ping :– packet internet gopher it uses icmp ( internet control

message protocol)? protocol For verification the other device is

reachable to me or not?? ipconfig :– to check the ip address of a
computer ipconfig /all :– to check the ip address
+ mac address getmac :-? to check the mac address of a computer ?
netstat :– to check the session’s nslookup :– to check the all servers
of a website arp -a? :– to check arp table arp ?d :– to
delete arp table ( run as administrator) ? TO check
public ip ? Visit :– www.whatismyipaddress.com? to check your
public ip ??????????? ? To assign address to your
PC ? 1.windows button +? R??? 2. type? ?ncpa.cpl? to go to your
network connections 3 choose your lan adapter and go to properties
and click on IPV4 HUB

 ALWAYS do Broadcast
 Layer 1 device
 Shared bandwidth
 Less no of ports
 Doesn?t learn mac address?

SWITCH
 which connects two or more computers together
 Many no of ports
 Learn mac address
 Two types of switch :-
 Manageble switch and unmanageable switch
 Layer 2 devices, datalink layer ( mac address )
ROUTER:
 It is an internetworking device used to connect two or more
different networks
 It works on layer 3 i.e. network layer
 It Performs Routing

Difference between MAC address and IP address:

MAC Address IP Address
The MAC address stands for Media IP address stands for Internet
Access Control Address. Protocol Address.
It consists of a 48-bit address. It consists of a 32-bit address.
MAC address works at link layer of IP address works at network layer
OSI model. of OSI model.
It is referred as a physical address. It is referred as a logical address.
You can retrieve MAC address of You can retrieve MAC address of
any device using ARP protocol. any device RARP protocol.
Classes are not used in MAC In IP, IPv4 uses A, B, C, D, and E
address. classes.

Difference between Contiguous and Noncontiguous

Memory Allocation

1. Contiguous Memory Allocation :

Contiguous memory allocation is basically a method in which a single
contiguous section/part of memory is allocated to a process or file needing it.
Because of this all the available memory space resides at the same place
together, which means that the freely/unused available memory partitions are
not distributed in a random fashion here and there across the whole memory
space.

The main memory is a combination of two main portions- one for the
operating system and other for the user program. We can implement/achieve
contiguous memory allocation by dividing the memory partitions into fixed
size partitions.
2. Non-Contiguous Memory Allocation :
Non-Contiguous memory allocation is basically a method on the
contrary to contiguous allocation method, allocates the memory space
present in different locations to the process as per it’s requirements. As
all the available memory space is in a distributed pattern so the freely
available memory space is also scattered here and there.
This technique of memory allocation helps to reduce the wastage of
memory, which eventually gives rise to Internal and external
fragmentation.
Difference between Contiguous and Non-contiguous Memory
Allocation :

Contiguous Memory Non-Contiguous

S.NO. Allocation Memory Allocation

Contiguous memory
allocation allocates Non-Contiguous memory
consecutive blocks of allocation allocates
memory to a separate blocks of
1. file/process. memory to a file/process.

2. Faster in Execution. Slower in Execution.

It is easier for the OS to It is difficult for the OS to

3. control. control.

Overhead is minimum as
not much address
translations are there More Overheads are
while executing a there as there are more
4. process. address translations.

5. Both Internal External fragmentation

fragmentation and occurs in Non-
external fragmentation Contiguous memory
 Contiguous Memory
S.NO. Allocation
occurs in Contiguous
memory allocation
method.
It includes single
partition allocation and
6. multi-partition allocation.
Wastage of memory is
7. there.
In contiguous memory
allocation, swapped-in
processes are arranged
in the originally allocated
8. space.
Differences between TCP and UDP
Transmission control protocol
(TCP)
TCP is a connection-oriented
protocol. Connection-orientation
means that the communicating
devices should establish a
connection before transmitting data
and should close the connection
after transmitting the data.
TCP is reliable as it guarantees the
delivery of data to the destination
router.
TCP provides extensive error
checking mechanisms. It is because
Non-Contiguous
Memory Allocation
allocation method.
It includes paging and
segmentation.
No memory wastage is
there.
In non-contiguous
memory allocation,
swapped-in processes
can be arranged in any
place in the memory.
User datagram protocol
(UDP)
UDP is the Datagram oriented
protocol. This is because there is no
overhead for opening a connection,
maintaining a connection, and
terminating a connection. UDP is
efficient for broadcast and multicast
type of network transmission.
The delivery of data to the destination
cannot be guaranteed in UDP.
UDP has only the basic error
checking mechanism using
 Transmission control protocol User datagram protocol
(TCP) (UDP)

it provides flow control and

acknowledgement of data. checksums.

Acknowledgement segment is
present. No acknowledgement segment.

Sequencing of data is a feature of

Transmission Control Protocol There is no sequencing of data in
(TCP). this means that packets UDP. If the order is required, it has to
arrive in-order at the receiver. be managed by the application layer.

TCP is comparatively slower than UDP is faster, simpler, and more

UDP. efficient than TCP.

There is no retransmission of lost

Retransmission of lost packets is packets in the User Datagram
possible in TCP, but not in UDP. Protocol (UDP).

TCP has a (20-60) bytes variable UDP has an 8 bytes fixed-length

length header. header.

TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.

Uses handshakes such as SYN, It’s a connectionless protocol i.e. No

ACK, SYN-ACK handshake

TCP doesn’t support Broadcasting. UDP supports Broadcasting.

TCP is used by HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, UDP is used by DNS, DHCP, TFTP,
SMTP and Telnet. SNMP, RIP, and VoIP.

What is Route poisoning in networking?

Route poisoning is a method to prevent a router from sending
packets through a route that has become invalid within computer
networks. ... Unlike the split horizon with poison reverse, route
poisoning provides for sending updates with unreachable hop counts
immediately to all the nodes in the network.

What is RIP in networking?

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing protocol that
uses hop count as a routing metric to find the best path between the
source and the destination network. It is a distance-vector routing
protocol that has an AD value of 120 and works on the application layer
of the OSI model. RIP uses port number 520.

What is RIP v2?

When it comes to internal routing protocols, Routing Information
Protocol version 2 (RIPv2) is one of the most common routing
protocols in use today. ... RIPv2 is a valuable tool that provides quick
and simple IP routing, and it should be in every network administrator's
toolbox.

What is EIGRP in networking?

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is a network
protocol that enables routers to exchange information more efficiently
than earlier network protocols, such as Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol (IGRP) or Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).

What is OSPF in networking?

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol that
was developed for IP networks and is based on the Shortest Path First
(SPF) algorithm. OSPF is an Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP). ... OSPF
provides equal-cost multipath routing. You can add duplicate routes to
the TCP stack using different next hops.

What is BGP in networking?

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) refers to a gateway protocol that
enables the internet to exchange routing information between
autonomous systems (AS). ... BGP makes peering possible. Without it,
networks would not be able to send and receive information with each
other.