response alternatives and the responses format. Close ended questions may be
multiple, dichotomous or scale.

(i) Multiple Choice/ Multichotomous questions- In multiple choice questions,

the researcher provides a choice of answers and the respondents are asked to
select one or more of the alternatives given.

(ii) Dichotomous – this is the extreme form of a close –ended question and has
only two response alternatives e.g. yes or no, agree or disagree male or female
etc often the two alternatives of interest are supplemented by a neutral
alternative e.g. no opinion, don’t know, both or none.

(iii) Scale – are close ended questions that employ primary scale of measurement
(such as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio) or non- cooperative scales to
capture the responses e.g. Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six
months?

Definitely Probably Undecided Probably Definitely

will buy will not buy will buy not will not buy
1 2 3 4 5

5. DETERMINE THE QUESTION WORDING

- Question wording is the translation of the desired questions content and structure into words that respondents may
clearly and easily understand.
- Poorly worded questions can result in non- response errors i.e. respondents answering incorrectly. Unless the
respondents and researcher assign exactly the same meaning to the questions the result will be seriously biased.

Points to note when formulating questions

a) A question should clearly define the issue being addressed
b) Ordinary words should be used in a questionnaire and they should match the vocabulary level of the respondent.
c) The words used in a questionnaire should have a single meaning which is known to the respondents i.e. avoid
ambiguous words.
d) Avoid leading questions e.g. Question which gives respondents clues as to what the answer should be.
e) Avoid implicit alternatives i.e. alternatives that are not explicitly expressed.
f) Avoid implicit assumptions.
g) Avoid generalizations and estimates.
h) Avoid barrel (double) questions., that is, two questions in one

(6) DETERMINE THE ORDER/SEQUENCE OF QUESTIONS

Questions should be asked in a logical order. All questions that deal with a
particular topic should be asked before beginning a new topic. The questions should
be grouped into logical and meaningful categories. Easier questions should be
 sequenced before difficult and complex questions.

Approach on order of questions

a) Starting with simple to difficult and complex ones. This is the normal order.
b) From complex to simple

Question order or sequence falls into three(3) categories

a) Overall questionnaire organization
b) Question order effects
c) Context effects

a) Organisation of questionnaire
Sequence of questions should minimize discomfort and not confuse respondents. A questionnaire should start with
an introduction fro instructions, identification information, explaining the survey (in a different font and colour)
followed by opening, middle and ending questions

Opening questions should be pleasant, interesting and easy to answer for respondents to feel comfortable
about the questionnaire. Avoid boring background and threatening questions

Middle questions
Questions should be organized into common categories of topics. Each category of questions should have a
short introductory statement. Questions topics should flow smoothly and logically

Ending questions
Avoid ending with highly threatening questions. Questions should summarise, ask opinions and
suggestions. End with a thank you.

b) Question order effects is an organization in which a topic or some questions asked before others influence
respondent’s answers to later questions

c) Context effects. Wording of questions should be simply and in line with the vocabulary level of the respondent.

(7) IDENTIFY THE FORM AND LAYOUT

The format, spacing and positioning of questions can have a significant effect on the
results, especially self-administered questionnaires. It is a good practice to divide
questionnaire into a several logical parts. Poor layout may result in non-response

Good layout improves accuracy, completeness and helps the flow of the questionnaire. Is most important and may
determine response rate by persuading respondents

-Questionnaire should be clear, neat and easy to follow, have identifying information (the
introduction) The introduction should:
-explain purpose of the survey
-Provide identification information
-have instructions on how to answer the questions
-have element of confidentiality
*Should be a different font style, colour etc different from the questions’ font style, colour etc
-Each question in a questionnaire should be numbered
-Never crumb the questionnaire
-Make a cover sheet or face sheet for each questionnaire
-Put the time, date, the interviewer’s name, respondent identification number (not name) spaces on questionnaires or
observation form

*Mail interviews may include a polite, professional cover letter on letterhead stationery, identifying the researcher contact
details and purpose of the study
(8) REPRODUCE THE QUESTIONNAIRE
The questionnaire should be reproduced on good quality paper, on side of a page, on
a single or double paged paper.

(9) ELIMINATE BUGS BY PRE TESTING

Pre testing refers to testing of the questionnaire on a small sample of respondents for
the purpose of improving the questionnaire by identifying and eliminating potential
problems. This is done prior to administering to the targeted population sample. Is a pilot
test aimed at improving the questionnaire/interview schedule

Methods of improving questionnaire through pilot tests

a) Think aloud interviews

Allow respondents to explain his or her thinking out loudly during the process of answering each question

b) Retrospective interviews and targeted probes

After completing a questionnaire, the respondent explains to researchers the process used to select response or
answers

c) Expert evaluation
Having an independent panel of experienced survey researchers reviews and critiques of the questionnaire

d) Behaviour coding
Researchers monitor interviews, using audio or videotapes for misstatements, hesitations, missed instructions, non-
response, refusals, puzzled looks, answers that do not fit any of the response categories etc

e) Field experiments
Researchers administer alternative forms of the questionnaire items in field settings and compare results.

f) Vignettes and debriefing

Interviewers and respondents are presented with short, invented “lifelilke” situations and asked which questionnaire
response category they would use.

(10) Printing the final draft for administration

Points to consider when designing a questionnaire

 Should deal with significant topics only
 Seek data which cannot be obtained through other means or tools
 Should be attractive, neat in appearance and items clearly categorized
 Directions or instructions should be clear, complete and unique terms clarified
 Simply worded. Each question dealing with one idea and contain unambiguous questions
 Questions should be objective and not leading
 Questions should be in good order, mostly from general to more specific ones
 Avoid offending, annoying and embarrassing questions
 Avoid descriptive adjectives and adverbs
 Avoid double questions
 Avoid double barrel questions, that is, two in one
 Should carry adequate number of responses and spaces
 Should be easy to interpret, tabulate, summarize and analyze
 A questionnaire should be self-administered

PRINCIPLES OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
 BREVITY – research questions should be written or asked as briefly as possible subject to their being understood by
respondents
 RELEVANCY – unless a question is relevant to the purpose of the research, it should not be included in a
questionnaire. Likewise unless a word is relevant to a particular question, it should not be included in the question.
  OJECTIVITY – unless a question is worded objectively, it should not be asked. The answer to a non-objectivity
question is already known and there’s no need for asking.
 CLARITY – research questions should be as non-ambiguous as possible and technical jargon should be avoided
 SPECIFICITY – a question must be specific and address one issue only.

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
This is a data collection form with a list of questions on which data is recorded as it is collected through personal(face to
face) interview by the researcher. This is the other term used to describe the personal interview questionnaire and the
telephone interview questionnaire.

Designing of an interview schedule as discussed under questionnaire design

The difference between a interview schedule and a questionnaires

All interview schedules are questionnaires but not all questionnaires are interview schedules.
i) Questionnaires are self administered while interview schedules are administered by the interviewer.
Questionnaires clearly highlight their purposes, introduce themselves and give instructions to the interviewee
but interview schedules everything is done by the interviewer
ii) A questionnaire is completed by an interviewee while the interview schedule by the interviewer
iii) Room for including other questions on the interview during interviewing is possible which is not so with mail
interviews(questionnaire)

Types of questions which can be included in both interview schedules and questionnaire

a) Open –ended questions

Are unstructured, free response questions. Are questions in which respondents are free to offer any answer they
wish in the question in their own wording.

Advantages of open ended questions

-Permit an unlimited and unexpected number of possible answers
-Respondents can answer in detail and can qualify and clarify responses
-Unanticipated findings can be discovered
-Permit adequate answers to complex issues
-Permit creativity, self-expression and richness of detail
-Reveal a respondent’s logic, thinking process and frame of reference

Disadvantages of open ended questions

-Comparisons and statistical analysis may be very difficult because different respondents
give different degree of detail in answers. and other responses may be irrelevant or
buried in useless detail
-Coding responses is difficult
-Articulate and highly literate respondents have an advantage
-Questions may be too general for respondents who lose direction
-Responses are written verbatim, which is difficult for interviewers because of difference
in level of vocabulary
-A greater amount of respondent’s time, thought and effort is necessary which may lead
to boredom and non responses
-Respondents can be intimidated by other questions
-Answers take up a lot of space in the questionnaire

b) Closed ended questions

Are structured, fixed response questions in which respondents must choose from a fixed set of answers. Questions
can dichotomus, multichotomus or scale questions

Advantages of closed questions

-Easier and quicker for respondents to answer
-Answers of different respondents are easier to compare
-Answers are easier to code and statistically analyse
 -Response choices can clarify question meaning for respondents
-Respondents are more likely to answer about sensitive topics
-There are fewer irrelevant or confused answers to questions
-Less articulate or less literate respondents are not at a disadvantage
-Replication is easier

Disadvantages of closed questions

-Can suggest ideas that the respondent would not otherwise have, therefore answers not
purely respondent’s own idea.
-Respondents with no opinion or no knowledge can answer anyway
-Respondents can be frustrated because their desired answer is not a choice
-It is confusing if many similarly response choices are offered
-Misinterpretation of a question can go unnoticed
-Distinctions between respondents’ answers may be blurred
-Clerical mistakes or marking the wrong response is possible
-Force respondents to give simplistic responses to complex issues
-Force people to make choice they would not make in the real world.

c) Partially open questions are semi structured questions containing both open and closed ended characteristics or
questions

d) Sleeper questions are questions about non-existent people or events to check whether respondents are being faithful

e) Contingency questions are a two part survey question in which a respondent’s answer to a first question directs him
or her either to the next questionnaire item or to a more specific and related second question.

Principles of good question writing

-Avoid jargon, technical terms, slangs and abbreviations
-Avoid ambiguity, confusion and vagueness
-Avoid emotional language and prestige bias eg words like murderous freedoms, peace
and any associate with prestigious or very respected person
-Avoid double-barreled questions eg Does your company have a pension and health
insurance policy? Do you support or oppose the idea?
-Avoid leading (loaded) questions eg You don’t smoke, do you?
- Avoid asking questions that are beyond respondents’ capabilities and what can be
difficult to recall
-Avoid false premise questions. Eg “The Post Office is open too many hours. Do you
want it to open four hours or less?
-Avoid asking about distant future intentions
-Avoid double negatives “I haven’t got no job” “ Do you disagree with those who do not
want to build a new swimming pool in the city” Are grammatically incorrect and
confusing. Second negative is used for emphasis.
-Avoid overlapping or unbalanced response eg Did you find the service at our hotel to be :outstanding, excellent,
superior or good

OBSERVATION FORM/SCHEDULE
Is a data collection form with a list off clearly defined observable factors, on which data is recorded as it is collected by the
researcher
After each observable factor, a space is provided for the observer to record the observations. Recording can be either by
writing a few descriptive words or by check mark to indicate the presence, absence or frequency of the phenomenon
being measured or a direct mark against each factor

Designing an observation Schedule

The researcher should design an observation form that identifies the required data clearly, makes it easy to record the
data accurately and simplifies an observation form as a consistent measuring instrument. The researcher needs to answer
the following questions:
 1) Who should be observed?
2) What should be observed?
3) When should the observation take place?
4) Where should the observation take place?

Characteristics of a good observation form

o Should identify clearly the required data
o Should record all the data correctly
o Should simplifying the coding of data
o Should be brief, not too long
o Factors to be observed should be logically categorized

The defined observable factors that are relevant to the problem should be grouped into logical categories and worded. This
enables the researcher to record many different observations quickly and ensure that does not overlook any relevant evidence.
The form and layout as well as the reproduction of observation forms should follow the same guidelines discussed for
questionnaires. Like questionnaires, observation forms require adequate pre testing.

OTHER RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

a) Checklist – Is a data collection form with a list of clearly defined observable factors, on which data is recorded as it is
collected by the researcher during observation or abstraction. Used for collecting secondary data
b) Document Schedule – Is a data collection form with a list of questions, on which data is recorded as it is collected
from various documents such as files and books etc
c) Evaluation Schedule – Is data collection form with a list of question, on which data is recorded to measure the
performance of a particular activity such as rural development programme

Threats to the validity of collected data

Compbell and Stanley (1963) coined the phrases, “Threats to validity” for alternative explanations of data that might
explain a finding as well as or better than the explanation intended by the researcher.
1. Descriptive mortality.
Mortality refers not only to death of subjects but also to individuals dropping out of a group making it no longer
representative of the population of study. Mortality is a serious problem in survey research where the researcher
starts a representative sample but selectively loose subjects who do not return the questionnaire. The ones who do
return the questionnaire are probably comfortable dealing with the topic, where as those who are uncomfortable
with it do not return it, the mortality factor.

8. Instrument decay is due to a change in the measuring instrument over the course of the study. Refers to, for
instance, rules made up in the course of using an observation checklist where, on encountering a situation not
provided for by rules for checklist, the researcher makes up other rules or forgetting the decision and make up a
different rule for the same next instance. Inconsistency is using the instrument may be a reasonable alternative
explanation rather that some characteristics of the group as originally intended.

In qualitative research, the observer is the instrument. We have to wonder how the observer’s changes in the
perception of the observed over the period of the study and how that affects the observations. The most serious
change of this type is “going native” losing perspective on the group observed and becoming entirely one of
them.

Sadler (1981) in an article describing the mind’s cognitive limitations as they affect qualitative data gathering,
notes that there is long history of efforts to identify the sources of distortion that cause the mind to make errors
of judgment and inference. Listed a number of information processing limitations, man y of which will be similar
to qualitative researchers but all of should be of concern to both of them. These are :

a) Data overload
b) Availability of information
c) Positive and negative instances- research shows that people tend to ignore
information that conflicts with already held hypothesis even intelligent
individuals adhered to their own hypothesis with remarkable tenacity when they
could produce confirming evidence for them.
 d) Correlation and co-occurrence
e) Internal consistency, redundancy and novelty of information
f) Base rate proportion is the frequency with which a behavior occurs. There is
great difficulty judging base rate from small samples
g) Uneven reliability of information or data- people tend to treat data from an
unreliable source almost the same way as data from reliable sources
h) Confidence in judgment – once an assessment is made people have been shown
to have an almost unshakable confidence in the correctness of their decision,
even in the face of considerable relevant, contrary evidence.
i) First impression

DATA PREPARATION ,PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

1 Data Preparation – Is the process of translating or transforming raw data into a form suitable for analysis. The
process takes place after data collection but prior to data analysis. Its purpose is to prepare the data for analysis. Act
as a preliminary step to data analysis. Some common data preparation activities are classification, editing, coding,
and tabulation are discussed below

A) CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
- Is the process of arranging data into groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data having common
characteristics are placed in one class. Classification of data is usually done according to attributes or class intervals.

Classification on the basis of attributes

Attributes refer to the particular characteristics of the population Attributes can be
descriptive or numerical

Descriptive attributes such as sex, education, marital status etc.

are qualitative and cannot be measured in numerical terms e.g. Zimbabwean population
can be classified as follows:

TOTAL POPULATION

Rural Urban
Male Female Male Female
Literate Illiterate Literate Literate Illiterate Literate

Numerical attributes are quantitative and measurable attributes. Are expressed and expressible in numbers e.g. age,
height, income etc

Classification on the basis of class intervals

Is numerically based, that is, based on statistical variables
- Unlike descriptive characteristics, numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon which can be measured
through some statistical units. Data relative to income, production, expenditure, investment etc can be classified
according to these statistical variables. When the goal of data classification is to arrange a set of data into a useful
form, frequency distribution provides a general approach to data classification.

In frequency distribution raw data is represented by distinction groups called classes. The number of measurement in
each class is called the class frequency. In this way the data set which may be very large is condensed into smaller,
more manageable set of numbers.

B) EDITING OF DATA
Editing of data is the review of data collection form with the objective of increasing accuracy and precision.
Researchers edit data to discover errors and omissions, and where, possible correct them. Editing is usually done in
two stages, that is, field edit and central office edit.
 i) Field Edit
Is a preliminary edit, typical conducted by a field supervisor which is designed to detect the most glaring omissions
and inaccurate in a completed data collection form.
Items commonly checked for are completeness, legibility, comprehensibility, consistency and uniformity. This is
mostly for verification of data so as to identify conformity to physical traits.

ii) Central office edit

Is a thorough, more complete, complicated scrutiny and correction of competed data collection forms. Unlike the
field edit, central office edit depends less on follow-ups procedures and more deciding what to do with the data. It
focuses on validation of data.

C) CODING OF DATA
Coding is the assignment of a code(symbol) to represent a specific response to a question along with the data record
and column position (or field) that code will occupy. A field represents an item of data, such as sex of the respondent.
A record consists of related fields such as sex, marital status, house hold size, age, occupation etc.

Coding at act as a technical procedure by which data are categorized. Involves specifying the alternatives
categories/classes into which the responses are to be placed and assigning codes(symbols) to these classes. The codes
can be numerical, alphabetical or alpha-numerical.

Steps in coding

1- Determining and specifying categorises or classes to which the responses are to be placed. The number of
classes will depend on the response format (choices) expected. The categorize should be mutually,
exclusive, and exhaustive so that every response falls into one category.

2- Assigning code numbers to the classes eg 1 for yes , 2 for no answer

Rules to be observed when assigning codes:

i) Locate only one character in each column
ii) Mostly use numeric codes and not letters of the alphabet
iii) Have as many columns as are necessary to capture all the variables
iv) Use other codes for no information eg “I do not know” can be given code
8, “No” can be coded 9 and none response coded 10
v) Code in a respondent’s identification number on each record.

Coding of closed questions is simple because the coding is established when the data instrument is being
designed. Respondents code themselves and also their responses

Coding open ended questions can be very difficult as the coder has to determine category basing on
answers that are not always anticipated but which may be different

3 Preparing a separate code book, is the final step, which contain the general instructions indicating how
each item of data was coded. Should list the code for each variable and the categories included in each
code.

Coding can either be pre-coding or post coding.

Pre-coding
- Pre-coding is determining the codes at the time of designing the data collection instruments and therefore the codes
can be printed on forms. This form of coding is most appropriate for questions that are dichotomous, multiple choice
and scale (closed questions)
- For these forms of questions the researcher knows the potential symbols which will be assigned to the different
responses. This greatly reduces the task of later data preparation and also tends to reduce coding errors and is less
time consuming. E.g. question 3 on a data collection instrument is about the marital status of the respondents with
two possible answers i.e either yes or no. The researcher may give codes 1=yes and 2=no.
 Post coding
- is determining the codes after data collection forms have been completed. This form of coding is most appropriate
for open-ended questions. One approach is for the researcher to sample about 20% of the completed data
collection forms and examines the specific responses to specific questions. From this sample then establishes the
necessary categories that are appropriate to summarize the data for coding purposes.

After categories have been established each data collection form must be reviewed and particular responses put into
the appropriate categories. The codes used to identify the appropriate category should be written in the margins of
the appropriate data collection instruments.

D) TABULATION
- Is a method of presenting statistical data in a table. A statistical table is an orderly and systematic presentation of
numerical data in columns and rows. Data is tabulated according to quantitative characteristics and nature of
variables. The main object of a statistical table is to arrange data into a physical presentation of numerical facts to
attract and direct the attention of the reader automatically to relevant information. It facilitates comparison by
bringing related items of information close to one another.

Statistical table on putting and counting the number of cases that fall into the various categories
Tabulation can be simple tabulation or cross tabulation

Simple tabulation involves counting a single variable. It may be repeated for each of the variable in the study but the
tabulation for each variable is independent.

Cross tabulation is when two or more variables are treated at the same time, that is, counting the number of codes
that fall into each of the covered categorises when the categorises are based on more variables considered at the
same time eg. One male and female are earning 150 per month

In tabulation the researcher should be able to:

i) Determine the degree of non-response
ii) Locate a blunder which is an error that arises when editing, coding or tabulating data
iii) Locate an out lier. These are observations which are different in magnitude from the rest of
observations
iv) To determine the empirical distribution of variables in question
v) To calculate summary statistics

PRINCIPLES OF GOOD TABULATION

 Every table should be numbered to facilitate reference to it.
 Every table should have a brief but descriptive title. At the end there should be a note of the source of the data,
which the researcher has used. Whether it is based on the researchers own survey data or secondary data.
 Give brief descriptive headlines to rows and columns showing clearly the units which quantities are recorded. If
necessary the units of measurements should be defined in a foot note.
 Use different lines to break up a large table. Double lines or thick add a great deal for the a table to be understood.
 Don’t overcrowd tables. If the volume of the data is large, two or more simple tables are better than one
cumbersome table.
 Whenever it is useful, insert both row and row totals.
 Enclose the table within a book frame to make it look attractive.
 Should be neat, a messy table conveys nothing

COMPUTER AID
 Computer data processing is faster and more accurate than manual data processing. The coding of data permits the
transferring of data from data collection form into a computer readable form which can then be processed by the
computer.
 Computer processing is depended on what is referred to as data structure. A data structure is simply the way the
data is positioned in a storage medium. The researcher must organize coded data into the appropriate data
structure.
  Computers have direct data transfers capability through terminal, keyboard or optical reader, to either disk or tape
storage. With direct data entry, the researcher organizes coded data into fields, records and files that constitutes the
components of data base system.
 The collection of characters (ie code) that represents a sign items of data is referred to as a field. A group of related
field is treated as a unit is referred to as a record.
 A collection of related records that are stored together called a file.

DATA ANALYSIS
- Is the application of statistical techniques to refine and manipulate data in order to make references about variables
or is the application of analytical methods to manipulate data. May result in understanding the inter-relationship
between variables and the quantitative meaning of data relating to them becoming evident.
- Data analysis is aimed at testing the formulated hypothesis either for acceptance or rejection.

TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
- The hypothesis that were formulated need to be tested for their acceptance or rejection. A hypothesis is tested by
making use of a pre-decision rule which is applied on sample data and which guides the researcher in deciding
whether to accept or reject the hypothesis on the basis of the outcome of the sample drawn. Hypothesis testing may
take the following form (terms) :-

1 The study of hypothesis for logical consistency Is a phase of thinking. The study consists of:
Firstly it consists of checking the logical reasoning by which the consequences of the hypothesis are
deduced for verification.

Secondly it involves checking the hypothesis for agreement with the already known laws of nature. The
hypothesis must not disagree with those principles of science which are considered valid beyond reasonable
doubt.

2 The study of hypothesis for agreement with facts

Is the study of hypothesis for agreement with facts the researcher organizes. Researcher argues truthness or
falseness of hypothesis under given conditions. Probes into whether these conditions are present. If the conditions
are not present, then he should restart his hypothesis and collect fresh data for making the study worthwhile.

After testing a hypothesis may be accepted or rejected. Sometimes the facts and data may suggest the revision or
modification of the hypothesis for the purposes, verifying statistical techniques are available for manipulating data to test
different kinds of hypothesis. The technique to be adopted depends upon convenience, availability and reliability of data,
knowledge of the researcher and the level of sophistication required. Hypothesis testing is a procedure of arriving at a
decision of either accepting or rejection a hypothesis.

These are standard steps which should be followed when testing the validity of hypothesis, which are:
1. Stating the Null Hypothesis (Ho)
2. Stating the alternative hypothesis (H1)
3. Stating the level of significance and determine the Z values.
4. Stating the decision rule.
5. Calculating the test statistic.
6. Making a conclusion.

Data analysis should be done to refine data so as to get information for testing hypothesis. Various data analysis techniques can
be used

DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Manual and statistical techniques can be used but statistical techniques are widely used in data analysis. Manual techniques are
mainly used on qualitative data and are based on human judgement.
Various statistical techniques are used for manipulation of data to test hypotheses. The technique to be adopted depends upon
convenience, availability and reliability of data, knowledge of the researcher and the level of sophistication and required
accuracy.

The following are some of the reasons why statistical techniques are considered important in research:-
1. Statistics are the tools to judge the significance of the data and make maximum use of the data collected.
2. Statistics techniques permit the most exact kind of description of the observed phenomenon. They force
the researcher to be definite and precise in the thinking and procedures, this helps in the formulation of
hypothesis for testing.
3. Statistical tools enable the researcher to test theories empirically. If the data is not consistent with the
theoretical predictions, the theory should be revised or rejected. If the theory is judged valid, further
empirical analysis may be needed to measure relationships.
4. Statistical techniques help in summarizing the result in a meaningful manner.
5. Statistical tools help the researcher in drawing general or broad conclusions.

Statistical techniques widely used in research are :-

A. Measures of central tendency
B. Measures of dispersion
C. Time series analysis
D. Measures of relationships

1. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Define the centre of any given data set. Three common measures of central tendency are mean, mode and medium.

i) Mean refer to the average of the data set. Types of averages are arithmetic (simple), geometric and
harmonic mean.

Arithmetic mean is obtained by summing up given values and then dividing by the number of values. Is the
widely used mean. Can calculated for both grouped and ungrouped data

Mean for ungrouped data = +(x) x = values or numbers ,+ = summation

n n = number of values

Mean for grouped data = +(fx) + = summation, f = frequency

+f x = class mid point

Geometric mean is the Nth root of the product of a given N scores obtained as a result of measurement.
Mostly used for averaging ratios

Geometric mean = 3 AxBxC

Harmonic mean is used for averaging rates of changes eg speed

= n
+(1/x)

Advantages of mean
-Consider every score in the data set
-The result is more stable as compared to other measures of location
-Easy to calculate and understand
-Very useful when comparing different data set

Disadvantages of mean
-Can be affected by extreme scores eg in 1,4,5,6,28. 28 affect the mean upwards
-Cannot be used in a incomplete distribution
ii) Median is the middle number found when scores are put in array (ascending or descending order). Splits
the data set into two equal halves above and below the median number. Similarly can be calculated both
for grouped and ungrouped data. On ungrouped data, the scores should be noted whether are odd or even
.

Median for ungrouped data

i) 8, 5, 6, 10, 13 = 5,6, 8, 10, 13 = 8

ii) 8, 4, 5, 6, 10, 13 = 4, 5, 6, 8 10, 13 = 6+8 = 7

2

Median for grouped data = L + i (n/2 - cf(m)

fm
L = lower class boundary of the median class
i = class interval or width
n = sample size or (sum of all frequencies)
cf = the cumulative frequency prior to the median class
fm = frequency of the median class

Advantages of median
-Is insensitive to extreme scores
-Useable in an incomplete distribution (open ended distribution)
-Can be calculated from any data set excluding nominal data
-Easy to obtain by mere inspection

Disadvantages of median
-Is less stable
-Consider only one or two scores not considering all values
-Applicable to few operations
-Is time consuming because of need to arrange scores in array.

iii) Mode is the most frequent occurring score in a given data set. There can be more than one mode for a given
data set or no mode at all. Can be deduced from grouped and ungrouped data

For ungrouped data is seen by grouping is array

For grouped data L + i (D1)

(D1+D2)
L = Lower class boundary of the modal class
i = class interval
D1 = frequency of the modal class less frequency of the class above it
D2 = frequency of modal class less frequency of the class below it

Advantages of mode
-Useable on nominal data, that is, qualitative variable data eg sex
-Locates the highest concentration of scores
-Not affected by extreme values
-Can be calculated even if all the values in a data set are unknown

Disadvantages of mode
-Do not necessitate comparison
-Is less stable

Relationship between mean, median and mode

 Three relationships exists which are normal distribution, positively skewed and
negatively skewed distribution.

a) If the mean = median= mode, the distribution is said to be normal distribution and that’s, it has got a line of
symmetry, hence is not skewed to any side. The distribution is bell shaped as below:

b) If the mean is greater than the median, greater that the mode, the distribution is positively skewed. Is more
heaped to the left of the line of symmetry. Its skewness is greater than zero. Mean is a true representative
of the distribution.

c) If the mean is less than the mode, less than the median, the distribution is negatively skewed, that is, more
heaped to the right of the line of symmetry. Skewness is less than zero. Mean is not a representative of the
distribution.

*Skewness measures the extended deviation of data set from the line symmetry and is represented by the
formula = Mean – Mode
Standard deviation

2. MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Dispersions is a measure of scattered ness of items around the central values. It shows
how the observations are deviated from the central values.
The methods of measuring dispersion are range, quartile deviation, mean deviation, standard deviation, coefficient
of variation and Lorenz curve.

Range is the difference between the highest and the lowest values in a given distribution. Mostly used with statistical
quality control

Advantages
-Is simple to calculate and understand

Disadvantages
-Is influenced by extreme values and hence not reliable
-Do not indicate the degree of clustering

Quartile deviation also known as semi-inter quartile range

Is similar to the range but differ in that a middle quarter range is found thus leaving out the effect of unusual extreme
scores, thus, eliminating the extreme value effect as on the range. The bottom and top quarters are not considered.
Quartiles divide the given distribution into four (4) equal parts that is Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4.
The quartile deviation = Q3-Q1
2
Mean deviation Is the average deviation of all values ina given data set from the distribution mean (arithematic
mean). Is found by adding up deviations of all values from the distribution mean and dividing by the number of items.
Negative signs are ignored. The mean deviation should be +x

Ungrouped data = +(x –X) X = arithematic mean

n x = value in the data set
+ = summation mark
Grouped data = +[f(x-X)
+f f = frequency x = class mid point
Standard deviation
Is the square root of average of the differences of the individual scores from the aarithematic mean. Is the mostly
used used measure of dispersion about the mean. The larger the standard deviation in comparison with data size, the
wider the spread of data around the mean.

For ungrouped data = +(x – X)2

N

Grouped data - Population = +f(x – X)2

 -Sample +f(x – X)
+f – 1
Lorenz Curve
This curve is graphic method of showing to what extent different variables deviate from uniformity or to show degree
of deviation in order to make comparisons. If two variables are constantly relative to each other, a percentage
changes for the other variable. This situation may be represented on a graph by a straight line. This line is always 45
degree to the origin and is known as the line of uniformity or equal distribution.

Line of unequal distribution

Line of equal distribution

Coefficient of variation (Cv) is used to compare the variability of the data when two sets of
data are given. Is given by the formula

Cv = x 100
x(mean)

3 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS

 It shows how data will fluctuate. A set of observations of a random variable are arranged in chronologically i.e.
according to time. Represents data measured regularly over a period The utility of time series analysis can be
summarized as follows:-
 It helps to understand past behavior
 It helps in planning future operations
 It helps in knowing current accomplishment.

4 MEASURE OF RELATIONSHIP
The measures of relationship or association are correlation and regression analysis.

Correlation analysis indicates the extent to which a relationship exists between at least two
sets of data under consideration and closeness between two variables. The correlation is a
value -1 < r < 1 inclusive

When r = 1 indicates a perfect positive correlation

r = -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation
r = 0.5 indicates a positive correlation

For 0.5 < r > 1, the relationship is said to be strong correlation

0 < r > 0.5, represents a weak positive correlation
-0.5 < r > 0 , is a weak negative relationship

When r = 0 there is no relationship

Regression analysis is a quantitative method which attempts to set a forecasting model

to estimate the value of dependant variables under circumstances in which an acceptable
correlation exists between the dependant variables and one or more independent variables.
The general equation for regression analysis is a straight line y = mx + c where m is the
gradient and c is the y intersection
 Errors associated with data analysis
i. Absolute error:- is an error that gives the greatest the difference between the true value and the approximate value.
Is an error that gives the greatest difference that exists between the approximate value and the true actual value. In
measurement, the absolute error is half the smallest of measurement e.g for centimeters is 0.5 cm. If a number is
rounded to 10 or 100, the absolute error is 5 and 50 respectively. For one decimal places, the smallest unit of
measurement is 0,1 therefore the absolute error is 0.05

ii. Relative error:- is the absolute error expressed as a proportion of the true value. Is given by the formula =
absolute error x 100
Actual error

iii. Standard error:- is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution.

DATA PRESENTATION
The results of the data analysis should be presented in a form suitable effective for communication of the results.
The form of presentation will depend on :
-The purpose for which the information is desired.
-Type of results and findings, that is, qualitative or quantitative

Some of the common methods of data presentation are discussed below:-

a) NARRATIVE
 This is the textual presentation of research results i.e. reporting the results in words. The use of words allows
explanation emphasis and interpretation to be made. However, personal bias can distort the data and data
which does not fit the researcher’s pre-concerned ideas maybe omitted or not dealt with in sufficient depth.
Suitable only for qualitative data

Disadvantages
-Personal bias can distort data
-Ambiguity is at extreme
-Language difference and vocabulary may be a problem
-Interpretation of data is not at a glance

b) TABLES
 Tabulation is common method of presenting statistical data. A table displays detailed statistical information
precisely so that interpretation of results can be at a glance. However, no interpretation of results can be given in
the table. It is also difficult to emphasize any particularly interesting reading unless heavier type, underlining or a
foot notes are used to enhance understanding of tables. The principles of good tabulation have already been
discussed.

c) DIAGRAMS AND CHARTS

 There are various diagrams and charts that can be used to give a pictorial presentation of data. A chart or diagram
cannot present information precisely, but it can give a quick overall impression of the findings.
 Can give a quick overall impression of findings by a mere glance and then encourages reading text to have a more
complex account of findings.

General rules to be followed when drawing diagrams or charts etc.

 Give clear and brief tittles.
 Label the axis clearly
 Scales of values and their origins should be clearly checked.
 Excessive details should be avoided.
 Reference to the source of data should be made or an accompanying table provided.

The popular types of diagrams and charts are bar charts, pie carts and pictograms.

d) GRAPHS
  Diagrams and charts are primarily intended to present data whereas graphs go further than this and help in the
analysis and interpretation of data.
 In some cases, graphical methods are usually not as precise as calculation but their speed and overall insight they
give them evaluate tools of the researchers.

e) EQUATIONS AND SYMBOLS

 The symbols used in equations should be adequately explained.

4) INTERPRETATION OF DATA
-Is done after data presentation
-The product of data analysis is research results or findings.
-Presenting a mere summary of statistical results is not enough.
-The researcher should interpret the results in light of the research questions, objectives and
hypothesis being addressed.

The process of interpretation is essentially one of the stating what the results of the findings show. Among others it shows
or answers the following questions;-
 What do the research results show?
 What is their significance?
 What is the solution to the original problem?
The interpretation of the results leads to conclusions and recommendations as discussed below

a) Developing Conclusions from findings and hypothesis

In interpreting results, conclusions are drawn with direct reference to the research objectives and hypothesis of the study.
There should be a conclusion for each objective and for the acceptance or rejection of hypothesis.

The researcher should compares the objective with the findings and draws conclusions on how much and in what manner
the objectives have been achieved to enable the readers to turn to the conclusions section, and find specific conclusion
relative to each objective.

In the same way the researcher must also be specific with reference to the hypothesis of the study. Researcher should be
specific to the hypothesis of study by indicating whether it has been accepted or rejected. In doing so, should carefully
review the evidence for and against each hypothesis.

The element of comparison is fundamental to all research interpretations. Comparisons of one’s investigational findings,
with a criterion, with results of other comparable investigations with normal or ideal conditions or with opinions of expert
forms an important aspects of:-
 Appropriate depth and breadth so as to meet caliber of research.
 Feasibility of research problem.
 Time frame.
 Availability of resources.
 Justification and purpose of the research.
 Usefulness of the aims and objectives.

INTERPRETATIVE EFFORTS OF THE RESEARCHER

Once conclusions have been drawn reflecting some properties of the population, one can estimate how far these
characteristics or conclusions can be generalized to a large population and predict modification which would have to be
taken into consideration when undertaking such a generalization.

Each generalization must agree with facts revealed by the investigation.

The researcher should also check each generalization against the facts and experience of other investigations and
previously established generalization.

Developing recommendations from findings and conclusions.

- Based on the research results and conclusions the researcher makes recommendations to the decision maker.
- Recommendations are suggestions for application and implementation to solve the organizational problem drawn by the
researcher basing on findings and conclusions
- Recommendations should be feasible, practical, actionable and directly usable as inputs into managerial decision making.

COMMUNICATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS

Items to include when reporting survey research

a) The sampling frame used eg telephone directories

b) Dates on which the survey was conducted
c) The population represented by the sample
d) The size of the sample from which the information was collected
e) Sampling methods and steps
f) Methods of survey used eg face to face, telephone interviews
g) The exact wording of the question asked
h) Organizations that sponsored the survey
i) The response rate or percentage of those contacted who actually completed the questionnaire
j) Any missing information or Do not know responses when results in specific questions are reported.