Introduction to

Earthquake
Engineering
Instructor:
ENGR. KELVIN ROSS A. HOLGADO, GMICE, BSc, M.PICE
 OUTLINE
01 EARTHQUAKE
General Introduction about
Earthquake

02 TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE
Tectonic, Volcanic, Induced, &
Collapse

03 DAMAGING EFFECTS OF
EARTHQUAKE
Ground Failure, Indirect Effects,
Ground Shaking

04 DEVELOPMENT OF MITIGATION STRATEGIES FOR THE EFFECTS OF

EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
Earthquake
• An earthquake is manifested as ground shaking,
caused by the sudden release of energy in the
Earth’s crust.
• It is a weak to violent shaking of the ground
produced by the sudden movement of rock
materials below the earth’s surface.

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Types of Earthquake
TECTONIC, VOLCANIC, INDUCED, & COLLAPSE

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Types of Earthquake
VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKE

• Tectonic earthquakes are produced by sudden

movement along faults and plate boundaries. • Earthquakes induced by rising lava or magma
beneath active volcanoes is called volcanic
earthquakes.
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE

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Types of Earthquake
COLLAPSE EARTHQUAKE

• Collapse quakes can be triggered by such

phenomena as cave-ins, mostly in karst areas
or close to mining facilities, as a result of
subsidence.

INDUCED EARTHQUAKE

• Induced quakes are caused by human activity,

like tunnel construction, filling & collecting
reservoirs, implementing geothermal
projects, & man-made explosions.

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TECTONIC EARHQUAKE JULY 2022, M7.0 ABRA EARTHQUAKE

• The Philippine Institute of

Volcanology and
Seismology (PHIVOLCS)
has recorded 3,097
aftershocks, within 11
days after the M7.0
earthquake.

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VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKE TAAL VOLCANO ERUPTION (JANUARY 12, 2020 )

• More than 550 volcanic

earthquakes—172 of
which were felt by locals
according to PHIVOLCS—
have tremored the area
around Taal between the
beginning of the eruption
on Jan. 12 afternoon and
morning of Jan. 16.

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COLLAPSE EARTHQUAKE CRANDALL CANYON COAL MINE COLLAPSE

• The Utah mine collapse

triggered the seismic activity
that killed and injured
rescuers rather than a
natural earthquake. The
graphic depicts the seismic
events within 1.9 miles of
the main collapse, depicted
by a star, and those before,
yellow, and after, red, it.
Temporary seismic stations
indicated with blue triangles.

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INDUCED EARTHQUAKE M7.9 Earthquake, Sichuan, China (2008)

• In 2008, an estimated
80,000 people died or
went missing following a
7.9 earthquake in China's
Sichuan province.
Scientists believe it was
triggered by the weight of
320 million tons of water
that had been collected in
the Zipingpu Reservoir—
over a well-known fault
line. (National Geographic)

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The city of Rikuzentakata, Iwate Prefecture, is flooded after an earthquake-triggered tsunami swept away the area on March 11, 2011, in
this supplied photo. The meteorological agency's initial warning was criticized after the disaster for underestimating the size of the
tsunami. (https://www.japantimes.co.jp/) 11
 Ground Failure

Generally, damaging effects can be divided into three

categories:
Indirect Effects
1. Ground failure can be further subdivided into surface
rupture, ground subsidence, ground cracking, soil
liquefaction, and landslides.
2. Indirect effects include tsunamis (tidal waves in the oceans),
seiches (tidal waves in an enclosed body of water, such as a
lake), and fires.
3. Ground Shaking
Ground Shaking
 • Ground failures are movement of the
GROUND ground surface at a location where
geological fissures or zones of
FAILURE weakness in the crust of the earth
(faults) slip slowly or suddenly.
 Surface faulting occurs when the relative movement of
rocks on the two sides of a fault takes place deep
Ground Failure within the earth and breaks through to the surface;
this can occur as slow movement in the form of fault
SURFACE RUPTURE creep or suddenly resulting in an earthquake.

It is an offset of the ground surface when fault

rupture extends to the Earth's surface. Any
structure built across the fault is at risk of being
torn apart as the two sides of the fault slip past http://funnel.sfsu.edu/creep/WhatsCreepPage.html

each other.
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 Ground subsidence occurs as loose soils rearrange and settle
into a denser state during vibrations caused by earthquakes.
In some cases, the compaction effect may amount to

Ground Failure substantial settlement of the ground surface. Liquefaction,

which will be discussed later, can also trigger significant
subsidence of unconsolidated sediment.
GROUND SUBSIDENCE
SUBSIDENCE

(Estrada, Lee, 2017, Courtesy of USGS)

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 Ground cracking is usually observed along the edges of
ground subsidence as shown in Figure; it may also be the

Ground Failure result of slope failure or liquefaction, all of which cause the
ground to lose its support and sink, with the ground surface
breaking up into fissures, scarps, horsts, and grabens.
GROUND CRACKING

HORST HORST

GRABEN GRABEN

(Estrada, Lee, 2017, Courtesy of USGS)

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Ground Failure Soil liquefaction occurs when loose, saturated granular soils
temporarily change from a solid to a liquid state, losing their
shear strength, which corresponds to a loss in effective stress
SOIL LIQUEFACTION between soil particles.

Loose saturated (or moderately saturated) sands and

nonplastic silts are most susceptible to this ground
failure; however, in rare cases, gravel and clay can also
experience liquefaction.

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 Sloped land that is
marginally stable under
static conditions is most
susceptible to sliding
during the intense shaking

Ground Failure of strong earthquakes. For

the most severe cases,
debris (soil, boulders, and
LANDSLIDES other mate-rials) flow can
move at avalanche speeds
and can travel long
distances depending on
the slope from which the
landslide was formed.

BEFORE AFTER
One of the worst cases happened
in Peru during the 1970 Ancash (or
Great Peruvian) earthquake
(magnitude 7.9) off the Pacific
Ocean coast, which produced what
is considered the world’s deadliest
earthquake-induced land-slide
(20,000 fatalities).

1970 Great Peruvian earthquake-induced landslide. 18

Indirect Effects
These include some of the most devastating and
frightening impacts of earthquakes, such as tsunamis
and fires.

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Indirect Effects
TSUNAMIS
• Tsunamis are long-period sea waves that
are generated when an earthquake
causes the vertical movement of the
seafloor.
• Tsunamis travel far, at high speeds (over
500 mph) in the open ocean and are
difficult to detect because of their small
crest-to-trough height, and long
wavelengths, which typically, are
hundreds of miles long.
• Unobstructed, these waves can travel
around the world and dissipate all their
energy without causing damage.
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Seiches
• These are long-period oscillating
waves generated by distant
earthquakes in enclosed bodies of
water such as bays, lakes, reservoirs,
and even swimming pools
• Occurs when the natural frequency of
a water body matches the frequency
of the incoming earthquake waves
2015 Nepal Earthquake

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Indirect Effects
FIRES

• Fire is probably the most terrifying

indirect effect of earthquakes,
particularly considering that
people who survived in collapsed
buildings, but were trapped in the
debris, were burnt alive as the fire
consumed everything in its path.
Extent of San Francisco fire following the 1906 Earthquake. (Courtesy of USGS.)

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GROUND SHAKING

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Ground Shaking
• Ground shaking is the result of
rapid ground acceleration. It can
vary over an area as a result of
factors such as topography,
bedrock type and the location
and orientation of the fault
rupture.

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GROUND SHAKING
• Ground displacement is how far the surface moves during the earthquake. It
can cause the ground to change position in both horizontal and vertical
directions and move relative to objects or other areas of land nearby.
• Ground velocity is a measure of how quickly the ground was displaced – the
speed and direction that the ground moved to get from its original location
to its new location. Ground that moves with a higher velocity is also
displaced more quickly.
• Ground acceleration is a measure of how quickly the ground changes
velocity during the earthquake. Ground acceleration is responsible for the
classic earthquake shaking effect where the ground rapidly changes direction
in a violent back and forward and up and down motion.

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The largest recorded earthquake in the world was a
magnitude 9.5 (Mw) in Chile on May 22, 1960. (USGS)

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The world’s deadliest recorded earthquake occurred in 1556 in central China. It
struck a region where most people lived in caves carved from soft rock.

These dwellings collapsed during the earthquake, killing an estimated

830,000 people. In 1976 another deadly earthquake struck in
Tangshan, China, where more than 250,000 people were killed. (USGS)
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Development of Mitigation
Strategies for the Effects of
Earthquake Hazards
Earthquake Engineering

• Earthquake Engineering is an
interdisciplinary branch of
engineering that designs and
analyzes structures, such as
buildings and bridges, with
earthquakes in mind. It is a subset
of Structural Engineering, a
specialization in Civil Engineering.
• The primary goal of an Earthquake
Engineer is to mitigate hazards
resulting from seismic events.

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Mitigating Earthquake Hazards
• It is very challenging to mitigate the effects of tsunamis, landslides,
and fires; however, mitigating the effects of ground shaking on
structural systems using sound engineering judgment has made
great advances in the last century.
• This is known as earthquake-resistant design and has been
successfully applied to reduce human and economic losses.

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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN

The last stage has

implicitly been
Development of In the 1940s, the included in building
construction development of the codes since the
practices to response spectrum 1970s and deals
mitigate the effects theory marked a with performance-
of shaking. major step forward. based design.

First Half of 20th In the 1960s,

century focused on concepts of
characterizing the structural dynamics
effect of shaking were incorporated
using lateral forces. into design practice.

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Development of construction practices to mitigate the effects of shaking.

• From the study of prehistoric

buildings in seismic-prone
regions, it appears that two The Incas in Peru were master builders that created ingenious
approaches to seismic-resistant earthquake-resistant structures.
construction were followed:
increase the strength or
change the stiffness of the
lateral force-resisting systems.

The hilltop city of Machu Picchu has numerous structures

constructed of interlocking, mortar-free stonework with
perfectly mated joints (these are known as dry-stone walls or
ashlar masonry);Clearly, this type of construction was
deliberate in order to prevent sliding of the stone blocks during
earthquakes.
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Effect of Shaking
1755 Lisbon Earthquake (over
50,000 casualties)
•First rational attempts to
understand the effects of
earthquakes on structures
•After this event, the regional
government enacted building
regulations that required
seismic-resistant detailing to be
followed in the reconstruction of
the city.
1783 earthquake in the Calabria
region of southern Italy
(50,000 casualties)
• Scientists thoroughly
documented the effects of this
Earthquake.
1881 Nobi, Japan earthquake
(7000 casualties)
• The Japanese government
formed the first-ever earthquake
investigation committee, and
directed the committee
members to research
earthquake-resistant structural
design.
• It is believed that this
committee conceived the idea of
characterizing the effects of
earthquakes on structures by
applying a lateral force equal to
a fraction of the total weight of
the building, which is based on
Newton’s second law
Notable Earthquake events that led to the development of Design Codes and Laws related to Earthquake.
1906 San Francisco, CA
Earthquake
•The first attempt to characterize
seismic effects on buildings in
America
California (Long Beach
Earthquake in 1933)
•Their proposed regulations
required that public-school
buildings be designed to resist a
lateral force equal to a fraction
of the dead load and a portion of
the design live load, entailing 0.1
for masonry buildings without
frames and 0.02–0.05 for other
types of buildings.
•This appears to be the first
explicit design specification
incorporating the importance of
construction regarding the type
of lateral force-resisting system.
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Step forward to Response Spectrum Theory
• In 1948, a joint committee of the Structural
Engineers Association of Northern California
and the San Francisco Section of ASCE
proposed model lateral-force provisions for
California building codes.
• A major advance was the introduction of
the earthquake-response spectrum
concept, which was first developed by Biot
in 1943 and later proposed as a design tool
by Housner.
• This theory combines ground motion and
the dynamic properties of the structure
(namely the period). This led to the building
period becoming an explicit factor in the
determination of seismic design forces.

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 • Structural dynamic concepts
Structural Dynamics were further developed in the
1960s and incorporated in
seismic codes after the 1971
San Fernando earthquake.
• In particular, structural dynamic
specifications explicitly
incorporating the response
spectrum theory were required
for the design of hospitals and
other critical facilities.
• Significant advances have been
made in the development of
analytical procedures; much of
this has been in parallel with
the development of computers
Structural Dynamic Analysis from a modern day Software. because solutions based on
structural dynamics are
computationally intensive.
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Structural Dynamics
• Dynamic forces are only equivalent to code-specified lateral forces in that a
structure designed to resist these forces has the capability of deforming
without overstressing from load reversals, and provide adequate member
ductility, as well as provide connections with sufficient strength and resiliency
to accomplish the following performance goals:

• Resist minor earthquakes without damage.

• Resist moderate earthquakes without structural damage, but with some nonstructural
damage.
• Resist major earthquakes without collapse, but with both structural and nonstructural
damage.

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Performance Based Design
• The performance goals have generally remained unchanged since the 1970s,
but have taken on a broader approach of design, that allows the client or
Structural designer to decide the Desired Level of Performance. This new
philosophy is known as performance-based design.

OPERATIONAL Immediate LIFE COLLAPSE

Occupancy SAFETY Prevention
Theconstructor.org

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END
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• Introduction to Earthquake Engineering, Estrada & Lee, 2017

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