2 The Teacher and The Community Midterm

The Teacher and the Community, School Culture, and Organizational Leadership 47
Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar
Web: http://uep.edu.ph ; Email: uepnsofficial@gmail.com
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY,

SCHOOL CULTURE, AND
ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Second Semester, School Year 2020-2021
LEAH A. DE ASIS, EdD
All photos are from www.google.com/search

Module 2
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
2.1 Social Dimensions of

Education
2.1.1 Consensus and Conflict
Theories
2.1.2 Structural Functionalism
2.1.3 Interactionist Theories
2.2 Schools and Social Institutions
2.2.1 Family
2.2.2 Education
2.2.3 Religion
2.2.4 Economic Institutions
2.2.5 Government
2.3 Education: Responding to the
Demands of Society
2.4 Educational Reforms
Good Day!
Module 2 discusses sociological perspectives – social dimensions of

education, concensus and conflict theories, structural functionalism, and
interactionist theories. It includes discussions on the schools and social
institutions from the smallest unit, the family to religion, economic institutions,
and government. Society‟s demands from the teacher as professional and as
a person are also stressed.
Views of the sociologists regarding education are herein tackled.

Logical explanations for why things happen, the way they do, and the impact
and influence of the social institution to education are given importance.
LEAH A. DE ASIS, EdD

Course Professor
SOCIOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Learning Outcomes
Education and society are inter-
 List the major functions of
related or inter-dependent because
education;
both mutually influence each other,
 Explain the problem that conflict
i.e. complimentary. Without
theory sees in education;
education, how we can build an
 Describe how symbolic
ideal society and without society
interactionism understands
how we can organize education
education;
system systematically that means
 Explain the relationship of the
both are needed to understand.
various social theories, and
Education helps individuals to
educational systems;
learn how to live, how to behave,
 Discuss how the various social
how to organize everything in their
theories affect the functions of
lives. Thus, education is an agent
school;
which brings change in society or
 Show the interrelationships
we can also say in one line
among the social institutions;
education is a social change agent.
 Identify and describe the
Let‟s see the influence of society
characteristics and functions of
on education.
different social institution; and
 Be passionate and committed to
If society is well structured
the teaching profession.
and has ideals that it automatically
affects the education. Social
structure is generally built in religion - the way of living life, philosophy of
members of society, politics, and economy. It has some good ideals which
help every individual and contribute in society after all educationalists,
experts, and psychologisst are coming from society who mold the education
system and make it more practical full-fledged with technologies.
Society influences political conditions. The one who is a political leader

coming from society and he/she always follow the set ideals including
democracy, equality, and he/she also has some political ideas such as
responsibility, accountability, unity, and integration of human being with

values, ideals, etc.
And those ideals he/she governs particular area or state and as we

know, education is related to government. Being a part of it, an individual
affects the education system.
To understand a theoretical orientation in any profession it is critical to

understand what is meant by the term theory. Simply stated, “A theory is a
statement of how and why specific facts are related (Macionis 2006:11).”
Approach Description Sociological

Theorists/Contributors
Structural It views society as a complex  Auguste Comte
Functional interconnected system of parts (Founder of Sociology)
Approach that work together in harmony. It  Emile Durkheim
points to the importance of social  Herbert Spencer
structure, any relatively stable  Talcott Parsons
pattern of social behavior. It also  Robert Merton
looks for any structure‟s social
function, the consequences off
any social pattern for the
operation of society as a whole
(Macionis 2006: 12-13).
It approaches society from a

macro-level perspective. Thus, it
views society and its pieces as a
whole.
Symbolic- It is considered a micro-level  Max Weber
Interaction approach, which is an individual  George Herbert Mead
Approach level approach. It views society  Charles Horton Cooley
as an ongoing, ever changing  Erving Goffman
event or drama. Its primary focus  George Homans
is communication and exchange  Peter Blau
of ideas using symbols. Society
is nothing more than the reality
people construct themselves as
they interact with one another
(Macionis 2006:14).
Conflict It is considered a macro-level  Karl Marx
Approach approach that focuses on  W.E.B. DuBois
inequality. Society is composed  C. Wright Mills
of unequal distribution of desired  Ralf Dahrendorf

resources that benefit a minority
at the expense of the majority.
This unequal distribution of
desired resources causes conflict
within a society. Those that have
the resources develop structures
and methods to maintain these
resources. Those that do not
have the resources are always
creating new ways to acquire
resources; hence, this approach
views society in constant conflict.
2.1 SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
2.1.1 Consensus and Conflict Theory
In order for us to understand why sociological theories could be

classified into „consensus‟ and „conflict‟ perspectives, let us examine the
definitions of consensus and conflict.
KEYWORDS
Dahrendorf (1959, 1968) as cited by Ritzer
(2000) is the major exponent of the position that society Conflict is a clash
has two (2) faces (conflict and consensus) and that between ideas,
principles, and people.
sociological theory therefore should be divided into two
(2) parts, conflict theory and consensus theory. Conflict theory
focuses on the struggle
Consensus Theories of social classes to
maintain dominance
and power in social
Consensus theories see shared norms and systems.
values as fundamental to society, focus on social order
based on tacit agreements, and view social change as Consensus theory
emphasizes on social
occurring in a slow and orderly fashion. In contrast, order, stability and
Conflict theories emphasize the dominance of some social regulation.
social groups by others, see social order as based on
manipulation and control by dominant groups, and view social change as
occurring rapidly and in a disorderly fashion as subordinate groups overthrow
dominant groups (Ritzer, 2000).
Consensus theorists examine value integration in society, and conflict

theorists examine conflicts of interests of interest and the coercion that holds
society together in the face of these stresses. Dahrendorf recognizes that
society cannot exist without both conflict and consensus, which are
prerequisites for each other. Thus, we cannot have conflict unless there is
some prior consensus.
Consensus is a concept of society in which the absence of conflict is

seen as the equilibrium state of society based on a general or widespread
agreement among all members of a particular society. Conflict is a
disagreement or clash between opposing ideas, principles, or people – this
can be a covert or overt conflict.
The conflict theory, according to Horton and Hunt (1984) focuses on

the heterogeneous nature of society and the differential distribution of political
and social power. A struggle between social classes and class conflicts
between the powerful and less powerful groups occur. Groups which have
vested interest and power work for rules and laws, particularly those that
serve their own interests, to be passed to the exclusion of others.
Conflict theorists ask how schools contribute to be unequal distribution

of people into jobs in society so that more powerful members of society
maintain the best positions and the less powerful groups (often women, racial
and ethnic groups) often minority groups, are
allocated to lower ranks in society. The larger issue KEYWORD
for conflict theorists is the role that education plays in Conflict Theorists
maintaining the prestige, power, and economic and emphasize social
social position of the dominant group in society change and
(Ballantine and Spade, 2004). redistribution of
resources.
The conflict perspective assumes that social behavior is best

understood in terms of conflict or tensions between competing groups. Such
conflict need not be violent; it can take the form of labor negotiations, party
politics, competition between religions groups for members, or disputes over
the budget.
Conflict theory grew out of the work of Karl Marx and Focuses on the
struggle of social classes to maintain dominance and power in social systems.
It is theory of collection of theories which places emphasis on conflict in
human society (Jary and Jary, 2000:105).
Social structures produce

patterns of inequality in the
distribution of scarce resources
The conflict model is concerned with
the stresses and conflicts that
emerge in society because of
completion over scarce resources. It
focuses on the in equalities into Conflict
social structures rather than on those
that emerge because of personal
characteristics.
Reorganization and Change
Figure 1. The Conflict Model

(Sources: Sociology and Anthropology, Javier, et al., 2002)
The discourse of conflict theory is on the emergence of conflict and what

causes conflict within a particular human society. Or we can say that conflict
theory deals with the incompatible aspects of society. Conflicts theory
emerged out of the sociology of conflicts, crisis and social change.
The conflict theorist are interested in how society‟s institutions the

family, government, religion, education, and the media – may help to maintain
the privileges of some groups and keep others in a subservient position. The
emphasis on social change and redistribution of resources makes conflict
theorists more “radical” and “activist” than functionalists (Schaefer, 2003).
Consensus theory, on the other hand, is a sociological perspective or

collection of theories, in which social order and stability/social regulation form
the base of emphasis. In other words, consensus theory is concerned with the
maintenance nor continuation of social order in society, in relation to accepted
norms, values, rules and regulations as widely accepted or collectively by the
society – or within a particular society itself. It emerged out of the sociology of
social order and social stability/social regulation.
The consensus and conflict sociological theories are reflected in the

works not certain dominant social theorists such as Karl Marx, Emile
Durkheim, Max Weber and other prominent social theorists such as Talcott
Parsons & Robert
Merton, Louis Althusser & Ralph Dahrendorf and Herbert Mead & Herbert
Blumer.
The works of Marx in his early years was interpreted by some social
theorists as emphasizing the role of human beings in social conflict. They
explained change as emerging from the crisis between human beings and
their society. They argued that Marx‟s theory was a theory characterized by
class conflicts or the conflict between the bourgeoisie (rich owners) and the
proletariat (poor workers).
Max Weber argues that schools teach and maintain particular “status
cultures” that is groups in society with similar interest and positions in the
status hierarchy. Located in neighborhoods, schools are often rather
homogeneous in their student bodies and teach to that constituency, thus
perpetuating that status culture. Weber outlines types of education found in
societies at different time periods, distinguishing between inborn “charisma”
and training in school, and the modern, rational method of education.
Education systems may train individuals in specialties to fill needed positions
or prepare “cultivated individuals”, those who stand above others because of
their superior knowledge and reasoning abilities. Individuals who had access
to this type of education in early China were from educated elite, thus
perpetuating their family status culture (Sadovnik et al, 1994).
2.1.2 Structural Functionalism
Structural functionalism, especially in the work KEYWORDS

of Talcott parsons, Robert Merton and their students
and followers, was for many years the dominant Status culture refers
sociological theory. However, in the last three decades to groups in society
it has declined dramatically in importance with similar interests
and positions in the
(Chriss,1995) and, in the least some senses, has
status hierarchy.
receded into the recent history of sociological theory.
Structural
Parsons‟ structural functionalism has four functionalism states
functional imperatives for all “action” systems that society is made up
embodied in his famous AGIL scheme. These not various institutions
functional imperatives that are necessary for all that work together in
systems are: cooperation.
 Adaptation. A system must cope with external situational

exigencies. It must adapt to its environment and adapt environment
to its needs.
 Good Attainment. A system must define and achieve its primary

goals.
 Integration. A system must regulate the interrelationship of its

component parts. It must also manage the relationship among the
other three functional imperatives (A,G,L,).
 Latency (pattern maintenance). A system must furnish, maintain,

and renew both the motivation of individuals and the cultural
patterns that create and sustain the motivation.
Parsons designed the AGIL scheme to be used at all levels in this

theoretical system. The behavioral organism is the action system that
handles the adaptation function by adjusting to and transforming the external
world. The personality system performs the goal-attainment Function by
defining system goals and mobilizing resources to attain them. The social
system copes with the integration function by controlling its component parts.
Finally, the cultural system performs the latency function by providing actors
with the norms and values that motivate them for action (Ritzer, 2000).
Parson‟s four action systems are shown in Figure 2.
Cultural System Social System
Action System Personality system
Figure 2. Structure of the General Action System

(Source: Sociological Theory, George Ritzer, 2000).
The heart of Parson‟s work is found in his four action systems. In the
assumptions that Parson made regarding his action systems we encounter
the problem of order which was his overwhelming concern and has become a
major source of criticism of his work. Parson‟s found his answer to the
problem of order in structural functionalism, which operates in his view with
the following sets of assumptions:
1. Systems have the property of order and interdependence of parts.

2. Systems tend toward self-maintaining order, or equilibrium.
3. The system may be static or involved in an ordered process of
change.
4. The nature of one part of the system has an impact on the form that
the other parts can take.
5. Systems maintain boundaries with their environments.
6. Allocation and integration are two
fundamental processes necessary for a KEYWORD
given state of equilibrium of a system.
7. Systems tend toward self-maintenance Social system begins
at the micro level with
involving the maintenance of the
interaction between the
relationships of parts to the whole, control of
ego and alter ego,
environmental variations, and control of defined as the most
tendencies to change the system from within. elementary form of the
social system.
These assumptions led Parson‟s to make the
analysis of the ordered structure of society his first priority.
Parson‟s conception of the social system begins at the micro level with
interaction between ego and alter ego, defined as the most elementary form
of the social system. He described a social system as something which
consists of a plurality of individual actors interacting with each other in a
situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect, actors who
are motivated in terms of a tendency to the “optimization of gratification”
relation to their situations, including each other, is defined and mediated in
terms of a system of culturally structured and shared symbols.
In his analysis of the social system, Parsons was primarily interested in

its structural components. In addition to a concern with the status-role, he was
interested in such large-scale components of social systems as collectivities,
norms, and values. Parsons was not simply a structural list but also a
functionalist.
Functional Requisites of a Social System

1. Social system must be structured so that they operate compatibly with
other systems.
2. To survive, the social system must have the requisite from other
systems.
3. The system must meet a significant proportion of the needs of its
actors.
4. The system must elicit adequate participation from its members.
5. It must have at least a minimum of control over potentially disruptive
behavior.
6. If conflict becomes sufficiently disruptive, it must be controlled.
7. Finally, a social system requires a language in order to survive.
Talcott Parsons
The functionalist perspective is primarily concerned with why a society

assumes a particular form. This perspective assumes that any society takes
its particular form because that form works well for the society given its
particular situation. Societies exist under a wide range of environmental
situations. Some societies have highly advanced technologies and they also
differ in terms of their interactions with other societies. Thus, what works for
one society cannot be expected to work for another.
In any society, however, the functionalist perspective makes one basic

argument. Whatever are the characteristics of a society, those characteristics
developed because they met needs of that society in its Key principles of the
particular situation. The key principles of the functionalist theory
functionalist perspective (Farley, 1990) include the  Interdependency
following:  Functions of social
structure and
 Interdependency. One of the most important culture
principles of functionalist theory is that society is  Consensus and
made up of interdependent parts. This means cooperation
that every part of society is dependent to some  Equilibrium
extent on other parts of society, so that what
happens at one place in society has important effects elsewhere. For
example, the class requires a faculty member to teach a subject and
the students to learn it. Someone has to provide electricity to light the
room, and in order for the electricity to be provided, someone had to
build a dam or provide fuel to the power plant.
 Functions of Social Structure and Culture. Closely related to

interdependency is the idea that each part of the social system exists
because it serves some function. This principle is applied by
functionalists to both social structure and culture. Social structure
refers to the organization of society, including its institutions, its social
positions, and its distribution of resources. Culture refers to set of
beliefs, language, rules, values, and knowledge held in common by
members of a society.
 Consensus and cooperation. Another key principle in functionalist

theory is that societies have a tendency toward Consensus; that is to
have certain basic values that nearly everyone in the society agrees
upon. For the example, we all believe in the principles of democracy
and freedom. Societies tend toward consensus in order to achieve
cooperation. Functionalists believe that inability to cooperate will
paralyze the society, and people will devote more and more effort to
fighting one another rather than getting anything done.
 Equilibrium. A final principle of functionalist theories is that of

equilibrium. This view holds that, once a society has achieved the form
that is best adapted to its situation, it has
KEYWORD
reached a state of balance or equilibrium, and it
will remain in that condition until it is forced to Equilibrium is
change by some new condition. New characteristics of a
society when it has
technology, a change in climate, and/or contact achieved the form that
with an outside society are all conditions to is best adapted to its
which a society might have to adapt. When such situation.
conditions occur, social change will take place;
society will change just enough to adapt to the new situation. However,
once that adaptation has been made, the society has attained a new
state of balance or equilibrium with its environment, and it will not
change again until some new situation requires further adaptation.
Social structures
provide preset
patterns which evolve
to meet human needs
Stability,
order, and Maintenance
harmony of society
Figure 3. The Structural-Functional Model

(Source: Sociological Theory, George Ritzer, 2000)
The structural functional model addresses the question of social

organization and how it is maintained. This theoretical perspective is the
legacy of Durkheim and Spencer. It has its roots in natural science and the
analogy between a society and an organization. In the analysis of living
organism, the scientist‟s task is to identify the various part (structures) and
determine how they work (function). In the study of society, a sociologist with
this perspective tries to identify the structures of society and how they
function; hence the name structural functionalism (Javier et al., 2002).
The component parts of a social structure are families, neighbors,

associations, school, churches, banks, countries, and the like. Functionalists
maintain that social structures exist in society for the functions they have to
carry out (Panopio et al., 1994).
Functionalist sociologists begin with a picture of society that stresses

the interdependence of the social system; these researchers often examine
how well parts are integrated with each other, The component parts
Functionalists view society as a kind of machine, where of a social structure
one part articulates with another to produce the  Families
dynamic energy required to make society work. Most  Neighbors
important, functionalism stresses the processes that  Associations
maintain social order by stressing consensus and  School
agreement. Although functionalists understand that  Banks
change is inevitable, they underscore the evolutionary  Countries
nature of change. Further, although they acknowledge
Schooling performs an
that conflict between groups exists, functionalists argue
important function in
that without a common bond to unite groups, society
the development and
will disintegrate. Thus functionalists examine the social maintenance of
processes necessary to the establishment and modern, democratic
maintenance of social order (Ballantine and Spade, society, especially with
2004). regard to equality of
opportunity for all
Structural functionalism puts emphasis on social citizens. Thus, in
order and social stability not on conflict. It claims that modern societies,
society is made up of different institutions or education becomes the
key institution in a
organizations that work together in cooperation – to
meritocratic selection
achieve their orderly relationship and to maintain social
process.
order and social stability. This maintenance of society
Ballantine & Spade,
is extracted from the internal rules, norms, values and 2004
regulations of these various orders institutions.
Modern functionalist theories of education have their origin in the work

of Talcott Parsons. As cited by Ballantine and Spade (2004), Parsons
believes that education is a vital part of a modern society, a society that differs
considerably from all previous societies. From this perspective, schooling
performs an important function in the development and maintenance of a
modern, democratic society, especially with regard to equality of opportunity
for all citizens. Thus, in modern societies education becomes the key
institution in a meritocratic selection process.
In addition to its role in a meritocratic society, education plays a

significant function in the maintenance of the modern democratic and
technocratic society. In political democracy, schools provide citizens with the

knowledge and dispositions to participate in civic life.
In an ever increasingly technical society, Schools provide students with

the skills and dispositions to work in such a society. Although schools teach
specific work skills, they also teach students how to learn so they may adapt
to new work roles and requirements
(http://allfreeesays.com/student/ConsensusConflict/Perspectives/html).
2.1.3 Interactionist Theories
In general, interactionist theories about the relation of school and

society are critiques and extensions of the functionalist and conflict
perspectives. The critique arises from the observation
that functionalist and conflict theories are very abstract KEYWORD
and emphasize and process at a societal (macro-
Symbolic
sociological) level of analysis. While this level of interactionism views
analysis helps us to understand education in the “big the self as socially
picture”, macro-sociological theories hardly provide us constructed in relation
with an interpretable snapshot of what schools are like to social forces and
on an everyday level. What do students and teachers social structures.
actually do in school?
Interactionist theories attempt to make the “commonplace strange” by

turning in their heads everyday taken for granted behaviors and interactions
between students and students and between students and teachers. It is
exactly what most people do not question that is most problematic to the
interactionist. For example, the process by which students are labeled “gifted”
or “learning disabled” are, from an interactionist point of view, important to
analyze because such processes carry with them many implicit assumptions
about learning and children (Ballantine and Spade, 2004).
1. Symbolic Interactionism
Interactionist theory has its origin in the social psychology of early

twentieth century sociologists George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton
Cooley. Mead and Cooley examined the ways in which the individual is
related to society through ongoing social interactions. This school of thought,
known as symbolic interactionism, views the self as socially constructed in
relation to social forces and structures and the product of ongoing
negotiations of meanings. Thus, the social self is an active product of human
agency rather than a deterministic product of social structure.
The basic idea is a result of interaction between individuals mediated

by symbols in particular, language. The distinctive attributes of human
behavior grow from people‟s participation in varying types of social structure
which depend in turn, on the existence of languages behavior
(http: itsa.Edu eliotf Why I am AlsoaSymbolic.html).
Symbolic interactionists are, of course interested not simply in

socialization but also in interaction in general, which is of “vital importance in
its own right.” Interaction is the process in which the ability to think is both
developed and expressed. All types of interaction, not just interaction during
socialization, refine our ability to think. Beyond that, thinking shapes the
interaction process. In most interaction, actors must take others into
consideration and decide if and how to fit their activities to others. However,
not all interaction involves thinking.
Principles of Symbolic Interactionism
1. Human begins unlike lower animals are endowed with a capacity for
thought.
2. The capacity for thought is shaped by social interaction.
3. In social interaction, people learn the meanings and the symbols that
allow them to exercise their distinctively human capacity for thought.
4. Meanings and symbols allow people to carry on distinctively human
action and interaction.
5. People are able to modify or alter meanings and symbols that hey use
in action and interaction on the basis of their interpretation of the
solution.
6. People are able to make these modifications and alterations because,
in part of their ability to interact with themselves which allows them to
examine possible courses of action, assess their relative advantages
and disadvantages, and then choose one.
7. The intertwined patterns of action and interaction make up groups and
societies.
2. Non-Symbolic interactionism
The differentiation made by Blumer (following Mead) between two (2)

basic forms of social interaction is relevant here. The first, non-symbolic
interaction Mead‟s conversation of gestures – does not involve thinking. The
second symbolic interaction does require mental processes (Ritzer, 2000).
Mead‟s approach to symbolic interaction rested on three basic

premises.
 The first is that people act toward the things they encounter in the
basis of what those things mean to them. (Things, in this context,
refer not just to objects, but also to people, activities, and
situations).
 Second, we learn what things are observing Basic forms of social

how other people respond to them, that is interaction
through social interaction.
 Non-symbolic
 Third, as a result of ongoing interaction, the interaction which
sounds (or words), gestures, facial does not involve
expressions, and body postures we use in thinking
dealing with others acquire symbolic
 Symbolic
meanings that are shared by people who
interaction which
belong to the same culture. The meaning of a
require mental
symbolic gesture extends beyond the act processes
itself. A handshake, for instance, is a
symbolic gesture of greeting among Filipinos. As such, it conveys
more than just a mutual grasping of fingers and palms. It expresses
both parties‟ shared understanding that a social interaction is
beginning. In other cultures, such as Japan, willingness to interact
is expressed or symbolized in a bow (Calhoun et al., 1994)
The importance of thinking to symbolic interactions is reflected in their

views on objects. Blumer differentiates among three (3) types of objects:
 Physical objects, such as a chair or a tree;

 Social objects, such as student or mother; and
 Abstract objects, such as an idea or a moral principle.
Objects are seen simply as things “out there” in the real world: what is
KEYWORD of greatest significance is the way that they are defined
by actors. The latter leads to the relativistic view that
Looking-glass Self. different objects have different meanings for different
We see ourselves as individuals: “A tree will be a different object to a
others see us botanist, lumberman, a poet, and a home gardener”
Charles Cooley (Blumer as cited by Ritzer, 2000).
Another important concept that has long been used by symbolic

interactionist is the looking-glass self. This concept was developed by the
early symbolic interactionist theorist Charles Horton Cooley. The basic notion
of the looking-glass self can be summed up as “We see ourselves as others
see us.” In other words, we come to develop a self-image on the basis of the
messages we get from others, as we understand them. If your teachers and
fellow students give you the message that you are “smart,” you will come to
think of yourself as an intelligent person. If others tell you that you are
attractive, you will likely think of yourself as attractive. Conversely, if people
repeatedly laugh at you and tease about being clumsy, you will probably
come to decide that you are clumsy. In Cooley‟s terms, you use other people
as a mirror into which you look to see what you are like (Farley, 1990).
Summary
 Education is one of the major institutions that constitute society. There

are various social science theories that relate to education –
consensus, conflict, structural functionalist and interaction theories.
 Conflict theory deals with the emergence of conflict within a particular

human society in which the absence of conflict is seen as the
equilibrium state of society based on a general or widespread
agreement among all members of a particular society. The consensus
and conflict theories are reflected in the works of certain dominant
social theories such as Karl Marx. Emile Durkheim, Max Weber and
other social theorists.
 Structural functionalism is concerned with the functions of schooling in

the maintenance of social order. It asserts that society is made up of
different institutions or organizations that work together in cooperation
to achieve orderly relationship and to maintain social order and social
stability.
 Symbolic interactionists are interested not simply in socialization but in

interactions between students and between students and teachers. All
types of interactions refine our ability to think.
2.2. SCHOOLS AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
SCHOOLS
The Major Sociological Perspectives of Education
Theoretical
Major Assumptions
Perspective
Education serves several functions for society. These

include (a) socialization, (b) social integration, (c) social
placement, and (d) social and cultural innovation. Latent
functions include child care, the establishment of peer
Functionalism
relationships, and lowering unemployment by keeping high
school students out of the full-time labor force. Problems in
the educational institution harm society because all these
functions cannot be completely fulfilled.
Education promotes social inequality through the use of

tracking and standardized testing and the impact of its
Conflict Theory “hidden curriculum.” Schools differ widely in their funding and
learning conditions, and this type of inequality leads to
learning disparities that reinforce social inequality.
This perspective focuses on social interaction in the

classroom, on the playground, and in other school venues.
Specific research finds that social interaction in schools
Symbolic
affects the development of gender roles and that teachers‟
Interactionism
expectations of pupils‟ intellectual abilities affect how much
pupils learn. Certain educational problems have their basis in
social interaction and expectations.
The Functions of Education
Functional theory stresses the functions that serve in fulfilling a

society‟s various needs.
Function Description Example

1. Socialization Perhaps known as the most  In USA, it includes
important function. If children punctuality,
need to know the norms, individualism, and
values, and skills they need to competition. American
function in society, then students from an early
education is a primary vehicle age compete as

for such learning. School individuals over grades
teaches the three (3) Rs, as we and other rewards.
all know, but they also teach  In Japan, children the
many of society‟s norms and traditional Japanese
values. values, harmony, and
group membership in
The norms and values include their homeroom, or
respect for authority, patriotism Kumi. Performance is
or love for one‟s country, evaluated through Kumi
honesty, and other unique (group) than on
values and norms of the individual performance.
society.  In China, it includes
memorizing the works
of Confucius. They
follow specific teaching
for boys and girls.
 Oriental Education is
for social stability.
 Sumerian Education is
for business
development.
 Egyptian Education is
for public
administration.
 Jewish Education is
for discipline.
2. Social For a society to work,  Immigrant children in
Integration functionalists say, people must the USA are learning
subscribe to a common set of English, US History,
beliefs and values. As we saw, and other subjects that
the development of such help them prepare for
common views was a goal of the workplace and
the system of free, compulsory integrate them into
education that developed in the American life.
th
19 century.  Curriculum in the
Philippines includes
courses in Korean
language and other
foreign languages to
better equip the Filipino
students for global work
purposes.
3. Social Beginning in grade school,  Grouping based on

Placement students are identified by academic grades
teachers and other school  Class section
officials either bright and assignments
motivated or as less bright and  School tracks
even educationally challenged.
Depending on how they are
identified, children are taught at
the level that is thought to suit
them best. In this way, they are
prepared in the most
appropriate way possible for
their station in life.
4. Social and Scientists cannot make  Choosing electives
Cultural important scientific discoveries  Specialization
Innovation and artists cannot come up with  Majors
great works of art, poetry, and
prose unless they have first
been educated in the many
subjects they need to know for
their chosen path.
Schools ideally perform many important functions in modern society. These

include socialization, social integration, social placement, and social and
cultural innovation.
Education also involves several latent functions, functions that are by-
products of going to school and receiving an education rather than a direct
effect of the education itself. One of these is child care: Once a child starts
kindergarten and then first grade, for several hours a day the child is taken
care of for free. The establishment of peer relationships is another latent
function of schooling. Most of us met many of our friends while we were in
school at whatever grade level, and some of those friendships endure the rest
of our lives. A final latent function of education is that it keeps millions of high
school students out of the full-time labor force. This fact keeps the
unemployment rate lower than it would be if they were in the labor force.
Education and Inequality
Conflict theory does not dispute most of the functions of education.

However, it does give some of them a different slant and talks about various
ways in which education perpetuates social inequality. Starting in grade
school, the students thought by their teachers or by their grades are placed in
faster tracks or first section, while the slower students are placed in the slower
tracks. In the Philippines, financial capabilities of the parents are also
examples of inequality to access better education.
Such tracking does have its advantages; it helps ensure that bright
students learn as much as their abilities allow them, and it helps ensure that
slower students are not taught over their heads. But conflict theorists say that
tracking also helps perpetuate social inequality by locking students into faster
and lower tracks. Worse yet, several studies show that students‟ social class
and race and ethnicity affect the track into which they are placed, even though
their intellectual abilities and potential should be the only things that matter:
White, middle-class students are more likely to be tracked “up,” while poorer
students and students of color are more likely to be tracked “down.” Once
they are tracked, students learn more if they are tracked up and less if they
are tracked down. The latter tend to lose self-esteem and begin to think they
have little academic ability and thus do worse in school because they were
tracked down. In this way, tracking is thought to be good for those tracked up
and bad for those tracked down. Conflict theorists thus say that tracking
perpetuates social inequality based on social class and race and ethnicity
(Ansalone, 2010).
Social inequality is also perpetuated through the widespread use of

standardized tests. Critics say these tests continue to be culturally biased, as
they include questions whose answers are most likely to be known by white,
middle-class students, whose backgrounds have afforded them various
experiences that help them answer the questions. They also say that scores
on standardized tests reflects students‟ socioeconomic status and
experiences in addition to their academic abilities. To the extent this critique is

true, standardized tests perpetuate social inequality (Grodsky, Warren, and
Felts, 2008).
Conflict theorists also say that schooling teaches hidden curriculum, by

which they mean a set of values and beliefs that support the status quo,
including the existing social hierarchy (Booher-Jennings, 2008). Although no
one plots this behind closed doors, our schoolchildren learn patriotic values
and respect for authority from the books they read and from various
classroom activities.
Symbolic Interactionism and School Behavior
Symbolic interactionist studies of education examine social interaction

in the classroom, on the playground, and in other school venues. These
studies help us understand what happens in the schools themselves, but they
also help us understand how what occurs in school is relevant for the larger
society. Some studies, for example, show how children‟s playground activities
reinforce gender-role socialization. Girls tend to play more cooperative
games, while boys play more competitive sports (Thorne, 1993).
Another body of research shows that teachers‟ views about students

can affect how much the students learn. When teachers think students are
smart, they tend to spend more time with these students, to call on them, and
to praise them when they give the right answer. Not surprisingly, these
students learn more because of their teachers‟ behavior. But when teachers
think students are less bright, they tend to spend less time with these students
and to act in a way that leads them to learn less (Rosenthal & Jacobson,
1968).
Important Points
 According to the functional perspective, education helps socialize

children and prepare them for their eventual entrance into the larger
society as adults.
 The conflict perspective emphasizes that education reinforces
inequality in the larger society.
 The symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on social interaction in
the classroom, on school playgrounds, and at other school-related
venues. Social interaction contributes to gender-role socialization, and
teachers‟ expectations may affect their students‟ performance.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
What is Social Institution?
In any human society are social structures and social mechanisms of

social order and cooperation that govern the behavior of its members. These
are called social institutions and according to functional theorists perform five
essential tasks namely: replacing members or procreation, teaching new
members, producing, distributing and consuming goods and services,
preserving order, and providing and maintaining a sense of purpose.
KEYWORD
Social institution is a group of social positions,
connected by social relations, performing a social role. Conflict Theorists
It can also be defined in a narrow sense as any emphasize social
institution in a society that works to socialize the groups change and
redistribution of
of people in it. Common examples include universities, resources.
governments, families, and any people or groups that
you have social interactions with. It is a major sphere of social life organized
to meet some human need (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/social_organization).
Characteristics and Functions of an Institution
Palispis (1996) pointed out the following characteristics and functions

of an institution. They are:
1. Institutions are purposive. Each of them has the satisfaction of social

needs as its own goal or objective.
2. They are relatively permanent in their content. The pattern roles
and relations that people enact in a particular culture become
traditional and enduring. Although institutions are subject to change,
the change is relatively slow.
3. Institutions are structured. The components tend to band together,
and reinforce one another. This is because social roles and social
relations are in themselves structured combinations of behavior
patterns.
4. Institutions are a unified structure. They function as a unit.
Institutions are dependent on one another.
5. Institutions are necessarily value-laden. Their repeated uniformities,
patterns and trends become codes of conduct. Most of these codes
subconsciously exert social pressures. However, others are in the form
of rules and laws.
From these characteristics, it may be said that an institution is a

relatively permanent structure of social patterns, roles and relations that
people enact in certain sanctioned and unified ways for the purpose of
satisfying basic social needs.
Various Functions of Institutions
1. Institutions simplify social behavior for the individual person. The ways
of thinking and even acting have become largely regularized and
prearranged for the individual before he enters society. The social
institutions provide every child with all the needed social and cultural
mechanisms through which he can grow socially.
2. Institutions, therefore provide ready-made forms of social relations and
social roles for the individual. The principal roles are not invented by
the individuals, they are provided by the institutions.
3. Institutions also act as agencies of coordination and stability for the
total culture. The ways of thinking and behaving that are
institutionalized “make sense” to people.
4. Institutions tend to control behavior. They contain the systematic
expectations of the society. Group behavior is often subconsciously
fixed through constant repetition and when there is a need for planning,
the group can easily ascertain from its institutions the normal modes,
trends and procedures. Social pressures are maintained even on the
possibly deviant groups by the mere existence of institutions.
Social institutions can take many forms, depending on a social context.

It may be a family, business, educational, or political institution.
Major Social Institutions
There are five (5) major social institutions: the family, education,
religion, economics, and government.
2.2.1 THE FAMILY
The family is the smallest social institution with the unique function or
producing and rearing the young. It is the basic unit of Philippine society and
the educational system where the child begins to learn his ABC. The family is
also the basic agent of socialization because it is here where the individual
develops values, behaviors, and way of life through interaction with members
of the family (Vega, 2004).
Characteristics of the Filipino Family
The family is closely knit and has strong family ties. The members have
the tendency to cling together in their activities and feelings. There is strong
loyalty among them not usually found in Western families. The interests of the
individual are often sacrificed for the welfare of the group.
The Filipino family is usually an extended one and therefore, big the
typical family today averages five children. In spite of the family planning
programs and population efforts promoted all over the country, many Filipinos
have more children than would be justified by those who are concerned with
population growth.
The family is as far as

In the Filipino family, kinship ties are extended to
we know, the toughest
include the “compadre” or sponsors. Compadres and
institution we have. It
comadres are regarded as relative and closer ties are is, in fact, the institution
formed. Parents get sponsors (ninong and ninang) in to which we owe our
the baptism of their child and wedding of a son or a humanity.
daughter. These sponsors are supposed to act as Margaret Mead
second parents to the child and have the responsibility
of guiding, advising, and helping their godchild.
In the Asian family, a great difference exists in the roles of man and
woman. A woman‟s position in the home and society is much lower than that
of man. A much higher regard is attributed to the Filipino woman, especially
with changing roles and functions of the family.
The Functions of the Family
The importance of the Filipino family, from the point of view of the
functioning of society cannot be overemphasized. Of all the institutions, the
family is the most important. It performs the following functions:
 Reproduction of the race and rearing of the young. This is

unique function which cannot be done by any other institutions.
 Cultural transmission or enculturation. The culture of the family
is acquired from the father and the mother.
 Socialization of the child. It is in the family where the child learns
his role and status.
 Providing affection and a sense of security.
 Providing the environment for personality development and
the growth of self-concept in relation to others.
 Providing social status. Since every individual is born into a

family, each individual inherits both material goods and social
recognition defined by ascribed status. This status includes social
or ethnic identity.
Kinds of Family Patterns
Listed below are the different family patterns as classified by

sociologists:
Membership Residence Authority Descent

nuclear neolocal patriarchal bilineal
extended matrilocal matriarchal patrilineal
patrilocal equalitarian matrilineal
The family may be classified in the different ways. According to

structure, there are two types:
 Conjugal or nuclear family. This is the primary or elementary

family consisting of husband, wife and children; and
 Consanguine or extended family. It consists of married couple,

their parents, siblings, grandparents, uncles, aunts, and cousins.
According to terms of marriage, there is monogamy and polygamy.

Polygamy means plural marriage. There are three types of polygamy:
 Polyandry where one woman is married to two or more men at the
same time;
 Polygamy where one man is married to two or more women at

same time; and
 Cenogamy where two or more men mate with two or more women
in group marriage.
As to line of descent, the family may be patrilineal, matrilineal, or

bilineal. It is patrilineal when the descent is recognized through the mother‟s
line, it is matrilineal. It is bilineal when descent is recognized through both
the father‟s and mother‟s line.
According to place of residence, the family may be classified as:

 Patrilocal when the newly married couple lives with the parents of
the husband;
 Matrilocal when the newly married couple live with the parenst of
the wife; and
 Neolocal when the newly married pair maintains a separate

household and live by themselves.
With reference to authority or who is considered head, the family may

be classified as:
 Patriarchal when the father is considered the head and plays a

dominant role;
 Matriarchal when the mother or female is the head and makes the
major decisions; and
 Equalitarian when both father and mother share in making

decisions and are equal in authority.
2.2.2 EDUCATION
What did you learn in school today? This is time-honored question

asked by parents?
This portion will provide you a brief profile of the purposes and
functions of education and schools, in particular.
The basic purpose of education is the transmission of knowledge.

While before education was a family responsibility, along with the community
and the church, industrialization changed it Multiple Functions of
dramatically. Schools became necessary when cultural Schools
complexity created a need for specialized knowledge  Technical/
and skill which could not be easily acquired in the Economic
family, church and community. The complexity of  Human/social
modern life has not diminished the teaching function of  Political
the family, but it has added the need for many types of  Cultural
instruction which require specialized educational  Education
agencies like the school, college or university.
Although most of us take schooling for granted, the proper role of this
institution continues to evoke heated debate. Are schools to prepare students
for college, for a vocation, or to achieve high scores on standardized tests?

Perhaps schools are really to develop good interpersonal relationships, or
develop a national loyalty. Some say schools come down to either preparing
students to adjust to society or equipping them to change and improve
society. Not only do people hold widely divergent views regarding the goals of
schools, but these views seem to vary depending on the times.
The Functions of Schools
McNergney and Herbert (2001) described the school as first and

foremost a social institution, that is an established organization having an
identifiable structure and set of functions meant to preserve and extend social
order. As such its primary function is to move young people in the mainstream
of society. The curricula, teaching, process of evaluation and relationships
among people reinforce a public image to which young people are expected
to aspire. His image is concerned with preserving our heritage, adapting to
social change and making change happen where it is needed.
The school is a place for the contemplation of reality, and our task as
teachers, in simplest terms, is to show this reality to our students, who are
naturally eager about them. At home, we teach reality to children in a
profoundly personal, informal, and unstructured way. In school, we teach
reality in a professional, formal and structured way. Hence, in school there is
a set of curriculum which includes knowledge subjects, skills subjects and
enabling subjects. There are also teachers who facilitate learning, who teach
children and youth certain types of acceptable behavior, and sees to it that
children develop in all aspects: physically, emotionally, socially, and
academically.
Purpose Description
Intellectual The intellectual purpose of schooling include the following to
teach basic cognitive skills such as reading writing, and
mathematics; to transmit specific knowledge, for example in
literature, history, and the sciences; and to help students
acquire higher – order thinking skills such as analysis,
evaluation and synthesis.
Political The political purposes of schooling are to inculcate
allegiance to the existing political order (patriotism); to
prepare citizens who will participate in the political order; to
help assimilate diverse cultural groups into a common
political order; and to teach children the basic laws of
society.
Social The social purposes of schooling are to socialize children
into the various roles, behaviors, and values of the society.

This process, referred to by sociologists as socialization, is
a key ingredient in the stability of any society; it enables
members to help solve social problems; and by participating
in socialization, schools work along with other institutions
such as the family and the church, to ensure social
cohesion.
Economic The economic purposes of schooling are to prepare
students for their occupational roles and to select, train, and
allocate individuals into the division of labor. Whereas the
degree to which schools directly prepare students for works
varies from society to society, most schools have at least an
indirect role in this process.
In a paper “Multiplicity of Scholl Functions in the New Century”

presented at the conference jointly organized by educational Research
Association Singapore and Australia Association for Research in Education,
Yin Cheong Cheng (1996) suggests that there are multiple school functions
including technical/economic function, human/social, political, cultural, and
educational functions at the individual, institutional, community, society, and
international levels in the new century.
Function Description
Technical/Economic They refer to the contributions of schools to the
Functions technical or economic development and need of the
individual, the institution, the local community, the
society, and the international community.
 At the individual level, schools can help students

to acquire knowledge and skills necessary to
survive and compete in a modern society or a
competitive economy, and provide staff job
training and opportunity.
 At the institutional level, schools are service
organizations providing quality service, also they
serve as a life place or work place society for
clients, employers and all those concerned.
 At the community and society levels, schools
serve the economic or instrumental needs of the
local community, supply quality labor forces to
the economic systems, modify or shape
economic behaviors or students (future
customers and citizens) (McMahon, 1987), and
contribute to the development and stability of the

manpower structure of the economy (Hinchliffe,
1987).
 At the international level, school education
supplies the high quality forces necessary in
international competitions, economic,
cooperation, earth protection, and technology
and information exchange.
Human/Social They refer to the contribution of schools to human
Functions development and social relationships at different levels
of the society. As indicated in nearly all formal
education goals, at the individual level schools help
develop students to develop themselves
psychologically, socially, and physically, and help them
develop their potential as fully as possible.
 At the institutional level, a school is a social

entity or social system composed of different
human relationships. The quality of social
climate and relationships in it often determines
the quality of work life and learning life for
teachers and students. Therefore one of the
important school functions is to provide the
environment of quality.
 At the community and society levels, according
to the perspective of functionalism, schools
serve the social needs or functions of the local
community, support social integration of multiple
and diverse constituencies of society, facilitate
the social mobility within the existing social class
structure, reinforce social equality for all people
of different backgrounds, select and allocate
competent people to appropriate roles and
positions, and contribute to social change and
development in the long run (Cheng, 1991).
 From the alternative view of the conflict theory, it
is possible that schools Reproduce the existing
social class structure and perpetuate inequality
(Blackledge & Hunt, 1985). Due to the growing
global consciousness (Beare & Slaughter,
1993), schools are expected to play an
important role in preparing students for
international harmony, social cooperation, global
human relationship, and elimination of national,

regional, racial and gender biases at the
international level such that both the local
community and the international community can
benefit in the long run.
Political Functions They refer to the contribution of schools to the political
development at different levels of society.
 At the individual level, schools help students to

develop positive civic attitudes and skills to
exercise the rights and responsibilities of
citizenship.
 At the international level, schools act as a place
for systematically socializing students into a set
of political norms, values, and beliefs, or for
critically discussing and reflecting on the existing
political events. Schools often become a political
coalition of teachers, parents, and students that
can contribute to the stability of the political
power structure.
play an important role to serve the political
needs of the local community, maintain the
stability of the political structure, promote
awareness and movement of democracy, and
facilitate the planned political development and
changes (Thomas, 1983).
 The growing awareness of international
dependence reinforces the need for the
contribution of school education to international
understanding, global common interest,
international coalitions, peace movements
against war, and eliminations of conflicts
between regions and nations.
Cultural Functions They refer to the contribution of schools to the cultural

transmission and development at different levels of
society.
 At the individual level, schools help students to

develop their creativity and aesthetic awareness
and to be socialized with the successful norms,
values, and beliefs of society.
 At the institutional level, schools act as a place

for systematic cultural transmission to and
reproduction of the next generation, cultural
integration among the multiple and diverse
constituencies, and cultural revitalization of the
outdated poor traditions.
 At the community and society levels schools
often serve as a cultural unit carrying the explicit
norms and expectations of the local community,
transmit all the important values and artifacts of
society to students, integrate the diverse
subcultures from deferent background, and
revitalize the strengths of the existing culture
such that the society or the nation can reduce
internal conflicts and wastage, and build up a
unifying force for national conflicts. Obviously,
the conflict theory provides an alternative view
that for different classes of the society, schools
socialize students with different sets of values
and beliefs. In other words, schools reproduce
and perpetuate culture inequality within the
society. Obviously, functionalism and conflict
theory have different views on the cultural
functions of schools at the society level.
 At the international level, schools can encourage
appreciation of cultural diversity and acceptance
of different norms, traditions, values and belief in
different countries and regions, and finally
contribute to the development of global culture
through integration of different cultures.
Education Functions They refer to the contribution of schools to the
development and maintenance of education at the
different levels of society. Traditionally, education if
often perceived as only a means achieving the
economic, social, political, and cultural values and
goals. Due to the rapid development and change in
every aspect of the world, people begin to accept
education in itself as an important value or goal.
Education represents learning and development. Like,
economics, politics, culture, and social relationship,
education becomes a necessary component of our life
particularly in an era of great change and
transformation. The content, system, and structure of
education need to be developed and maintained.
 At the individual level, it is important for schools

to help students to learn how to learn and help
teachers to learn how to teach. Also, facilitating
teachers‟ professional development is one of the
key functions of education at this level.
 At the institutional level, schools serve as a
systematic place for systematic learning,
teaching, and disseminating knowledge, and as
a center for systematically experimenting and
implementing educational changes and
developments.
provide service for different educational needs
of the local community, facilities development of
education professions and education structures,
disseminate knowledge and information to the
next generation, and contribute to the formation
of a learning society. In order to promote mutual
understanding among nations and “build up a
global family” for the younger generation,
schools can contribute to the development of
global education and international education
exchange and cooperation.
 At the international level, schools can make an
important contribution to education for the whole
world
(http://www.aare.Edu.au/96pap/chenv96522.txt).
The Manifest and Latent Functions of Education
The manifest functions of education are defined as the open and

intended goals or consequences of activities within an organization or
institution. There are six major manifest functions of education in society, to
wit: social control, socialization, social placement, transmitting culture,
promoting social and political integration, and as agent of change (Javier et al,
2002).
Manifest Function Description

of Education in
Society
Socialization From kindergarten through college, schools teach
students the student role, specific academic subjects,
and political socialization. In the primary and secondary
schools, students are taught specific subject matter
appropriate to their age, skill level, and previous
education experience.
At the college level, students focus on more detailed

knowledge of subjects that they have previously studied
while also being exposed to new areas study and
research.
Social Control Schools are responsible for teaching values such as
discipline, respect, obedience, punctually, and
perseverance. Schools teach conformity by
encouraging young people to be good students,
conscientious, future workers, and low-abiding citizens.
Social Placement Schools are responsible for identifying the most
qualified people to fill available positions in society.
Transmitting As a social institution, education performs a rather
Culture conservable function – transmitting the dominant
culture. Through schooling, each generation of young
people is exposed to the existing beliefs norms, and
values of our culture. We learn respect for social control
and reverence for established institutions such as
religion, the family and the government.
Promoting Social Education serves the latent function of promoting
and Political political and social integration by transforming its
Integration population composed of diverse ethnic and religious
groups into a society whose members share – to some
extent at least – a common identify; and
Agent of Change Education can stimulate or bring about desired social
change. It promotes social change. It promotes social
change by serving as meeting ground where each
society‟s distinctive beliefs and traditions can be shared.
Numerous sociological studies have revealed that
increased years of formal schooling are associated with
openness to new ideas and more liberal social and
political viewpoints (Schaefer and Lamm, 1992).
In addition to manifest functions, all social institutions, including

education, have some latent functions, the hidden, unstated and sometimes
unintended consequences of activities within an organization or institution.
These latent functions are:
 Restricting Some Activities. In our society there are laws that require
children to attend school or complete a primary and secondary
education. Out of these laws grew one latent function of education
which is to keep students off the street and out
of the full-time job market for a number of years, Manifest Functions of
by helping keep unemployment within Schools
reasonable bounds.  Social control
 Socialization
 Social placement
 Matching and Production of Social Networks.
 Transmitting culture
Because school brings together people of similar  Promoting social
ages, social class, and race, young people often and political
meet future marriage partners and develop integration
social networks that may last for many years.  Agent of change
 Creation of Generation Gap. Students may learn information in

school that contradicts beliefs held by their parents or Their religion.
When education conflicts with parental attitudes and beliefs, a
generation gap is created if students embrace the newly acquired
perspective (Kendall, 1998).
The functions of schools as stated by Calderon (1998) are as follows:
Functions of Description
Schools
(Calderon)
Conservation The school conserves and preserves through its libraries
Function and other devices recorded accumulated experiences of
the past generations such as knowledge, inventions,
mathematics, science, historical facts, skills, customs,
traditions, language, literature, music, writing, and the
arts. All these are preserved for future generations.
Instructional This function, the main concern of the school, is to pass
Function on the accumulated experiences of the past generations
to the incoming generations. This is performed by
individuals trained for the purpose called teachers,
mentors, instructors, or professors. The recipients of
such instruction are the young learners called pupils or
students. Some call such an instruction enculturation,

when things of the local culture are taught to the
students. In the performance of this function, the school
is expected to produce leaders in all fields of endeavor:
politics, education trade and industry, science, especially
in medicine and the like.
Research Function This is also an important function of the school. The
school conducts research to improve the old ways of
doing things or to discover hitherto unknown facts or
systems to improve the quality of human life. In the
performance of this function, for instance, some schools
are said to be inexhaustible if made operational or
functional.
Social Service One justification for a particular school to exist is to
Function render some kind of social service in the place where it
is located. This may be done through some kind of
outreach programs which could be in a form of literacy,
health, means of livelihood, recreational activities, etc.
Schools can play a pivotal role within a sustainable community. By

educating young people in a way that empowers them to play active roles in
their local communities to be able to make informed choices and to critically
evaluate what they see and hear, they gain a sense of responsibility for the
sustainability of their communities. This will be essential for the future.
2.2.3 RELIGION
Religion may be defined as any set of coherent answers to the

dilemmas of human existence that makes the world meaningful. From this
point of view, religion is how human beings express their feelings about such
ultimate concerns as sickness or death. Almost all religions involved their
adherents in a system of beliefs and practices that express devotion to the
supernatural and foster deep feelings of spirituality. In Religion is the socially
this sense, we say that religion functions to meet the defined patterns of
spiritual needs of individuals. beliefs concerning the
ultimate meaning of
Religion is also defined in terms of its social life; it assumes the
function. It is a system of beliefs and ritual that serves existence of the
to bind people together through shared worship, supernatural”.
Stark
thereby creating a social group.
Religion is a set of beliefs and practices that pertain to a sacred or

supernatural realm that guides human behavior and gives meaning to life
among a community of believers. Travers and Rebore (1990) define religion

as that which involves:
 a belief about the meaning of life;

 a commitment by the individual and the group to this belief;
 a system of moral practices resulting from a commitment to this
belief; and
 a recognition by the proponents of this belief that is supreme or
absolute.
Characteristics of Religion
Most of the leading religions throughout history have shared

characteristics. The chief characteristics include:
 belief in a deity or in a power beyond the individual;

 a doctrine (accepted teaching) of salvation;
 a code of conduct;
 the use of sacred stories; and
 religious rituals (acts and ceremonies).
Characteristics of Description
Religion
Belief in a deity There are three main philosophical views regarding
the existence of a deity. Atheists believe that no deity
exists. Theists believe in a deity or deities. Theists
believe in a deity or deities. Agnostics say that the
existence of a deity cannot be proved or disproved.
Most of the major religions are theistic. They teach
that deities govern or greatly influence the action of
human beings as well as events in nature.
A doctrine of The major religious – Christianity, Islam, Buddhism,
salvation and Buddhism, and Hinduism – teach a doctrine of
salvation. They stress that salvation is the highest
goal of the faithful and one that all followers should try
to achieve. Religious differ, however, in what salvation
is and how it can be gained.
A code of conduct This is a set of moral teachings and values that all
religions have in some form. Such a code, or ethic
tells believes how to act toward the deity and toward
one another.
Religious rituals They include the acts and ceremonies by which
believers appeal to and serve God, deities, or other
sacred powers. Some rituals are performed by

individuals alone, and others by group of worshippers.
Important rituals are performed according to a
schedule and are respected regularly. The
performance of a ritual is often called a service.
Religion is very important in the life of man and its roles and functions
are significant and vital in order to maintain and preserve its existence from
one generation to the next.
Functions of Religion
Among the many functions of religion identified by Calderon (1998) are

the following:
 Religion serves as a means of social control.
 It exerts a great influence upon personality Three Elements of
development. Religion
 Religion allays fear of the unknown.  Sacred and profane
 Legitimation of
 Religion explains events or situations which
norms
are beyond the comprehension of man.
 Rituals
 It gives man comfort, strength and hope in  Religious
times of crisis and despair. community
 It preserves and transmits knowledge, skills,
spiritual and cultural values and practices.
 It serves as an instrument of change.
 It promotes closeness, love, cooperation, friendliness and
helpfulness.
 Religion alleviates sufferings from major calamities.
 It provides hope for a blissful life after death.
Difference among Churches, Sects and Cults
Church Sect Cults

Tends to be large, with Has a small, exclusive Are referred to by Stark
inclusive memberships, membership, high and Bainbridge (1985)
in low tension with tension with society. It as the more innovative
surrounding society. tends toward the institutions and are
Church tends toward emotional, mystic, formed when people
greater intellectual stress, faith, feeling, create new religious
examination and conservation beliefs and practices.
interpretation of the experience, to be “born
tenants of religion (e.g., again”. Fundamental,
biblical passages, what literal in teaching –
is the historical context biblical passages are

of the passage, the the literal words of god –
meaning to the people at mean literally what they
the time, what say, people are to do
interpretation application what the passages say.
can be given to the
present).
Furthermore, three (3) types of cults are described, namely;
1. audience cults, which are characterized by doctrines delivered to

consumers via TV, radio or in printed materials;
Social institutions
2. client cults which have religious leaders who insure the maintenance
offer specific services to their followers; and of society through the
production, distribution
and consumptions of
3. cult movements which are client cults that have
goods and services.
been enlarged because of a closely-knit
Robert Dahl
organization (San Juan, et al 2007)
The Elements of Religion
There are four (4) elements of religion. They are sacred and profane,
legitimation of norms, rituals, and religious community.
Element of Description
Religion
Sacred Refers to phenomena that are regarded as extraordinary,
transcendent, and outside the everyday course of events
– that is supernatural. The sacred is represented by a
wide variety of symbols, which may include a god or set of
gods, a holy person; various revered writing such as the
Bible, Koran, and Torah; holy objects such as the Cross;
and holy cities like Jerusalem or Mecca. The term
profane refers to all phenomena that are not sacred.
While water from river Jordan in the Middle East is
considered by many to be sacred, to the Jordanians and
Palestinians, it is not.
Legitimation of Religious sanctions and beliefs reinforce the legitimacy of
Norms many rules and norms in the community. The deep seated
conflict over abortion on demand relates to this kind of
religious sanction and legitimation. Most religious groups
hold life to be sacred, some consider life to be begin at

conception. Therefore, any abortion, is the murder of a
human being, violating the commandments about life.
Rituals Are formal of activity that express symbolically a set of
shared meanings, in the case of rituals such as baptism or
communion, the shared meanings are sacred. Rituals are
heavily laden with symbolism, reinforce the beliefs of the
community, cements relationships among the community
of believers. For example for Christians, the Cross
professes their religious belief. Virtually, all Christian
groups perform some type of communion service, and this
service symbolically connects the participants and
reminds them of the meaning of the church in their life.
Religious Religion establishes a code of behavior for the members,
Community who belong and who do not. The participants are likely to
think alike, to act like and therefore to be more
comfortable with one another that with those who do not
share their beliefs. The members often share the same
interests, values and beliefs (Anderson, 1999).
2.2.4 ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS
Human behavior is mainly concerned with the Microeconomics

satisfaction of material wants. It is centered on the task looks at the trees,
of making a living, the most absorbing interest of man. while
To that end, man in all ages and among all classes, Macroeconomics
struggle to bring about changes in the environment. The looks at the forest.
changes that have taken place and are taking place in Both categories involve
the Philippines are the result chiefly of the interplay of the construction of
force in our efforts to improve our material wellbeing. Our theories and
formulation of policies
mode of living centers on the acquisition of wealth in
activities that are the
order to satisfy our wants and this aspect of man‟s
heart of economics.
activity constitute the field of economics. Example of
economic activities are earning money, buying goods and services, putting up
a business, or saving money in a bank.
We cannot isolate ourselves from economics because our physical

existence depends on it. We cannot live without production and consumption.
Microeconomics vs. Macroeconomics
Microeconomics Macroeconomics
It is concerned with the specific It is concerned with the economy as a
economic units of parts that make an whole, or large segments of it.it
economic system and the relationship focuses on such problems as the
between those parts. In roles of unemployment, the changing
microeconomics, emphasis is placed level of prices, the nation‟s total
on understanding the behavior of output of goods and services, and the
individual firms, industries, ways in which government raises and
households, and ways in which such spends money.
entities interact (Spencer, 1980 as
cited by Javier et al, 2002).
The Basic Economic Problems
There are three (3) basic economic problems. These are as follows.
 First, what goods and services to produce and how much. In

business, a feasibility study determines whether certain goods or
services profitable or not in a given market. Investors are only
willing to produce goods and services which will give them good
profit.
 Second, how to produce goods and services. This is a problem

of production technology or methods of production. As a general
rule, goods and services must be produced in the most efficient
manner. This means minimum input without sacrificing quality.
The application of modern technology has increased output and

decreased cost of production. Such production efficiently has greatly
contributed to the high standard of living of the industrialized countries.
 Third, for whom are the goods and services. This is the problem of
distribution. Who gets the goods like, rice, cloths, shoes, and other
social services. In most countries, those who have money acquire
more goods services than the poor.
In the Philippines, the children of rich families acquire better education

in exclusive schools while the poor students enroll in the public schools where
facilities are not sufficient adequate.
2.2.5 GOVERNMENT AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION
The institution which resolves conflicts that are public in nature and
involve more than a few people is called government. Governments can be
city, provincial, national, or even international.
The supreme court of the Philippines defines

government at “that institution by which an Three branches
independent society makes and carries out those rules of Government:
of action which are necessary to enable men to live in a  Executive
social state, or which are imposed upon the people for  Legislative
that society by those who possess the power or  Judicial
authority of prescribing them.”
In the Philippines, like any other modern societies, there are three
branches of government;
 the executive branch, which proposes and enforces rules and

laws;
 the legislative branch which makes rules and laws; and
 the judicial branch, which adjudicates rules and laws.
In order to understand the role of government as an institution, we

must first define politics. There is general agreement among social scientist
that politics is the pattern of human interaction that serves to resolve conflicts
between peoples, institution, and nations.
In understanding the term government, one should likewise know the
term administration which refers to the aggregation of persons in whose
hands the reigns of government are for the time being. The government is
aimed at maintaining good social order where the people enjoy the political
and economic blessings of life in an atmosphere of justice, freedom, and
equality.
The Functions of Government
The functions of government are divided as follows:
1. The constituent functions contribute to the very bonds of society and

are therefore compulsory. Among the constituent functions are as
follows;
 The keeping of order and providing for the protection of persons

and property from violence and robbery;
 The fixing of the legal relations between husband and wife, and
between parents and children;
 The regulation of the holding, transmission, and interchange of
property, and the determination of its liabilities for the debt or for
crime;
 The determination of contractual rights between individuals;
 The definition and punishment for crimes;
 The administration of justice in civil cases;
 The administration of political duties, privileges, and relations of
citizens; and
 The dealings of the State with foreign growers, the preservation of
the state from external danger or encroachment and the
advancement of its international affairs and interests.
2. The ministrant functions are those undertaken to advance the

general interest of society, such as public works, public charity, and
regulation of trade and industry. These functions are merely optional.
2.3 EDUCATION: RESPONDING TO THE DEMANDS OF SOCIETY
The Demands of Society from the Teacher as a Professional and as a

Person
Society as a whole expects much from teachers and schools. Often

when the young do not behave as
expected, the question raised by
parents, “Is that what you are taught in
school?” From the very title “teacher,”
to teach well is what society primarily
demands of teachers. The learning of
the learner is the teacher‟s main
concern.
Schools are expected to work

with and for communities and so are
teachers. The Code of Ethics for
Professional Teachers cites the state,
the community, the teaching
community, school officials, non-teaching personnel and learners as group of
people with and for whom a teacher works. So a teacher works with different
groups and plays different roles – tutor, nurse, guidance counselor,
community leader, resource speaker, and consultant rolled into one. At times
the teacher acts as a parent, shock absorber, friend, and listener. Indeed,
much is demanded of teachers.
Research says that the teacher is the single most important factor in
the learners‟ learning. The effective teacher makes the good and the not so
good learner learns. On the other hand, the ineffective teacher adversely
affects the learning of both good and not so good student.
Since the main task of the professional teacher is to teach, society

demands from him/her teaching competence. He/she has to prepare and plan
very well for instruction; execute or deliver the instruction plan very well
because he/she has professional knowledge (mastery of the subject matter;
create a conducive or favorable learning environment for diverse groups of
learners; assess and report learners’ progress; and demonstrate
professionalism as he/she deals with superiors, colleagues, students, and
parents).
The Demands of Society from the Teacher as a Person
More than any other professional, teachers are subjected to scrutiny to

the minutest detail by those they associate with. Teachers are judged more
strictly than other professionals.
What are the demands of the

teaching profession from the teacher as a
person? This can be re-stated as what
personal qualities or attributes of teachers
are demanded by the teaching
profession?
The most common personal

attributes/traits given to teacher describe
the effective teacher is caring. A caring
teacher is fair. The teacher displays a
personal touch and is approachable. He/she makes every learner belong and
feel welcome. He/she is compassionate, forgiving, and humble.
Aptitudes for Teaching
 Sharp memory
 Genuine love for teaching
 Creativity
 Kindness
 Industry
 Curiosity
Elements Inherent in Teaching Profession
 Accountability
 Authority
 Timing
 Ethics
 Order and discipline
 Loyalty
 Professionalism
 Learning
Elements Inherent in the Teacher
 Enthusiasm
 Commitment
 Honesty
 Compassion
 Persistence
 Fairness
 Integrity
 Adventure
 Resilience
 Appreciation
 Encouragement
 Joy
Innate Qualities of Teachers
 Passion
 Humor
 Caring
 Patience
 Creativity
 Confidence
 Industry
 Personality
 Sociability
 Sincerity
 Imagination
Read this poem, “You are a Teacher.”
You are a Teacher
If I speak interestingly, effectively, and well,

But do not understand my students
I am a noisy gong or a clanging cymbal.
If I know all of the methods and techniques of teaching,
If I have complete faith that they will work,
So that I use them completely,
But think only of materials or techniques
instead of how they can help my students,
I count for nothing.
If I go the second mile in my teaching,
Give up many activities,
But do it without understanding,
It does no good.
Love is very patient, very kind;
Love is not jealous, it does not put airs;
It is never tyrannic, never;
Yet does insist on truth;
It does not become angry;
It is not resentful.
Love always expects the best of others;
It is gladdened when they live up to these expectations,
Slow to lose faith when they do not.
It will bear anything,
Hope for anything,
Endure anything.
This kind of love will never fail
If there are teaching methods, they will change;
If there are curricula, they will be revised.
For our knowledge is imperfect
And our teaching is imperfect,
And we are always looking for the better ways
Which an infinite God has placed ahead of us.
When I began to teach, I fumbled and failed;
Now I have put away some of my childish ways.
At present I am learning bit by bitl
But if I keep on seeking, I shall at last understand
As all along I myself have been understood.
So faith, hope and love endure.
These are the great three
But the greatest of them is love.
From The Teaching Profession

2.4 EDUCATIONAL REFORMS
Education Reform in the Philippines Aims for Better Quality and More
Access
The Philippine education system has evolved over hundreds of years

of colonial occupation, first by Spain and then by the US, through martial law
and the people‟s power revolution that brought democracy to the sprawling
archipelago. The education sector‟s development has mirrored the changes in
the country‟s administration. Today the focus is on expanding access and
ensuring more Filipinos receive a decent basic education, as a means of
reducing poverty and improving national competitiveness. The World Bank
notes that in other countries such initiatives have brought “large economic
benefits”. The K-12 reform was introduced in 2016 and funding was
increased, easing concerns that its
implementation would be hindered by
limited resources and winning over new
President Rodrigo Duterte, who was
initially sceptical about the plan.
Despite these successes and

President Duterte‟s commitment to
socio-economic issues as his policy
priorities, the education system
continues to struggle with deep
inequalities. Quality also remains a concern. Addressing these problems will
require a continued commitment to increased funding for education, and an
efficient mechanism to ensure the money is spent in the most effective
manner.
 System
The Philippines has a vibrant and diverse education system, with the
government, assisted by the private sector, providing a wide range of
education from early years up to college and university across the
archipelago. The Department of Education (DepEd) oversees the provision of
basic education. The private sector includes kindergartens, international
schools and religious schools. In 2015/16 there were 14.9m children enrolled
at primary school and 6.01m at secondary level.
 History
Today‟s system has been shaped by the Philippines‟ colonial and post-
war history. Under the Spanish, education was largely provided by
missionaries and the study of religion was compulsory, but most Filipinos
were not included. It was only in the 19th century that they were able to attend
the universities that had been established two centuries earlier, and it was
only when the US took control of the Philippines in 1898 that consideration
was given to non-religious education, English-language teaching and free
primary school education for all.
The country was ill-prepared for

the sudden expansion of education
and did not have enough teachers to
meet the new demand, so the colonial
authorities established a teacher-
training school and brought in 1000
teachers from the US to provide
training. An emphasis on vocational
and adult education was introduced in
the early 20th century, while bilingual
teaching – with maths, science and
literature taught in English – was
introduced under Ferdinand Marcos in 1974. The commitment to a bilingual
education and universal access was enshrined in the 1987 constitution.
 K-12 Implementation
Three years since the Enhanced Basic Education Act (EBEA, known
as the K-12 law) was signed, the Philippines has finally embarked on its most
ground-breaking change to the schooling system in decades, the K-12 reform.
K-12 extends compulsory schooling to grades 11 and 12, adding two

years to secondary school, and makes secondary education compulsory.
Prior to its implementation, the Philippines was the only country in Asia, and
one of only a few in the world, to have a basic education system of just 10
years. The EBEA also mandated kindergarten as the start of compulsory
formal education, while the Kindergarten Act of 2012 made pre-school free. In
August 2016, 1.5m Filipino children attended 11th grade, with senior school
students choosing between four tracks through the system: academic,
technical-vocational, sports or the arts. Much of the opposition to the initiative,
which triggered five separate petitions to the Supreme Court, centred on
whether the country‟s teachers, schools and administration were in a position
to implement the reform. President Duterte expressed scepticism about the

programme before he was elected, but changed his mind in May 2016 after a
delegation from DepEd told him that the change was necessary, as Filipino
students were falling behind their neighbours.
Indeed, increased spending on basic education – including an

expanded Alternative Learning System (ALS) – is a centrepiece of the new
president‟s 10-point socio-economic agenda. President Duterte insists that the
development of the Philippines‟ human capital is a priority of his
administration. Building on existing programmes, the education secretary,
Leonor Briones, said that the Duterte administration‟s education policy intends
to ensure that the country provides a quality education that is accessible to all
and relevant to the needs of the nation. Filipinos should also find education
“truly liberating” through the development of critical thinking skills and an
appreciation of culture and the arts.
 10-Point Plan
The shift to K-12 began under President Duterte‟s predecessor,

Benigno Aquino III, who approached education as an investment in Filipinos,
and offered a 10-point plan for improving education as part of his election
campaign. As well as K-12, the 10 fixes included pre-schooling for all,
technical-vocational training as an alternative in senior high school, working
with local governments to build new schools, proficiency in science and
maths, and working with private schools as “essential partners” in basic
education. The plan is to expand the Government Assistance to Students and
Teachers in Private Education, supporting as many as 1m students at private
high schools through the Education Service Contracting Scheme.
 Education For All
In 2015 the Education for All (EFA) initiative included provisions to

ensure all Filipinos were able to achieve
what UNESCO calls “functional literacy”,
the ability to read, write and do
calculations at a level that is sufficient
for the country in which a particular
person lives. Further supporting the K-
12 reform, the government set four key
objectives for the EFA initiative:
providing education options for all out-
of-school adults and young people;
eliminating drop-outs and repetition
during the first three years of school; encouraging the completion of a full
cycle of basic schooling to a satisfactory level at every grade by all Filipino
children; and committing to the attainment of basic education competencies
for everyone.
In fact, recognition of the need to move towards K-12 was evident

much earlier. In 2005 the government promised, under the Basic Education
Reform Agenda, to remove all hurdles limiting access to and delivery of basic
education, whether regulatory, structural, financial or institutional. The policy
involved five key thrusts: school-based management; the development of
teacher education; national learning strategies; quality assurance and
accountability; and changes to the administration of DepEd, using the latest
technology to ensure more effective use of resources, whether staff or funds.
 World Bank Assessment
In June 2016 the World Bank published its assessment on the

Philippines reform of basic education, “Assessing Basic Education Service
Delivery”, noting that reforms were now backed with a substantial increase in
funding, after years of underinvestment exacerbated by average population
growth in excess of 2%.
The World Bank estimates that public spending increased by 60% in

real terms between 2010 and 2015,
helping finance infrastructure
improvements and provide the means to
hire more teachers. As a result, between
2010 and 2013 the student-to-teacher ratio
in public high schools fell from 38:1 to
29:1, while the student-to-classroom ratio
dropped from 64:1 to 47:1. However,
“despite impressive recent increases, the
Philippines still spends less on education
than many neighbouring and middle-
income countries,” the study noted.
“Recent analysis has confirmed the need for more spending to meet national
education norms and standards.”
The World Bank study was commissioned by DepEd to assess how the
public budget was being used, in order for funds to be allocated more
efficiently and effectively. It tracked 80% of the government‟s national
education budget, as well as spending by local authorities, in the last quarter
of 2014.
In a separate report looking at the EFA initiative, UNESCO noted that

even though the largest portion of the Philippine budget had consistently been
devoted to education, in percentage terms this fell short of international
standards, with the state spending only 2.6% of GDP on the sector in 2011.
That figure has risen over the past few years to an expected 3.5% in
2017, but the Philippines continues to spend far less on education as a
proportion of GDP than many of its neighbours. Both Vietnam and South
Korea, which have some of the world‟s best-performing schools according to
international benchmarks, spend 5% of GDP on education.
 Early Encouragement
DepEd itself assessed the implementation of K-12 at a January 2017

conference with stakeholders including government officials, school
administrators and teachers.
Among the encouraging news, it found that the situation in

kindergartens had improved, with a more localised curriculum, the
construction of clean, safe and child-friendly classrooms, and closer
cooperation with the community. Children were developing a love of reading,
while teachers‟ skills had been enhanced via
use of technology and the adoption of more
effective teaching strategies.
For grades one to six, best practice

included a curriculum more suited to the
needs of Christian and Muslim pupils, closer
cooperation with indigenous communities, the
provision of self-paced learning materials,
catch-up programmes at all levels and the
introduction of Learning Action Cell sessions for teachers‟ professional
development. DepEd noted that in schools that had adopted these practices
enrolment rose and the drop-out rate fell. Minority groups were also more
confident, with Muslim children having the opportunity to learn Arabic.
Junior high schools also focused on programmes to reduce the drop-

out rate and nurture continued learning, including the use of ALS through a
virtual classroom, a basic literacy programme for adults, and scholarships for
adult learners and students with special needs. Schools reported increased
enrolment and participation, along with rising community awareness. Teacher
competency also improved with training in new learning strategies focused on
real-world application.
In senior high schools, where the full roll-out of grade 12 is now taking
place, DepEd said that the policy has been largely successful, noting the
transfer of junior high school teachers to fill vacancies, and improved
cooperation both between local and national government, and with the private
sector on the provision of facilities, including classrooms and dormitories for
pupils living in remote areas. A large percentage of those enrolled in private
schools received vouchers, with scholarships also available.
Raising Standards
Much of the official discussion on K-12 centres on the need to raise

standards, improve teacher quality and encourage completion of basic
schooling. The drop-out rate has remained high, and data from the
“Functional Literacy, Education and Mass Media Survey” produced by the
Philippine Statistics Authority, shows that
around 4m children and young people
were out of school in 2013, while as of
April 2016, 16.6m Filipinos – or 39% of
the workforce – had not completed basic
education. The World Bank noted
continuing problems with access and
inequality. The report found that only 53%
of the poorest 20% of households sent
their children to high school, while 81% of
the wealthiest families did so. To address
the problem, the government aims to incentivise attendance, extend school
feeding programmes and expand programmes under the ALS, a “second
chance” designed to ensure more Filipinos complete their basic education.
President Duterte has indicated that an enhanced ALS – better targeted with
wider coverage, more partnerships and approaches that meet learners‟ needs
– will be one of his administration‟s major legacies.
Regional Inequalities
The World Bank also found differences in allocations to education in

different regions at the level of both national and local government. While both
have responsibility for funding education, the World Bank estimates the local
contribution, which is funded by property taxes, has been declining since
2006. Currently, more than 90% of school funding originates from the national
government, with the proposed allocation to DepEd at P569.1bn ($12bn) in
2017, compared with P431.5bn ($9.1bn) in 2016. Most goes towards
teachers‟ salaries, but a significant amount funds financial assistance
programmes for children from low-income families. Regional disparities in
funding levels do not necessarily correspond directly with outcomes. The
report found that although city schools received higher funding, their pupils
tended to do less well in national tests than their rural peers. The report cited
insufficient infrastructure to cope with the larger student bodies at urban
schools and higher rates of teacher absences as reasons for this.
“Many schools, particularly in urban areas, have insufficient and poor

quality facilities and a shortage of teachers,” the report said. “Operational
funding still falls short of the amounts that schools need to pay bills, undertake
basic repairs, and provide the day-to-day materials their students need. And
there is rarely anything left over to fund school-level initiatives to improve
student learning achievement.”
Allocation of Funds
More effective targeting of funds to the areas of greatest need is

therefore a priority alongside an overall increase in budget allocations.
Briones told the Education Summit in November 2016 there is “a need for a
drastic improvement in absorptive capacity”. The Duterte administration is
planning to introduce a series of financial management reforms to improve
education outcomes, including: enhanced leadership supervision and
oversight over finance, administration and procurement; the creation of an
education programme delivery unit to monitor budget execution and intervene
to ensure funds move smoothly to where they are needed; a financial
management information system to track budget spending in real time; and a
more proactive approach to spending.
Teaching Standards
In recent years DepEd has introduced a number of measures to

improve the standard of teaching, revising
professional benchmarks and providing
more on-the-job training. It has also made a
concerted effort to attract the brightest and
the best by raising compensation and
making the selection process more
competitive. In the past, teaching was poorly
paid and often seen as the fall-back course
for university applicants who did not get onto
their preferred course. Studies found
teacher knowledge in both elementary and
high school was low, and that the
professional development programmes were insufficient.
Civil society is also helping. Non-profit organisation Philippine Business

for Education launched the Scholarships in Teacher Education Programme to
Upgrade Teacher Quality in the Philippines (STEPUP), which is funded by
Australian Aid, in 2015. The idea is to encourage the country‟s best-
performing college graduates and professionals to join the profession, with the
aim of producing 1000 high-quality teachers for the public school system by
2019. Accepting candidates up to the age of 45, STEPUP covers full tuition
fees and offers a range of benefits for participants. In return, successful
applicants must work with DepEd for three years. The organisation offers a
similar scheme to encourage the best high school seniors to pursue degrees
in education, majoring in subjects including maths and English. The
Philippines has not participated in an international survey of school
performance since a 2003 study showed only one-third of children in
elementary and secondary school were able to reach the lowest international
benchmark in maths. It also revealed stark differences in performance
between children from low-and high-income families. While that makes it hard
to get a sense of how well the country‟s children are doing relative to their
peers in region, results in national tests remain patchy. At elementary school,
the average score rose to 69.97% in 2013/14, but slipped back to 69.1% in
2014/15. The government targeted a score of 77% in 2016. A similar trend is
evident at the secondary level, where the average score edged up to 53.77%
in 2013/14 before dropping back to 49.48% in 2014/15. In 2016 the target was
65%. National results also show that pupils in urban schools do not perform
as well as those in rural areas, according to the World Bank. The average
score in the 2014 grade six exam was 66% in city schools and 75% in those
outside urban areas, even though the former tended to have larger revenues.
 Meeting National Needs
The government insists that the education system must be more

appropriate to the needs of the country, including its economy. The aim is to
improve students‟ abilities in science and technology, and nurture critical
thinking, creativity and entrepreneurial
spirit, as well as to encourage them to
support the wider community, especially
those on the margins. Sex education, along
with awareness of the issues surrounding
teenage pregnancy and the dangers of
drugs (from grade four), will be
strengthened, and there will be a special
emphasis on the environment, climate
change and disaster preparedness in a
country that has frequently endured
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and severe weather. To achieve these goals,

the government is overhauling the curriculum to establish a “spiral” approach,
which is designed to challenge and stimulate pupils so that they develop
critical thinking skills. DepEd consulted industry during the development of the
new curriculum, although the final design was the work of DepEd alone.
Those learning science under the spiral approach, for example, learn general
science, biology, chemistry and physics on a per quarter basis. The basics
are taught in grade seven, with more complicated theories added as pupils
progress through subsequent grades.
 Higher Education
The Philippines is one of the few countries where the number of private
higher education institutions and students enrolled there is greater than in the
state sector. Leading private universities, such as the University of Santo
Tomas, were established hundreds of years before their public sector
counterparts – although Filipinos were not allowed to attend until the 19th
century – while the University of the Philippines, the archipelago‟s leading
state university, was set up in 1908, when the country was under US control.
National government spending

on the tertiary education segment has
risen in recent years, but at 12.2% of
the sector budget, spending remains
below the international benchmark of
15-20%. The 2017 allocation reflects
a government decision to scrap tuition
fees at all state universities and
colleges. However, students will still
need to pay their living expenses with
grants and other forms of aid
available to those from low-income
families.
“In the short term, this will incrementally improve enrolment rates, and
will help free up financial resources for other college expenses and needs of
the students,” Patricia Licuanan, chair of the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED), said in a statement after the budget was passed in
December. “From a wider perspective, this amount will eventually increase
the available income of families.”
The Philippine higher education system is managed by CHED and the

Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). The
country‟s 228 state universities and colleges, which had 1.88m students in the
2015/16 academic year, are operated and subsidised by the government, with
each university run by a board of regents and a board of trustees supervised
by the chair of CHED. Local government units can also establish local
universities. The state universities and colleges have a total of 454 satellite
campuses, according to CHED.
The 1706 private universities and colleges, which have a total of 2.22m
students, are generally much smaller, are governed under the Corporation
Code and can be non-profit religious institutions or for-profit secular colleges.
The greatest density of higher education institutions is in the south of the
largest island of Luzon, including Manila. In 2015/16, 26% of students (1.07m)
were enrolled in business-related courses, followed by 19% (791,000)
studying education and teaching, and 13% (517,000) on courses in
engineering and technology.
 Quality of Instruction
Despite the size of the higher education sector, the quality of

instruction remains low, according to the Asian Development Bank (ADB). In
professional board examinations, for instance, median pass rates between
2005 and 2015 ranged from 34% to 43%. The ADB also noted a “worrisome
preponderance” within both the state and private sector of institutions with a
pass rate of zero, “indicative of a large number of low-quality higher education
institutions.”
“CHED has instituted a vertical horizontal typology approach to assess

the quality of higher educational institutions,” Caroline Marian Enriquez,
president of Our Lady of Fatima
University, told OBG. “However,
given that the current university
landscape is composed of over
2000 institutions of very uneven
quality, some of the standards may
be too stringent or not applicable to
the core competencies of certain
institutions.”
The government has been

trying to rationalise the state sector
by putting a halt to the
establishment of new course
programmes by state universities and local colleges that do not meet the
standards set by CHED, by encouraging rationalisation and hopefully
reducing course duplication. It is also trying to raise standards through the

introduction of quality institutional sustainability assessment.
“For the government to truly improve the quality assurance system of

education, it should provide strong data on the performance of schools. Once
analysis is provided on the 10 best- or worst-performing schools, the market
will be able to decide based on this information,” Chito Salazar, president and
CEO of Phinma Education, told OBG PHILIPPINE QUALIFICATIONS
FRAMEWORK: In addition, the government has enhanced the Philippine
Qualifications Framework (PQF) to put it in line with the ASEAN Qualifications
Reference Framework and ensure academic programmes meet international
standards. “The PQF can significantly reduce jobs-skills mismatch. It can also
boost international confidence among Filipino workers by making them more
competitive and employable,” Senator Joel Villanueva, a former TESDA
director-general, said in August 2016 (see analysis). The government is
committed to creating a system that is more aligned to 21st century needs,
positioning higher education as an accelerator for innovation and inclusive
development. It is encouraging cooperation between academia and industry,
supporting the professional development of teaching and research staff who
want to complete their doctorate, and promoting research cooperation
between institutions and across borders. Already, courses in subjects
including meteorology, business analytics and naval architecture have been
developed with industry, and a degree in health informatics is under
development.
 Research Partnerships
Research and development (R&D) has also been a focus in areas such
as food security, the environment and natural disasters, biodiversity and
health systems in order to support the Duterte administration‟s socio-
economic objectives. As part of the push
for reform, the government is keen to
encourage increased private investment
and internationalisation in higher
education.
Some institutions already partner

with overseas universities on select
courses, while the Philippine-California
Advanced Research Institute (PCARI)
was initiated in 2013 by the scientific
community and academics to boost the
country‟s research capacity by supporting post-doctoral scholars and R&D
proposals with the potential to address the Philippines‟ developmental issues.
The PCARI‟s R&D projects involve 15 private institutions working with

partners at the University of California, and include work on traffic
management in urban areas, the development of affordable solar energy
systems for remote areas, and improving local capacity to design and develop
medical devices.
 Outlook
The Philippines has embarked on education reforms that it considers

crucial to its economic development, bringing its school system into line with
international standards and seeking to open up its higher education sector to
more people, while supporting R&D that will raise its academic profile and
bring lasting benefits to the country.
The government had to overcome substantial opposition to introduce

K-12, a sign of its determination to bring lasting change, but sustained funding
to support the increased demand on resources will be crucial if these bold
reforms are to be a success.
You’ve been reading the whole while. It’s about time for
your own self. Be pampered with a cup of coffee – to relax
your mind, uplift your spirit, and refuel your heart as you
take the assessment.
Assessment
Kindly answer the items below.
1. Review how the functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist

perspectives understand and explain education. Which of these three
(3) approaches do you prefer? Why?
2. How can teachers meet the diverse needs of an increasingly
multicultural student population?
3. Discuss the role of multicultural education in the transformation of
society?
4. Explain the cultural change and its effect on the life of the people.
5. Differentiate consensus theory from conflict theory.
6. Discuss the influence of the social institutions (family, education,
religion, economic institutions, and government) to the individual.
7. Discuss the influence of the social institutions (family, education,
religion, economic institutions, and government) to your life.
8. What can you say about the Philippine Educational System? Discuss.
9. How does the society view teacher/education?
10. What help can you offer to the betterment of the society?
11. Explain:
11.1 The mediocre teacher tells, the good teacher explains, the
superior teacher demonstrates, and the excellent teacher
inspires.
11.2 A teacher affects eternity, he/she can never tell where his/her
influence stops.
12. Describe your family and community.
13. Your comments about our government.
SUGGESTED READINGS
De Asis, L.A. Democratization of Education. Modules in Education 331

(Foundation of Education). University of Eastern Philippines,
Catarman, Northern Samar
Lim, L.S. The Teaching Profession
Men in the Modern Education Periods (online source)
Musgrave, P.W. The Relationship between School and The Community.
Community Development Journal
REFERENCES:
Bilbao, Purita, et.al (2018). The Teaching Profession. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.,
Quezon City, Philippines.
De Asis, L.A. Module in Foundations of Education. University of Eastern\

Philippines, Catarman, Northern Samar.
Lim, L.S., Caubic, RA., & Casihan (2014). The Teaching Profession. Adriane
Publishing Co., Inc., Quezon City, Philippines.
Owlgen. What is the relationship between education and society?

https://www.owlgen.in_what_is_threlationship_between_education_and
_society?
Oxford Business Group. Education reform in the Philippines aims for better
quality and more access
https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/overview/thorough-examination-
substantial-reform-has-brought-it-variety-challenges
Panopio, I. Society and Culture – Introduction to Sociology.
Panopio, et al. Focus on the Philippines.
Salandaan, G.C. Elements of Teaching.
San Juan, W.R., Centeno. M.L.J, Tenoso, M. Q., and Anterola, M.G. (2007)
Sociology, Culture and Family Planning (A Conceptual, Expeirental and
Interactive Approach). Pasig City: Unlad Publishing House, Philippines.
Sociological Perspectives on Education. Social Problems, Continuity, and

Changes.
https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_social-problems-continuity-and-
change/s14-02-sociological-perspectives-on-e.html
Vega, V.A. & Prieto (2009). Social Dimensions of Education. Lorimar

Publishing, Inc., Quezon City, Philippines

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The Teacher and the Community, School Culture, and Organizational Leadership 47

Republic of the Philippines

THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY,

LEAH A. DE ASIS, EdD

All photos are from www.google.com/search

2.1 Social Dimensions of

Module 2 discusses sociological perspectives – social dimensions of

Views of the sociologists regarding education are herein tackled.

LEAH A. DE ASIS, EdD

Society influences political conditions. The one who is a political leader

responsibility, accountability, unity, and integration of human being with

And those ideals he/she governs particular area or state and as we

To understand a theoretical orientation in any profession it is critical to

Approach Description Sociological

It approaches society from a

of unequal distribution of desired  Ralf Dahrendorf

2.1 SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

2.1.1 Consensus and Conflict Theory

In order for us to understand why sociological theories could be

Consensus theorists examine value integration in society, and conflict

Consensus is a concept of society in which the absence of conflict is

The conflict theory, according to Horton and Hunt (1984) focuses on

Conflict theorists ask how schools contribute to be unequal distribution

The conflict perspective assumes that social behavior is best

Social structures produce

Reorganization and Change

Figure 1. The Conflict Model

The discourse of conflict theory is on the emergence of conflict and what

The conflict theorist are interested in how society‟s institutions the

Consensus theory, on the other hand, is a sociological perspective or

The consensus and conflict sociological theories are reflected in the

2.1.2 Structural Functionalism

Structural functionalism, especially in the work KEYWORDS

 Adaptation. A system must cope with external situational

 Good Attainment. A system must define and achieve its primary

 Integration. A system must regulate the interrelationship of its

 Latency (pattern maintenance). A system must furnish, maintain,

Parsons designed the AGIL scheme to be used at all levels in this

Cultural System Social System

Action System Personality system

Figure 2. Structure of the General Action System

1. Systems have the property of order and interdependence of parts.

In his analysis of the social system, Parsons was primarily interested in

Functional Requisites of a Social System

The functionalist perspective is primarily concerned with why a society

In any society, however, the functionalist perspective makes one basic

 Functions of Social Structure and Culture. Closely related to

 Consensus and cooperation. Another key principle in functionalist

 Equilibrium. A final principle of functionalist theories is that of

Figure 3. The Structural-Functional Model

The structural functional model addresses the question of social

The component parts of a social structure are families, neighbors,

Functionalist sociologists begin with a picture of society that stresses

Modern functionalist theories of education have their origin in the work

In addition to its role in a meritocratic society, education plays a

technocratic society. In political democracy, schools provide citizens with the

In an ever increasingly technical society, Schools provide students with

2.1.3 Interactionist Theories

In general, interactionist theories about the relation of school and

Interactionist theories attempt to make the “commonplace strange” by

Interactionist theory has its origin in the social psychology of early

The basic idea is a result of interaction between individuals mediated

Symbolic interactionists are, of course interested not simply in