Project Report on

Design of the Proposed Project for Augmentation of Drinking Water Supply

to Vizianagaram Municipality and its Further Prospects
A Project report submitted in partial fulfillment For the Award of Degree of
B. Tech. Degree in Civil Engineering
Submitted by

Ch. YUVA RAJU

(20981A0107)
U.SAI SRINIVAS P.ASHA MANI
(20981A0142) (20981A0133)
B.PRASANNA G.AKASH
(20981A0105) (20981A0145)
L.VARALAXMI
(20981A0122)

Under the guidance of

Mr. M. MURALI
Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering

RAGHU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada)
NBA and NAAC ‘A’ grade accredited Institute.
Dakamarri, Bheemili Mandal, Visakhapatnam – 531162,
A.P.

(2020-2024)

i
 RAGHU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada)
NBA and NAAC ‘A’ grade accredited Institute.
Dakamarri, Bheemili Mandal, Visakhapatnam – 531162,
A.P.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work entitled as “DESIGN OF THE PROPOSED PROJECT
FOR AUGMENTATION OF DRINKING WATER SUPPLY TO VIZIANAGARAM
MUNICIPALITY AND ITS FURTHER PROSPECTS” is carried out by CH.YUVA RAJU
(20981A0107) U.SAI SRINIVAS (20981A0142) P.ASHA MANI (20981A0133) B.PRASANNA
(20981A0105) L.VARALAXMI (20981A0122) G.AKASH (20981A0145) submitted in partial
fulfillment for the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology in CIVIL ENGINEERING
of the Raghu Engineering College.

Name & Signature of Guide

Mr. M.MURALI,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Civil Engineering
REC, Visakhapatnam.

Name & Signature of HOD

Head of the Department

Dept. of Civil Engineering
Signature of External Examiner REC, Visakhapatnam.
ii
 INSTITUTION

VISION & MISSION

Vision of the institute

Envisioning to be a world class technical institution by synergizing quality education with ethical
values

Mission of the Institute

 To enlist the services of expert faculty.
 To encourage training and research in cutting - edge technologies.
 To develop and strengthen strategic links with the industry.
 To kindle the zeal among the students and promote their quest for academic excellence.
 To encourage extracurricular activities along with the good communication skills.

Department of Civil Engineering

Vision of the Department

To become pioneer in the field of the civil engineering by providing high quality education and
research to serve the public consistently with competitive spirit professional ethics.

Mission of the Department

 Provide quality knowledge and advance skills to the students in order to expertise theoretically
and practically in the areas of civil engineering.
 Improve the professional potentiality of the students and staff through educational programs to
expand the knowledge in the field of civil engineering.
 Inculcate healthy competitive spirit towards the higher education and successful career in the
field of civil engineering to serve the nation ethically.
 Provide students and faculty with opportunities to create, disseminate and apply knowledge by
maintains a state-of-the-art research.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering graduate will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
Natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/ development of solutions: design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
considerations for the public health and safety, and the cultural, social, and environmental
iii
considerations.

iv
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.
8. Ethics: apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective
reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions.
11. Project management and finance: demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’s)

1. Analyze, design and execute the civil engineering structures with good knowledge in
engineering, mathematics & basic sciences
2. Survey, map, plan & layout of infrastructures viz. canals, roads, etc. and apply knowledge of
environmental & geotechnical engineering.
3. Acquire knowledge of various materials, techniques, skills and engineering tools required for
civil engineering structures including all types of buildings, irrigation structures, highways,
railways, docks &harbors etc.

PROJECT COURSE OUTCOMES (COs)

CO1: Select relevant information from various sources including internet, library, journals and civil
engineering magazines to define the problems.
CO2: Comprehend principles pertaining to civil engineering that enables to complete the project.
CO3: Gain technology implementation skills by applying them to anew problems with may be
the design and construction of structures, a research investigates experimental, software
management project by using advanced software.
v
CO4: Work as an individual and as a team including divisions of tasks, scheduling and monitoring
the progress.
CO5: Adhere to professional standards and ethics.
CO6: Research various avenues for solving issues that arise during project implementation there by
Inculcates life – long learning.
CO7: Write effective technical reports and demonstrate his/her work.

vi
 PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO1 3 3 1 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 1 1
CO2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 3

CO3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 3

CO4 3 3 2 3 3 3 3
CO5 3 3 3 3
CO6 3 3 3 2 3

CO7 3 3 3 3 2 2

*******

vii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We take this opportunity to express our deep sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to all who
helped us to complete the project successfully.

We deeply indebted to our guide Mr. M.MURALI, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering for his excellent guidance, positive criticism and valuable comments. We greatly
thankful to Mr. R. Srinivasa Rao, Head of Civil Engineering Department for his support and
cooperation with regard to successful completion of our project work.

We further take this opportunity to express our sincere gratitude to Sri Kalidindi Raghu,
Chairman of Raghu Educational Institutions, for providing necessary facilities and Dr. Ch.
Srinivasu, Principal, Raghu Engineering College for giving us the opportunity and facilities to
carry out this project work.

I also thank Sri Kalidindi Rahul Varma, Vice Chairman Raghu Engineering College for
extending their valuable suggestions, extended support and co-operation in successful
completion of the project.

We express our gratitude to all the faculty members of the Department of Civil Engineering for
their whole hearted cooperation, painstaking effort and pragmatic ideas for our project to be
completed within the stipulated period of time.

We thank our parents and friends near and dear ones who directly and indirectly contributed to
the successful completion of our project.

Finally, above all, we owe our encompassing debt, abysmal love and regard to our beloved
parents without whose silent blessings, continued support, ceaseless applause and eternal
inspiration, the completion of this project work would have been possible.

CH.YUVA RAJU (20981A0107)

U.SAI SRINIVAS (20981A0142)
G.AKASH (20981A0145)
B.PRASANNA - (20981A0105)
L.VARALAXMI - (20981A0122)
P.ASHA MANI - (20981A0133)

Place: Visakhapatnam
Date:

viii
CONTENTS PAGE NO

CHAPTER 1
1.1. INTRODUCTION….....................................................1-2
1.2. DEFINTIONS OF TERMINOLOGY….....................3-4
1.3. AIM AND OBJECTIVES.............................................5
1.4. SCOPE OF WORK…....................................................5
1.5. METHODOLOGY….....................................................6
1.6. FLOW CHART..............................................................7

CHAPTER 2
2.1. LITERATURE REVIEW…............................................8-9
CHAPTER 3
3.1. INTRODUCTION TO QGIS............................................10-11
3.2. WHY, WE USE QGIS?.....................................................11
3.3. PURPOSE..........................................................................12-13
3.4. FUNCTIONS.....................................................................14
3.5. LIMITATIONS..................................................................15
3.6. APPLICATIONS.............................................................16-17
3.7. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES.................17-19
3.8. PROJECT DESCRIPTION…........................................20-23
CHAPTER 4
4.1. STUDY AREA….............................................................24-25

4.2. WHY KRISHNA DISTRICT WAS CHOSEN?........................26

CHAPTER 5
5.1. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE..................................27-32
CHAPTER 6

ix
 6.1. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS.....................................33-51
CHAPTER –7 CONCLUSIONS........................................................52
CHAPTER -8 REFERENCES............................................................53-55

x
 CHAPTER 1

1.1. INTRODUCTION:

The terms ‘land-cover’ and ‘land-use’ are often used interchangeably, their meanings are
quite distinct. It is important to distinguish this difference, and the inform that can be
ascertained from each source.

Land-cover corresponds to the physical condition of the ground surface, for example forest,
grassland, etc., while land-use reflects human activities such as the use of the for example,
industrial zones, residential zones, etc. Land-cover refers to features of surface, which may be
natural, semi-natural, managed, or manmade. They are dire observable by a remote sensor.

Land-use, on the other hand, refers to activities on land classification of land according to
how it is being used, such as residential, industrial, commercial, agricultural, recreational, etc.
Not always directly observable, inferences about land-use can often be made from land-cover.
A reason for developing and maintaining a land-cover monitoring study is to provide a
consistent view of the stock and state of our natural and built resources as they change
through time.

Land-use denotes the human employment of the land, so that a change in land-use at any
location may involve a shift to a different type of use, for instance, from farming to
residential, or a change in the intensity of use.

Generally, land-cover does not coincide with land-use. A land-use class is composed of
several land covers, for example, a residential land-use class not only contains built-up class
but also contains vegetation class, water class, etc. Remote sensing data can provide land-
cover information rather than land-use information.

The properties measured with remote sensing techniques relate to land-cover, from which
land- use can be inferred. particularly with ancillary data or a prior (already known)
knowledge. Identifying, delineating, and mapping land-cover is important for global
monitoring studies resource management, and planning activities. Identification of land-cover
establishes the baseline from which monitoring activities (change detection) can be
performed, and provides the ground cover information for baseline thematic maps.

Land-use applications involve both baseline mapping and subsequent monitoring, since
timely information is required to have knowledge on the state of use of the current quantity of
P a g e 1 | 55
land and to identify the land-use changes time to time.

P a g e 2 | 55
This knowledge helps in developing strategies to balance conservation, conflicting uses, and
developmental pressures. Issues driving land-use studies include the removal or disturbance
of productive land, urban encroachment, and depletion of forests.

Land-cover/use studies are multidisciplinary in nature, and thus the participants involved in
such work are numerous and varied, ranging from international wildlife and conservation
foundations to government researchers and forestry companies. Regional government
agencies have an operational need for land-cover inventory and land-use monitoring, as it is
within their mandate to manage the natural resources of their respective regions. In addition
to facilitate sustainable management of the land, land-cover and land-use information may be
used for planning, monitoring, evaluation of development. industrial activity, or reclamation.

Detection of long-term changes in land-cover may reveal a response to a shift in local or

regional climatic conditions, the basis of terrestrial global monitoring changes in land-cover
are examined by environmental monitoring changes authorities, and departments of
municipal affairs, with interests varying from tax assessment to reconnaissance vegetation
mapping Governments are also concerned with the general protection of national resources,
and become involved in publicly sensitive activities involving land-use conflicts.

There are many techniques which are used in monitoring and assessment of land use land
cover like remote sensing and GIS. This growth is an indicator of industrialization
(development) and generally has a negative impact on the environmental health of a region.
The land use and land cover pattern of a region is an outcome of natural and socio -economic
factors and their utilization by man in time and space.

Land is becoming a scarce resource due to population growth and industrialization. Rapid
growth of mining activities can also be attributed as one of the reasons for decrease and
degradation of land. Thus, it becomes an important task to regulate mine area for sustainable
development and environmental protection.

Hence, information on land use and land cover is essential for the selection, planning and
implementation of land use and can be used to meet the increasing demands for basic human
needs and welfare.

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1.2. DEFINITION OF TERMS:

 QGIS:

QGIS is a free and open-source cross-platform desktop geographic information system (GIS)
application that supports viewing, editing, printing, and analysis of geospatial data.

 LAND COVER:

Land-cover corresponds to the physical condition of the ground surface, for example forest,
grassland, etc., while land-use reflects human activities such as the use of the for example,
industrial zones, residential zones, etc.

 LAND USE:

Land-use, on the other hand, refers to activities on land classification of land according to
how it is being used, such as residential, industrial, commercial, agricultural, recreational, etc.

 SPATIAL DATA:

Spatial data is any type of data that directly or indirectly references a specific geographical
area or location. Sometimes called geospatial data or geographic information, spatial data can
also numerically represent a physical object in a geographic coordinate system.

 VECTOR DATA:

Vector data represents geographic data symbolized as points, lines or polygons.

 RASTER DATA:

Raster data represents geographic data as a matrix of cells that each contains an attribute value.

 MOSAICKING:

It is the process of joining two geo-referenced images into one.

 GEO-REFERENCING:

It is the process of establishing the correct position of an aerial photograph within a map or
finding the geographical coordinates of a place name or street address.

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 SUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION:

It is based on the idea that a user can select sample pixels in an image that are representative
of specific classes and then direct the image processing software to use these training sites as
references for the classification of all other pixels in the image.

 UNSUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION:

It is where the groupings of pixels with common characteristics are based on software
analysis of an image without the user defining training fields for each land cover class.

 SENTINEL MAP:

As well as monitoring plant growth, Sentinel maps is used to map changes in land cover and
to monitor the world's forests.

 ATTRIBUTE TABLE:

The attribute table displays information on features of a selected layer. Each row in the table
represents a feature (with or without geometry), and each column contains a particular piece
of information about the feature. Features in the table can be searched, selected, moved or
even edited.

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1.3. AIM AND OBJECTIVE:

AIM:
The aim of the study is to assess the land use and land cover in Krishna district.

OBJECTIVES:
 To create land use map of Krishna district
 To create land cover map of Krishna district.

1.4. SCOPE OF WORK:

The growth of a society totally depends on its social and economic development. This is the
basic reason why socio-economic surveys are carried out. This type of survey includes both
spatial and non-spatial datasets. LULC maps play a significant and prime role in planning,
management and monitoring programmes at local, regional and national levels.

This type of information, on one hand, provides a better understanding of land utilization
aspects and on the other hand, it plays an important role in the formation of policies and
programme required for development planning. For ensuring sustainable development, it is
necessary to monitor the on-going process on land use/land cover pattern over a period of
time.

In order to achieve sustainable urban development and to check the haphazard development
of towns and cities, it is necessary that authorities associated with the urban development
generate such planning models so that every bit of available land can be used in most rational
and optimal way.

This requires the present and past land use/land cover information of the area. LULC maps
also help us to study the changes that are happening in our ecosystem and environment. If we
have an inch-by-inch information about Land Use/Land Cover of the study unit we can make
policies and launch programmes to save our environment.

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1.5. METHODOGLY:

Mapping and identifying land cover/land use and its change is the most important, as well as
the most widely researched, topic in remote sensing. Land cover/land use has been used
extensively to derive a number of biophysical variables, such as vegetation index, biomass,
and carbon content.

More importantly, land cover/land use pattern and its change reflect the underlying natural
and/or social processes, thus providing essential information for modelling and understanding
many different phenomena on the Earth. Knowledge of land cover/land use and its change is
also critical to effective planning and management of natural resources.

Mapping land cover/land use accurately and efficiently via remote sensing requires good
image classification methods. Unfortunately, there are numerous factors (e.g., image
resolution and atmospheric condition) that could affect the effectiveness and accuracy of the
classification algorithms. Different land cover/land use classification methods may be needed
for different problems under different environmental conditions, making generalization and
hence automation of the image classification process across time and space extremely
difficult. As a result, new and sophisticated classification methods designed to improve the
classification process continue to appear in the literature.

Newer approaches such as fuzzy classification, artificial neural network, and object-based
classification have been developed and successfully applied. However, these methods require
extensive training and human supervision. We are still far from being able to develop a
common framework to successfully identify a variety of features in different landscapes and
to generalize and automate the classification process.

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1.6. METHODOLGY FLOW CHART:

Flowchart of the broad steps followed in this work for deriving statistics of land use pattern
of the area,

DATA ACQUISITION (satellite images, topographic sheets)

GEO REFERENCING

VISUAL INTERPRETATION

CREATING LAND COVER/LAND USE MAP

DEVELOPING RESULT FROM THE LAND COVER/LAND USE MAP

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 CHAPTER 2
2.1. LITERATURE REVIEW:
 PRAVEEN AND JASMEENA BASHIR
It’s very important to study land use land cover which changes and degraded day by
day due to natural causes like climate variability or climate change resulting floods
drought, or anthropogenic causes due to industrialization and urbanization many more
reasons also there explained in literature review and tells clearly how land use land
are affecting, literature review are important for policy making and taking decisions to
save environment degradation. There are many techniques which are used in
monitoring and assessment of land use land cover like remote sensing and GIS.

 HAMADI DIALLO AND ABHI

The construction of the Diama Dam in 1986, which had many negative impacts on the
study area, including the development of the Typha Australis plant, and the
establishment of the Diawling National Park in 1991 to manage these impacts, are the
main factors driving this change, as the available research in the study area shows,
and are the causes of the changes in LULC in the study area.

 V.MALLIKARJUNA, K.R.K. PRASAD, P. UDAYA BHASKAR, M. SAI LAKSHMI

Satellite Remote Sensing data are of great use for the estimation of various
hydrological data, when the conventional hydrological data are inadequate for the
purpose of design and operation of water resources system. In the present study, the
methodology for the development of watershed and generation of DEM using an
integrated approach of remote sensing and GIS has been described. This approach
may be applied for various other Indian watersheds for developing effective
management scenarios.

 BISWAJIT MAJUMDER
The advent of mining operation, apart from quarries, considerable portion of the dense
forest was converted to non- forest area such as settlement, roads and grasslands.
Most of the 18 dense forest areas and agricultural fields were converted into mining
areas. Thus, the increase in mining area can be attributed to the decrease in dense
forest and agricultural land. Increase in mining activities caused increase in settlement
P a g e 9 | 55
by

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 migration of people into the area. Therefore, it can be concluded that increase in
mining activities is damaging to vegetation. The present study can useful to identify
the vegetation areas which are under risk due to mining activity.

 RAJENDER KUMAR MEHTA

The major impact of built-up area and urban expansion of Delhi state will exacerbate
the harsh climatic conditions during summers. More and more RCC structures in
Delhi and its suburbs are going to be critical for further warming due to urban heat
island effect. This phenomenon will only worsen under the impact of global climate
change. With the growth of urbanization and its associated infrastructure including
roads and motor vehicles the environmental conditions will turn for the worse.
Remote sensing and GIS studies can play an important role in warning us of these
changes in spatial and temporal context. These studies can also help in identifying
areas that can be set aside for protection as green areas and preserve existing green
areas for future generations and for Delhi’s climate.

 JINHU BIAN, GUANGBIN LEI:

The present review was an attempt to evaluate LULCC monitoring studies in the
Economic Corridor by providing an overview of current advances, limitations, and
challenges. Moreover, a general summary of the LULCC trend and the main
environmental issues were provided. It was observed that changing LC types have a
long heritage in the study area because of a series of factors, such as industrialization,
economic development, urbanization, intensive cultivation, and climate change. In
this context, the main land change processes were related to barren to cropland built-
up, and forests to croplands. Our analysis showed that there is still a debate over the
selection of the right sensor type and classification method. In fact, there is no choice
about “fit for all areas”, because different sensors and classification methods can
provide different results for different landscapes, particularly where the area is big and
consists of various types of landscapes.

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 CHAPTER 3
3.1. INTRODUCTION TO QGIS:
Quantum GIS is open-source software that allows users to create and edit their own
geospatial information as well as visualising it and publishing it for other people to make use
of. The software connects users with a huge database of geospatial data, which can also be
utilised and manipulated in a whole host of different ways.

It can display multiple layers containing different sources or depictions of sources. In order to
prepare printed map with QGIS, Print Layout is used. It can be used for adding multiple map
views, labels, legends, etc. It is a free and open-source cross-platform desktop geographic
information system application that supports viewing, editing, printing, and analysis of
geospatial data. It functions as geographic information system (GIS) software, allowing users
to analyze and edit spatial information, in addition to composing and exporting graphical
maps.

It supports shapefiles, personal geodatabases, DEM Files, MapInfo, PostGIS, and other
industry-standard formats. Web services, including Web Map Service and Web Feature
Service, are also supported to allow use of data from external sources integrates with other
open-source GIS packages, including Map Server.

QGIS is a free and open-source cross-platform desktop geographic information system (GIS)
application that supports viewing, editing, printing, and analysis of geospatial data. It
functions as geographic information system (GIS) software, allowing users to analyse and
edit spatial information, in addition to composing and exporting graphical maps.

It supports raster, vector and mesh layers. Vector data is stored as either point, line, or
polygon features. Multiple formats of raster images are supported, and the software can
georeferenced images.

QGIS enables users to visualize their data using maps, charts, and diagrams while
customizing the presentation with a variety of symbology choices. The capabilities for
geographical analysis provided by QGIS, including as buffer construction, spatial querying,
and geoprocessing. For more complex geographical analysis, users can additionally make use
of plugins and algorithms. It also makes it simple to share and publish geospatial data as
maps, online services, or print maps in a variety of file formats, such as shapefiles,
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GeoTIFFs, and KML files. In order

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to prepare printed map with QGIS, Print Layout is used. It can be used for adding multiple
map views, labels, legends, etc.

As a free software application under GNU GPLv2, QGIS can be freely modified to perform
different or more specialized tasks. Two examples are the QGIS Browser and QGIS Server
applications, which use the same code for data access and rendering, but present different
front- end interfaces

It can also be used as a graphical user interface to GRASS. QGIS has a small install footprint
on the host file system compared to commercial GISs and generally requires less RAM and
processing power; hence it can be used on older hardware or running simultaneously with
other applications where CPU power may be limited.

It is maintained by volunteer developers who regularly release updates and bug fixes. As of
2012, developers have translated QGIS into 48 languages and the application is used
internationally in academic and professional environments. Several companies offer support
and feature development services.

3.2.WHY, WE USE QGIS?

There are several mapping software programs; however, they are typically expensive and
have a steep learning curve. QGIS (Quantum Geographic Information System) is a free,
open-source software that allows users to create, edit, visualize, analyse, and publish
geospatial information.

There are many benefits to using QGIS. First, the software offers many free online resources
and maps available to download. QGIS also accepts many vector file formats. Finally, there
are a variety of plug-ins for potential use, and there are always new plug-ins being created.
Plug-ins are extra applications that can be downloaded to complete a specific task that is not
easily accomplished otherwise.

To assess the current land use situation and the possibility of modelling possible future
changes associated with complex of adopted measures GIS allows the integration of diverse
spatial data, for example, data about soils, climate, vegetation, and other and also to visualize
available information in the form of maps, graphs or charts, 3D models.

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3.3. PURPOSE:

As the population increases and national economies continue to move away agriculture-based
systems, cities grow and spread. The urban sprawl often infringes viable agricultural or
productive forest land, neither of which can resist not deflect overwhelming momentum of
urbanization, City growth is an indicator of industrialization (development) and generally has
a negative impact on the environmental health region.

The change in land-use from rural to urban is monitored to estimate populations, predict and
plan the direction of urban sprawl for developers, and monitor adjacent environmentally
sensitive areas or hazards. Temporary refugee settlements and tents can be monitored and
population amounts and densities estimated. In developing countries that often do not have
reliable population databases, interpretation of high-resolution imageries can be used to
estimate housing density.

By calculating housing density for representative sample areas with an image, reliable
estimates of housing density can be obtained for other similar areas in the image. If
information is available the average household size, this method can be extended to produce
estimates of population density. High-resolution images have often been used in
transportation studies and can be f to identify vehicle types, estimate traffic flows, identify
parking problems on city estimate parking lot usage, and even to measure the speed of
vehicles on a highway.

Analysing agricultural versus urban land-use is important for ensuring that development does
not encroach on valuable agricultural land, and to likewise ensure that agriculture being done
on the most appropriate land and does not degrade due to improper adjacent development or
infrastructure.

Municipalities can use images to identify building code violations and enforce compliance
with permitting procedures. Most municipalities require building permits for any construction
project larger than a small backyard shed. New construction can be identified on aerial
photograph or on a very high-resolution satellite image, and permit records can be checked to
verify that a building permit was issued for the project.

This type of application requires large-scale imagery such as 1:5, 000.

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Remote sensing images have often been used to aid in locating businesses or public facilities
such as schools, fire stations, or libraries. By specifying a set of criteria that present
desirable locations for the business or public facility, image interpretation can be used to
identify sites that satisfy project requirements.

In a similar manner, remote sensing images can be used to perform avoidance screening. The
objective here is to identify areas wherein there is no scope for development. This could
include areas of steep slopes, organic soils, buffer zones around marshes, rivers, shorelines or
top of steep slopes. ecologically sensitive areas, conflicting land-uses, good agricultural land,
or gravel deposits.

An experienced interpreter can quickly identify these constraint areas on an image. With
multitemporal analyses, remote sensing provides a unique perspective of how cities evolve.

The key element for mapping rural to urban land-use change is the ability to discriminate
between rural uses (farming and pasture forests) and urban use (residential, commercial, and
recreational).

Remote sensing methods can be employed to classify types of land-use over large areas in a
practical, economical, and repetitive fashion. The change is usually detected by comparison
between two multi-date images, or sometimes between an old map and an updated remote
sensing image.

The land-cover change can be divided into two categories, as following:

1. Seasonal change, for instance, agricultural lands and deciduous forests change seasonally,

2. Annual change (change over years), for example, land-cover or land-use changes, which
are real changes, for instance, deforested areas or newly built towns.

P a g e 16 | 55
3.4. FUNCTIONS:

1. GIS in which seeks to find out what exists at a particular location. A location can be
described in many ways, using, for instance, name of place. Post code, or geographic
reference such as latitude and longitude.
2. Instead of identifying what exists at a given location, one may wish to find locations I
where certain conditions are satisfied.
3. It identifies geographic occurrence or trends that have changed, or are in the process of
changing. It might involve in finding differences over time.
4. Spatial Patterns Exist in which analyses the spatial relationship between objects of
geographic features. For example, we may wish to determine whether habitats mostly
grow near streams.
5. GIS is computing and displaying an optimum path. finding a suitable land, locating a
risky area against disasters, and the like. Information on geography
6. y as well as other related topics.
7. It provides different view and multi-temporal data for land use and land cover mapping.
8. 7.The conversion of different land use types and is the result of complex interactions
between humans and the physical environment.
9. Land use whereas the land cover specifies what covers the surface of the earth.
10. An area provides information to help users to understand the current landscape details.
11. Rapid development of remote sensing and gis in land use and land cover has become the
most credible, effective measure to monitor the condition changing in the global surface.

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3.5. LIMITATIONS:
1. Data for a specific area may lack spatial or temporal continuity
2. Additionally, privacy and security issues can sometimes limit distribution of data.
3. Collecting the data can be very time consuming.
4. GIS often relies on the quality of available data (example, existing hardcopy maps) which
may introduce serious errors.
5. GIS data may also be subject to misuse or misinterpretation.
6. GIS shows only spatial relationships but does not necessarily explain them or provide
absolute solutions, which is the actual need of the user.
7. GIS has its origin in the earth science and computer science. Therefore, solutions derived
from GIS may not be appropriate for humanities science research.
8. Learning time on GIS software and systems can be long, because it easily becomes the
objective of the study rather than just a tool.
9. GIS integrates several individual subjects, which demands proper knowledge on all of
integrated disciplines.
10. GIS needs specialized computer equipment and software (although this is increasingly
becoming less important).
11. It can show many different kinds of data on one map, and it enables people to more easily
analyse and understand the patterns and relationships.
12. They have been using different techniques in spatial data creating land use and land cover
mapping with different resolutions.
13. GIS data are relatively expensive than traditional data.

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3.6. APPLICATIONS:
A GIS enables us to better understand and evaluate our data by creating graphic displays using
information stored in our database.

With a GIS, we can change the display of our geographic data by changing the symbols,
colours, or values in the database tables.

The GIS can be applied in various distinct application areas.

Major areas of application of GIS can be grouped into five categories as follows.

1. Facilities Management

Large-scale and precise maps and network analysis are used mainly for utility management.
Automated mapping/facility management (AM/FM) is frequently used in this area.

2. Environment and Natural Resources Management

Medium- or small-scale maps and overlay techniques in combination with aerial photographs
and satellite images are used for management of natural resources and environmental impact
analysis.

3. Street Network

Large or medium-scale maps and spatial analysis are used for vehicle routing, locating house
and streets, etc.

4. Planning and Engineering

Large or medium-scale maps and engineering models are used mainly in civil engineering.

5. Land Information System

Large-scale cadastre maps or land parcel maps and spatial analysis are used for cadastre
administration, taxation, etc.
6. Agriculture
The GIS is used in a variety of agricultural applications such as managing crop yields,
monitoring crop rotation techniques, and projecting soil loss for individual farm or entire
agricultural regions, etc.

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7. Business
GIS is a tool for managing any kind of business information according to its location. We
can keep a track of where the customers are located, site businesses target marketing
campaigns, optimize sales territories, and model retail spending patterns.
8. Natural resource management and wildlife habitat protection.
9. Baseline mapping for geographic information system (GIS) input and urban expansion
encroachment.
10. Routing and logistics planning for seismic/exploration resource, extraction activities.

11. Damage delineation (tornadoes, flooding, volcanic, seismic, fire, and terrain activities).
12. Legal boundaries for tax and property evaluation. Target detection-identification of
landing strips, roads, clearings, bridges, and water interface.
13. In the present days, land use and land cover mapping is of great significance in scientific,
scholarly research, planning and management.
14. Land use and Land cover features have been precisely captured through on-screen visual
interpretation and digitally on very high resolution.

3.7. ADAVANTAGES:
The following sections describe the advantages of GIS, considering different issues separately.

1. 1.Advantage over Traditional Map

Like all models, maps are, by necessity, simplified representations of the reality of the earth.
Partly, this is for convenience; it becomes very difficult to draw and inter multiple
information themes on one map covering a large area.

2. Advantage over Mapping Software

Apart from GIS, several software is also being used for a long time to generate digital maps.
The GIS is much more than conventional mapping software. It is a combination of maps and
database.

3. Advantage over CAD

For a long period of time, CAD (or CADD) was used to produce maps. It is an effective
replacement for the traditional process. The CAD data (graphical objects) are referenced to a
coordinate system, which can be used to represent a mapping grid.
P a g e 20 | 55
4. Advantage over Conventional DBMS

The GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and statistical abs
with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps. These
abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it valuable a wide range of
public and private enterprises for explaining events, predicting outcomes.

5. Advantage of Analysis, Modelling, Presentation, and Decision

6. Making The GIS integrates spatial and other kinds of information within a single system
it offers consistent framework for analysing geographical data by placing maps and other
kinds of spatial information into digital form. It allows us to manipulate and display
geographical knowledge in new and exciting ways, makes connections between activities
based on geographic proximity.
7. By using raster and vector data model because of the simple data structure and smaller
file size.
8. Easy and efficient overlaying in raster model whereas individual identify for discrete
objects like line, polygon in vector model
9. Compatible with remote sensing, efficient for topological relationships. High spatial
variability is efficiently represented, efficient projection transformation.
10. Efficient to represent continuous data and easy to edit the data. Land use and land cover
detect changes is a cost effective.
11. GIS tools for mapping the land use and land cover getting a detailed understanding of the
overall process. These techniques have opened up wide range for effective analysis and
combined with different data models.

P a g e 21 | 55
DISADVANTAGES:
1. It requires a large amount of data to be inputted into the system and hence there are more
chance of errors.
2. Excessive damage in case of internal fault. Long outage periods as repair of damaged part
at site may be difficult.
3. Software is expensive and integration with traditional map is difficult.
4. Its technical nature might portray results as being more reliable than they actually occurs
errors and assumptions can be hidden, leading to lack of questioning into the results.
5. The cost can be prohibitively high to convert existing maps and attributes.
6. Purchase and maintenance costs of computer software and hardware are high for complex
modelling tasks or sustaining large databases.
7. Relatively high level of technical expertise is required for successful GIS. Failures in
initiating additional efforts in order to fully implement the GIS.
8. Land use and land cover mapping is being pre-processing or georeferencing when the
data and coordinates are given incorrectly so many geographical errors increase with
larger scale.
9. In raster data model all the objects are series of pixels, no identify for discrete objects
other than points. Difficult to build topographical relationship and edit.
10. Inefficient projection transformations, Loss of information when using large cells.
11. In vector data model high spatial variability is inefficiently re-represented and not
compatible with remote sensing imagery, not appropriate to represent continuous data.

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3.8. PROJECT DESCRIPTION:
Quantum GIS is open-source software that allows users to create and edit their own
geospatial information as well as visualizing it and publishing it for other people to make use
of. The software connects users with a huge database of geospatial data, which can also be
utilized and manipulated in a whole host of different ways.

There are several mapping software programs; however, they are typically expensive and
have a steep learning curve. QGIS (Quantum Geographic Information System) is a free,
open-source software that allows users to create, edit, visualize, analyze, and publish
geospatial information.

Land cover / use studies are multidisciplinary in nature, and thus the participants involved in
such work are numerous and varied, ranging from international wildlife and conservation
foundations, to government researchers, and forestry companies. In addition to facilitating
sustainable management of the land, land cover and use information may be used for
planning, monitoring, and evaluation of development, industrial activity, or reclamation.
Detection of long-term changes in land cover may reveal a response to a shift in local or
regional climatic conditions, the basis of terrestrial global monitoring.

Ongoing negotiations of aboriginal land claims have generated a need for more stringent
knowledge of land information in those areas, ranging from cartographic to thematic
information. Resource managers involved in parks, oil, timber, and mining companies, are
concerned with both land use and land cover, as are local resource inventory or natural
resource agencies. Changes in land cover will be examined by environmental monitoring
researchers, conservation authorities, and departments of municipal affairs, with interests
varying from tax assessment to reconnaissance vegetation mapping.

Governments are also concerned with the general protection of national resources, and
become involved in publicly sensitive activities involving land use conflicts. Attribute tables
are similar to Excel spreadsheets.

Attribute tables store information about the uploaded data and can be edited within QGIS.

A base map is the underlying reference map or layer used to orient the uploaded data in space.

A coordinate reference system (CRS) defines a map’s projection system. This transforms the
map to be more accurate based on a local, regional, or global scale. After uploading a base
map
P a g e 23 | 55
or layer, assign a CRS. If the window to assign this does not automatically appear, right-click
on the layer and select set layer CRS.

P a g e 24 | 55
Layers that do not have an appropriate CRS will have a layer viewed in the wrong location in
comparison to the other layers. They are used to display geographic datasets. Each layer
references another dataset, and the map symbols and labeling are specified. There are three
main ways to display data: as points, lines, or polygons. A polygon is a series of points or a
collection of lines that form a shape.

Query is a search to make only a specified section of data visible. This makes it easier to
create multiple maps or to highlight differences within the same data.

A raster file is an image file stored as pixels. Raster files are typically used for aerial or
satellite imaging. Common raster file types are. geotiff or .tif.

Shapefile is a vector data format used to store geographic, symbol, and labeling information.
A shapefile is a file format that creates layers. However, not all layers are shapefiles.

Required Files

The base map and most layers exist in multiple file types: .shp, .shx, cbg, .dbf, prj, and.qpj.
The .shp file is used to upload a layer into the QGIS workspace. However, do not delete the
.shx file. The .shp and .shx file must both be in the file directory for QGIS to successfully
upload the desired base map or layer. Therefore, deleting the .shx file will result in an error.

It is common practice for a layer to be referred to only as a shapefile. When downloading a

layer, the files will often include the necessary .shx file even though only the .shp file is
mentioned.

The directory used when initially uploading and creating the file is recalled when returning to
the map later. If the file is moved to another folder, QGIS will require a new directory to be
established, or else that layer will be deleted.

Uploading Layers

A layer displays the spatial distribution of quantitative and qualitative data. The term “layer”
broadly describes data shown as a raster, polygon, line, or point. A map is typically
comprised of multiple layers over a base map. A base map is the layer that orients the map in
space.

P a g e 25 | 55
To upload a layer:

Drag and drop the .shp file into the layers panel.

Layer > Add layer > Add vector layer > Browse > Open

Layers Panel

There are a variety of panels to view while working in QGIS. Arguably the most useful is the
layers panel (View > Panels > Layers panel). This shows all layers that are currently
uploaded. To make a layer visible/invisible, check the box beside the layer name. The order
of the layers in this panel is also important. The layers stack on top of one another.

Therefore, the layer highest in the layers panel will appear on top of any layers below it. In
the example below, when the ne_10m_land layer is above the water layer, the land covers the
water. When the water layer is above the ne_10m_land layer, it is possible to see the entire
water layer, and it covers portions of the land layer.

Data and Values

Attribute tables are like Excel spreadsheets. They store information about the uploaded data.
When dealing with a specific layer, first select the layer in the layers panel.

Toggle allows for a layer’s attribute table to be edited. In some cases, a layer may be locked
and unable to be edited. To unlock the layer, you must save the layer using save as. The new
copy of the layer can then be toggled. Press toggle after completing all edits to save the layer
changes.

Color

There are multiple ways to change the color of a points layer. Under the color heading, select
the sample color to open the select color panel. Choose a desired color. Within the select
color panel, use the dropper to match a color already on the map.

Instead of using the select color panel, you can choose recent and standard colors. Refer to
the previous size section on graduated symbols to learn how to change the color of the points
incrementally.

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Add Scale/Legend

Add a scalebar to the print composer map. Edit the scalebar under item properties. If more
than one map is present, select which map the scalebar should be fitted to. Under style, you
can change the appearance, units, and multiplier of the scalebar. The number of segments on
each side of the 0 on the scalebar can also be edited.

Add a legend to the print composer map. Edit the legend by selecting legend items within
item properties. By default, the legend will include the name of all layers present in the main
QGIS window. If you want fewer labels, deselect auto update, highlight the layers to be
deleted, and click the delete button.

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 CHAPTER 4
4.1. STUDY AREA:
Krishna district was one of the oldest British administrated areas of Andhra Pradesh. It was
formerly called Machilipatnam district and in 1859 when the then Guntur district was
abolished, certain taluks thereof were added to this district which was renamed as Krishna
district, after the mighty river Krishna.

Therefore, present study was undertaken to analyze the extent of human-induced landscape
transformation temporal remote sensing data using geographic information system (GIS).

Land cover types (dense forest, crops, water body, built up area and open forest) were
delineated in order to achieve the above objective. The areas under settlement/non-forest
were also taken into consideration to know the trend due to the impact of construction
activities in different time periods.

Latitude

15° 43’ N and 17° 10’ N

Longitude

80° 0’ and 81° 33’ of E

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Fig 4.1.: study area

P a g e 29 | 55
4.2. WHY KRISHNA DISTRICT WAS CHOSEN?

A part of Andhra Pradesh, the Krishna delta of Krishna District is chosen as the study area for
the evaluation process. The paper incorporated essential information such as field data,
topographic maps, IRS satellite images and other collateral maps as inputs. Significant
position factors affecting the availability of surface water in the area were established, and
corresponding thematic data layers were developed. These data layers depict the study
location's geological, hydrological and topographical conditions. For spatial analysis in GIS
software. The maps were validated by correlating the flow of water with the specified relative
variables available. This is consistent with the observed field instability state. The map's
usefulness was also demonstrated by the strong statistical significance as determined
separately for every map.

Because of the increasing the development over past decades in Krishna district, there are lot
of changes have been made in land usage and land cover changes and also decreasing the
ground water table.

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 CHAPTER 5
5.1. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
 STEP – 1: DATA ACQUIRED AND SOURCE
For the present study, multispectral, multi-temporal LANDSAT satellite data, spatial data.

DATA SOURCE:
TABLE 5.1
Subject Description Source Format

Administrative Country outlines and GADM, version vector(area)

areas (boundaries) administrative subdivisions for all 1.0
countries. The level of subdivision
varies between countries

Inland Rivers, canals, and lakes. Separate Digital Chart of vector

files for line and area features the World (Line and area)

Roads Roads Digital Chart of vector(line)

the World

Railroads Railroads Digital Chart of vector(line)

the World

Landcover Land cover, original data resampled GLC2000 Grid

onto a 30 seconds grid

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 STEP – 2: SOFTWARE USED IN THE STUDY
Two following software’s were used for this project

Quantum GIS 2.18.0 – This was used for classification by visual interpretation and to create
the land cover/ land use pattern.

Quantum GIS 3.30.0 - QGIS is a free and open-source cross-platform desktop geographic
information system (GIS) application that supports viewing, editing, printing, and analysis of
geospatial data.

The QGIS interface has four areas:

• Menu bar - provides access to the majority of QGIS Desktop’s functionality.

• Toolbars - provide quick access to QGIS Desktop functionality; they can be arranged to
either float independently or dock along the sides of the application’s window.

• Panels- such as Browser, and Layers - provide a variety of functionality and can be
arranged to either float independently or dock above, below, right, or left of the map display.

• Map display - shows the styled data added to the QGIS project. The following toolbars are
particularly useful, and they should be enabled: • File - provides quick access to creating,
opening, saving QGIS projects, and creating and managing print composers.

• Manage Layers - contains tools to add vector, raster, database, web service, text
layers, or create new layers.

• Map Navigation - contains tools useful for panning, zooming, and refreshing the
map display.

• Attributes - provides access to information, selection, field calculator, measuring,

bookmarking, and annotation tools. If you want to customize, you can:

• Toggle the visibility of toolbars: by clicking View  Toolbars, or by right clicking

the menu bar or enable toolbar button, which will open a context menu allowing you
to toggle toolbar and panel visibility.

• Assign shortcut to actions by clicking Settings  Configure shortcuts.

• Change application options, such as interface language and rendering options by

clicking Settings  Options

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 MAP DISPLAY
TOOLBARS

PANELS

Fig 5.1.: QGIS Interface

P a g e 33 | 55
 STEP – 3: MOSAICKING THE TOPOGRAPHIC SHEETS
All the topographic sheets were first geo-referencing using ERDAS. Mosaicking was then
performed on topographic sheets. These mosaicked images were used to overlay the satellite
images.

Fig 5.2.: Topographic Sheet

KRISHNA DISTRICT

Fig 5.3.: Mosaicking

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 STEP – 4: GEO-REFERENCING THE SATELLITE IMAGERY
All the satellite imagery was geo-referenced using the mosaicked topographic sheet as the
reference image.

Fig 5.4.: Geo-Referenced Image

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 STEP – 5: DEVELOPMENT OF A CLASSIFICATION SCHEME
The classification scheme which gives a broad classification of the land use land cover of the
study area. They are classified as Dense Forest, Quarry, Water body, non-forest area.

Two major categories of image classification techniques include unsupervised (calculated by

software) and supervised (human-guided) classification. The computer used those techniques
to determine which pixels are related and groups them into classes. The user can specify
which algorithm the software will use and the desired number of output classes but otherwise
does not aid in the classification process.

Supervised classification is based on the idea that a user can select sample pixels in an image
that are representative of specific classes and then direct the image processing software to use
these training sites as references for the classification of all other pixels in the image.

Unsupervised classification is where the groupings of pixels with common characteristics are
based on software analysis of an image without the user defining training fields for each land
cover class. All this is done without the help of training data or prior knowledge. It is where
the outcomes (groupings of pixels with common characteristics) are based on the software
analysis of an image without the user providing sample classes.

P a g e 36 | 55
 CHAPTER 6
6.1. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:
LAND USE MAPS:
 ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP
The district is divided into 50 Mandals covering 4 Revenue Divisions viz. 1 Bandar 2
Vijayawada 3. Gudivada 4. Nuzvid. The district is naturally divided into Delta and Upland
Zones. All the Mandals existing in Bandar, Gudivada divisions and part of Vijayawada
division (Penamaluru, Kankipadu, Thotlavalluru part of Vijayawada Rural) comprise delta
and Unguturu. Vuyyuru Pamidimukkala and part of Gannavaram and Bapulapadu Mandals of
Nuzvid Division and all the mandals existing in Nuzvid division and the remaining Mandals
of Vijayawada Division constitute upland (DES, 2015). The upland consists of an undulating
broken terrain by low ranges of Eastern Ghats. The main sources of Irrigation in upland are
tanks. It is being benefited by the water of Nagarjuna Sagar also. The delta land is being
irrigated by canals of river Krishna. There are five municipalities viz.

1. Machilipatnam

2. Pedana

3. Gudivada

4 Nuzvid and

5. Jaggaiahpeta and one Municipal Corporation in Vijayawada.

 WATER BODIES

This category comprises areas with surface wat, either impounded in the form of ponds, lakes
and reservoirs or flowing a stream, rivers, canals. These are seen clearly on the satellite image
in blue to dark blue or cyan colour depending on the depth of water Waterbody category
occupies an area about 513 sq. km with 5.88% of the district.

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Fig 6.1.: Water Line
P a g e 38 | 55
TABLE 6.1
ATTRIBUTE TABLE FOR WATER LINE:

FID F_CODE_DES HYC DESCRIPTION NAME COUNTRY

Non-
1 River/Stream Krishna India
Perennial/Intermittent/Fluctuating

2 River/Stream Perennial/permanent Krishna India

3 River/Stream Perennial/permanent Krishna India

Non-
4 River/Stream Krishna India
Perennial/Intermittent/Fluctuating

5 River/Stream Perennial/permanent Krishna India

6 River/Stream Perennial/permanent Krishna India

7 River/Stream Perennial/permanent Krishna India

Non-
8 River/Stream Krishna India
Perennial/Intermittent/Fluctuating

9 River/Stream Perennial/permanent Palleru India

Palleru
10 River/Stream Perennial/permanent India
river

Non- Kattaleru
11 River/Stream India
Perennial/Intermittent/Fluctuating river

Ellore
12 River/Stream Perennial/permanent canal India

13 River/Stream Perennial/permanent Unknown India

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Fig 6.2.: Water Area

P a g e 40 | 55
TABLE 6.2

ATTRIBUTE TABLE FOR WATER AREA:

FID F_CODE_DES HYC DESCRIPTION NAME COUNTRY

Inland Water
1 Perennial/permanent Krishna India

Land Subject to
Non-
2 Inundation Unknown India
Perennial/Intermittent/Fluctuating

Land Subject to
Non-
3 Inundation Unknown India
Perennial/Intermittent/Fluctuating

Land Subject to
Non-
4 Inundation Krishna India
Perennial/Intermittent/Fluctuating

Land Subject to
Non-
5 Inundation Unknown India
Perennial/Intermittent/Fluctuating

Inland Water
6 Perennial/permanent Unknown India

Inland Water
7 Perennial/permanent Krishna India

Inland Water
8 Perennial/permanent Unknown India

P a g e 41 | 55
 PLACES OF TOURIST INTEREST
Vijayawada:

The 4014 feet long Prakasam Barrage-road bridge-cum regulator across river Krishna which
links Krishna and Guntur districts and benefits an ayacut of about 12 lakh acres in Krishna
Delta offers a pleasant sight.

There is a 56 feet Stupa on the Gandhi Hill besides a library on Gandhian literature along
with a children train and a Planetarium on the hill. The Mogalrajapuram caves are another
attraction for tourists. Of the three caves temples dating back to fifth century, only one is still
in good shape. It contains the idols of Lord Nataraja and Vinayaka among others. The
Arthanareeswara Murthy found here is regarded as the only one in the entire South India. The
other famous caves are the Undavalli caves, situated about 8 Kms from Vijayawada.

Kondapally (Ibrahimpatnam Mandal):

Kondapalli is well known for its wooden toys named after it. The ancient fort of Kondapalli
is a place of historical importance and tourist interest. It is said to have been constructed by
Ana- Vema Reddy in the period 1362-1377 AD and was captured and annexed by Krishna
Devaraya in Vijayanagar Empire.

Kolleru Lake (Kaikaluru Mandal):

This is a big lake. A trip in the waters of lake during August to November will be a pleasant
experience.

Manginapudi:

The beach at Manginapudi is a natural beach which attracts many tourists.

Puligadda (Avanigadda Mandal):

The aqueduct at Puligadda is an attraction to tourists.

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Fig 6.3.: Points (All Commercial and Public Places)

P a g e 43 | 55
TABLE 6.2

ATTRIBUTE TABLE FOR POINTS (ALL COMMERICAL AND PUBLIC

PLACES):

SL.NO OSM_ID NAME TYPE

708883718
1 Mangala Giri Station
1596307352
2 Krishna Canal Junction station
1725187814
3 New Misra Dhaba Hotel restaurant
1736159938
4 Cheruvumadhavaram station

5 1880442777 Madhura Nagar halt

6 1884890634 Nuzvid station
1943920735 Bhushanagulla Library library
7

8 2122647062 Dosapadu station

9 2122647074 Indupalli halt
10 2122647092 Uppaluru station
11 2122647117 Nidamanuru station
12 2000333839 Kandhari bus stop
13 2000333823 Hotel DV Manor hotel
14 1971787824 Kondapalli station
15 1971787816 Rayanapadu station
16 1963297439 Lakshmi Hospital hospital
Vijayawada Junction stop
17 1883322462

18 1769546774 Peddavadlapudi station

19 1694098711 Raj Towers restaurant
20 1694093589 American Hospital hospital
21 1051035244 Azih Singh Nagar water tank 3 water tower
22 1051013135 Hindu Temple Ganganamma Gudi place_of_worship
23 1051013134 Saibaba Temple place_of_worship
24 1051013133 Ramalayam place_of_worship
25 1051013129 Noor-e-Islam Mohalla Masjid place_of_worship

P a g e 44 | 55
 LAND PLACES OF RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL IMPORTANCE

Vijayawada:

Vijayawada Known as Vijayavatika in mythology, Vijayawada is a place of pilgrimage on

the banks of over Krishna People gather in thousands for a dip in Kirshna on important
festival particularly on Mahasivarathn Krishna Pushkaram occurring once in 12 years is an all
India festival and lakhs of people pay their homage to the sacred shavers Arjuna obtained the
famous "Pasupathastra after doing penance of indrakeela hit in the town Kanaka Durga is the
presiding deity and the Durga temple suited on the hill attract pilgrims, throughout the year
from far and near From uphill a panoramic view of the city can be had which all the more is
fascinating during nights.

Chilakalapudi (Machilipatnam):

The Pandurangaswamy temple at Chilakalapudi said to be on par with the temple at

Pundanpuram is a famous pilgrim centre. The festival at this temple during Karthikamasam
attracts a number of pilgrims.

Movva (Movva Mandal):

Sri Mova Venugopala Swamy Temple is the place where Kshetrayya is said to have
composed his famous lyrics. The Kshetray Ka Samthi at Mova now teaches music and dance
to students.

Kuchipudi (Mova Mandal):

It is the birth place of Siddendra Yogi, the originator of the Kuchipudi dance which is famous
throughout the country. The Siddendra Kala Kshetram at Kuchipudi offers a 5 years course
leading to the title Natya Acharya.

Peda Kallepalli (Mova Mandal):

This is on the bank of the sacred river Krishna and is popularly known as Southern Bananas.
A great festival is celebrated on shivarathri.

Ghantasala:

Ghantasals was once a port and a halting place for Buddhist pilgrims and merchants from
Kalinga to Ceylone. There are Hindu and Buddhist sculptures in the village. The artistic
excellence of the images of Kala Bhava and Saraswathi compare well with the art forms
P a g e 45 | 55
found

P a g e 46 | 55
at Mohenjadaro The image of Lord Narasimha is said to be a superbly carved one After the
course of the river Krishna shitted the glory of Ghantasala faded away.

Srikakulam (Ghantasala Mandal):

Srikakulam was once the capital of Andhra Empire. The Anda King Goutamiputra Satakami
(AD 102-123) ruled over the whole country watered by the rivers Krishna and Godavari.
There is a sample of Andhra Mahavishnu, who must have been a noble royal sage. It is said
that Si Krishna Devaraya worshipped at this temple in 1500 and in a dream, he was asked by
the Deity to compose a poem on himself. Later the emperor wrote the book "Amukta
Malyada" which is one of the literary classics.

Hamsaladevi (Koduru Mandal):

It is here that river Krishna finally falls into the Bay of Bengal. Thousands of pilgrims offer
prayers at Si Venugopal Swamy temple on the Magha Purnima.

Vedadri (Jaggayyapeta Mandal):

One of the oldest temples in the district Sri Ugranarasimha Swamy is present on the bank of
river Krishna.

Agiripalli (Agiripalli Mandal):

Sri Sobhanachala Swamy temple an Agiripalli is a pilgrim centre.

Vadali (Gudivada Mandal):

The temple of St Jagannadha Swamy temple at Vadali is a pilgrim centre.

Gudivada (Gudivada Mandal):

There is a Jain temple of Parswandha Swamy enriched with Marble sculpture. This was a
Buddhist centre and under the control of Archaeological Department.

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 PLACES OF ECONOMIC AND COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE
Vijayawada:

Vijayawada is the second largest city in the State. The rail and road trunk route linking
Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, Machilipatnam and Hyderabad is one of the largest traffic centres in
South India. A two-lakh tone cement factory is situated here besides 392 factories registered
under Factories Act. An Auto Nagar is also established.

Machilipatnam:

Machilipatnam is the district headquarters and the second largest town in the district.
Factories are situated here. The Andhra Scientific Company is the major industrial
establishment of the Town. It manufactures scientific instruments which are mainly used in
Laboratories of educational institutions and has a standing of over 35 years. Kalamkari
industry in which colour printing on the cloth is done by natural colours, avoiding the use of
chemical colours is famous. Gold covering is also a local industry which attracts customers
throughout the State.

Vuyyuru:

The Vuyyuru Sugar factory though ranking next to Nizam Sugar factory in capacity, has been
turning out the largest output of sugar in the State in recent years.

Challapalli:

The Challapalli sugar Factory is another important factory in the district.

P a g e 48 | 55
Fig 6.4: Places (Villages Towns and Sub Urban Areas, Economic Important)

P a g e 49 | 55
TABLE 6.3

ATTRIBUTE TABLE FOR PLACES (VILLAGES TOWNS AND SUB

URBAN AREAS) AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANT

SL.NO OSM_ID NAME TYPE POPULATION

1. 245636141 Kankipadu village 14616

2. 245636315 Mangalagiri town 73613

3. 245636415 Tadepalle town 64149

4. 245636776 Gannavaram suburb 20728

5. 245636141 Kankipadu village 14616

6. 245636315 Mangalagiri town 73613

7. 1880441437 Vijayawada city 1048240

8. 455916188 Unguturu village 2333

9. 455916259 Agiripalle village 13283

10. 464586031 Pedaparupudi village 2835

11. 832943871 Velagapudi village 2500

12. 832943872 Thulluru village 7794

13. 1228208152 Bapulapadu village 15223

14. 1455963302 Ibrahimpatnam village 29432

15. 155890374 Amaravati city 103000

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 ROADS AND RAILWAYS NETWORK:

The district is well served by roads and railways. 972 villages (including some of the
major hamlets) have been connected with transport facilities of which 923 villages are
connected by A.P.S.R.T.C.
The network of National highways. State highways, District roads and Panchayat roads is
shown in Figure. Vijayawada city situated at the head of the Krishna delta is the chief
commercial centre of this District and also there is an important railway junction being
connected to Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Hubli.
It has an aerodrome at Gannavaram about 16 Kms away from Vijayawada. A minor sea
port is at Machilipatnam

Fig 6.4.: Road Network

P a g e 51 | 55
TABLE 6.4
ATTRIBUTE TABLE ROAD NETWORK
FID MED_DESCRI RTT_DESCRI F_CODE_DES COUNTRY

1. Without Median Secondary Route Road INDIA

2. Unknown Unknown Road INDIA

3. Without Median Secondary Route Road INDIA

4. Without Median Secondary Route Road INDIA

5. Unknown Unknown Road INDIA

6. Unknown Unknown Road INDIA

7. Without Median Secondary Route Road INDIA

8. Without Median Secondary Route Road INDIA

9. Without Median Secondary Route Road INDIA

10. Without Median Primary Route Road INDIA

11. Without Median Secondary Route Road INDIA

12. Without Median Primary Route Road INDIA

13. Without Median Secondary Route Road INDIA

14. Without Median Secondary Route Road INDIA

P a g e 52 | 55
Fig 6.5: Railway Network

TABLE 6.5
ATTRIBUTE TABLE RAILWAYS NETWORK
FID
fi FID_rail_ F_CODE_ FCO_DESC ISOCO
EXS_DESCRI _cou ISO
d d DES RI UNTRY
ntr
1 166873 Railroad Operational Multiple 102 Ind India
2 167124 Railroad Operational Multiple 102 Ind India
Unexamined/U
3 167156 Railroad Unknown 102 Ind India
nsurveyed
Unexamined/U
4 167159 Railroad Unknown 102 Ind India
nsurveyed

P a g e 53 | 55
Including all the land use maps into one layer then, we get this map.

Fig 6.6: Land Use Map

P a g e 54 | 55
LAND COVER MAPS:

 AGRICULTURE:
Endowed with a rich variety of soils, the district occupies an important place in
agriculture which is the most important occupation and paddy the main food crop
produced. Agricultural land use category primary used for the production of food, fibre,
and other commercial and horticultural crops includes land under crops namely cropland
tallow land, agricultural plantation and aquaculture The agricultural category is found as
the major category covering 641 sq.km (76.27%)

 BUILT UP AREA:
These are the areas of human habitation that has a cover of buildings, transport and
communication, utilities in association with water vegetation and vacant lands it consists
of built-up (Compact & Sparse), Vegetated/ Open Area Rural Industrial and Mining
Quarry it occupies an area of 533.43 sq. km, which is about of the total geographical acres
of the district of which rural area contributes 3.65% which is more than 50% of the built-
up category

 VEGETATED/OPEN AREA:
These are vegetated areas within urban agglomeration (used within of a contact with
urban areas) Vegetation cover of trees shrubs and herbs covers at least 5% of the total
surface area it has been delineated Parks, sport and lure facilities camping grounds sports
grounds, leisure parks, golf courses ace courses, including formal parks etc are considered
in this category. This category occupies an area of 65.92sq.km.

 FOREST:
The term forest is used to refer to land with a tree canopy cover of more than 10%and
area of more than 0.5 ha Forest determined both by the presence of trees and the absence
of other predominant land uses within the notified for boundaries. The trees should be
able to reach a minimum height of 5m within the notified foot boundaries. The forest
cover is occupied about 624 km (7%).

P a g e 55 | 55
Fig 6.7: Land Cover Map

P a g e 56 | 55
 CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSIONS:
 This thesis focuses on land use and land cover changes in an urban area, Krishna district,
India using Quantum Geographic Information System (QGIS) technology.
 Our results clearly show that land use and land cover changes were significant during the
past decade.
 The spatial distribution of land use/land cover of the Krishna district comprises of
different categories that includes built-up, agricultural, forest, wastelands, wetlands and
water bodies.
 There is a remarkable expansion of built-up area noticed. The rate of agriculture
production has been increased 7.6%. Transportation has been enlarged.
 On the other hand, there is decrease in level of groundwater table and vegetated area,
open area by 5%. Forest area (canopy cover) decreased by 0.5hectares.
 The impact of population and its development activities on land use and land cover
changes is significant.
 This study proves that integration of GIS technologies is an effective tool for urban
planning and management.
 Quantification of land use and land cover changes of Krishna district area is very useful
for environmental management groups, policy makers and for public to better understand
the surroundings.
 The result of the work showed that there was a rapid change of land usage and land cover
changes in water bodies including all aspects of the developing district in Andhra
Pradesh.

P a g e 57 | 55
 CHAPTER 8
REFERENCES:
1. https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=122240
2. https://www.slideshare.net/DhanendraBahekar/land-cover-and-land-use
3. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Land-use-and-land-cover-change-detection-study-
at Majumder/79f0cead27e6da4986be57ccc4e9d3ca550a2aa2
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LAND_USE_LAND_COVER_CHANGES
5. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/20964471.2020.1842305
6. https://issuu.com/ijraset/docs/33349
7. https://zenodo.org/record/1346688
8. https://diva-gis.org/gdata
9. https://livingatlas.arcgis.com/landcoverexplorer/#mapCenter=-
83.21%2C34.332%2C4&mode=step&timeExtent=2017%2C2021&year=2017&downloa
dMode=true
10. https://grindgis.com/remote-sensing/15-applications-of-remote-sensing-in-land-cover
11. https://grindgis.com/remote-sensing/15-applications-of-remote-sensing-in-land-cover
12. http://www.maphill.com/india/andhra-pradesh/krishna/detailed-maps/detailed-satellite-
map/
13. https://www.oldmapsonline.org/en/Krishna_district
14. https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/andhrapradesh/districts/krishna.htm
15. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338886279_Land_UseLand_Cover_Mapping_
Of_Sub-Upper_Krishna_Basin_India_Using_Space_Inputs
16. https://fatwaramdani.wordpress.com/2014/06/26/land-use-classification-using-qgis/
17. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QGIS
18. https://www.mapsofindia.com/lat_long/andhra-pradesh/krishna.html
19. https://krishna.ap.gov.in/about-district/
20. 20.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331628676_Geoinformatics_for_Coastal_W
etland_Inventory_of_Krishna_District_Andhra_Pradesh
21. https://mapasyst.extension.org/whats-the-difference-between-a-supervised-and-
unsupervised-image-classification/
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ed_Classification
P a g e 58 | 55
23. https://www.satpalda.com/blogs/significance-of-land-use-land-cover-lulc-maps
24. https://datacarpentry.org/organization-geospatial/01-intro-raster-data/
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Generation_fig1_235428308
26. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-6450-0_13
27. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentinel-2
28. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna_district
29. https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/lclu.html
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AND_COVER_CHANGES
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LAND_USE_LAND_COVER_CHANGES
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at-Majumder/79f0cead27e6da4986be57ccc4e9d3ca550a2aa2#extracted
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Vizianagaram Water Supply Improvements Scheme with Ramathirthalu ,Nellimarla as souce and
P a g e 60 | 55
 Taraka Ramatheertha
Hydraulic Designs

Population Per capita Deman Present Deficit in Mid

supply in d in supply in
Lpcd Mid Mid
Demand as per 2011 244598 135 33.02 27.23 5.79
population
Demand as per 2018 252500 135 34.09 27.23 6.86
population (Base year)
Demand as per 2033 319000 135 43.07 27.23 15.84
population (Prospective
year)
Demand as per 2048 403000 135 54.41 27.23
population (Ultimate
year)

 A scheme was contemplated with Tarakaramatheertha Sagar Reservoir as source to supply 30

Mid of water.
 The scheme could not be completed, since the source of the Project taken up by the Irrigation
Department is not completed. But assume that for 2048 year it will be completed and it has
been proposed to draw additional water from the Champavathi River as souce near
Ramtheerthalu by providing additional Infiltration galleries on the down stream of the existing
Head works and Nellimarla Head Works.

P a g e 61 | 55
Ward-wise Population Projection Distribution for Vizianagaram Municipality
Ward-wise Population Projection Distribution for Vizianagaram Municipality

WA Ward Area
Ha
RD
NO

1
2
3
4

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P a g e 63 | 55