Journal of Computational Science 76 (2024) 102234

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Journal of Computational Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jocs

A product integration method for numerical solutions of 𝜑−fractional

differential equations
Maria Amjad ∗, Mujeeb ur Rehman
Department of Mathematics, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: We introduce a numerical method for approximating the solutions of 𝜑−fractional differential equations. The
Generalized fractional calculus method employs a generalization of the Lagrange polynomial to approximate the unknown function in the
Quadrature methods differential equations and a product integration strategy to approximate 𝜑−fractional integrals. The product
Product integration
integration formula developed for 𝜑−fractional integrals yields two numerical schemes for solving 𝜑−fractional
Numerical methods for generalized fractional
differential equations. We also provide an error estimate for the product integration method for fractional
calculus
integrals. To validate the applicability and effectiveness of the presented numerical schemes, we provide several
numerical examples.

1. Introduction of applications in many areas of engineering and science, especially

The fractional calculus, well-known as non-integer calculus, finds
its essence in late seventeenth century, particularly when Newton and
Leibniz formed the basics of ordinary calculus. Leibniz introduced the
𝑑𝑛
notation 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝛷(𝑥), to indicate 𝑛th derivative of 𝛷, upon which l’Hospital
asked about the established notation when 𝑛 is an integer, specifically
𝑛 = 12 . This assertion is considered as the infrastructure of fractional
calculus [1]. Despite the fact that the contributions at that moment
were not formal, however fractional calculus was later established
formally by many other mathematicians including Bernhard Riemann,
Niels Henrik Abel, Pierre-Simon Laplace, and others.
Fractional Calculus is basically a sophisticated tool for mathemati-
cians who have developed various approaches to extend the notions of
ordinary integer calculus to non-integer calculus. Many mathematicians
formulated their own concepts of fractional integrals and derivatives.
Amongst the most recognizable definitions are Grunwald–Letnikov,
Riemann–Liouville, Weyl, and Caputo definitions [2]. Zeng et al. [3]
implemented the Rothe method in conjunction with the surjectivity
of multivalued pseudomonotone operators and the properties of the
Clarke generalized gradient to prove the existence of a solution to
an abstract inequality, with practical applications demonstrated on a
quasistatic fractional viscoelastic contact model for materials exhibiting
viscoelastic behavior. In Ref. [4], the authors introduced a novel class
of fractional differential hemivariational inequalities and applied them
to a coupled system comprising an incompressible Navier–Stokes equa-
tion and a fractional diffusion equation. At present, many researchers
find their interest in non-integer calculus because of its wide range
economics, biology, mechanics, environmental sciences, physics, and
many others [5].
Besides the advancement of non-integer calculus in pure and applied
mathematics, fractional differential equations (FDEs) also attracted the
attentiveness of various analysts of applied mathematics. FDEs are
the special type of integro-differential equations involving fractional
derivative and integral rather than ordinary one. Because of this fact,
working with fractional differential equations is comparatively not easy
as compared to ordinary differential equations. Hence, the formulation
of numerical techniques for approximate solution of FDEs is a key area
of study since an exact solutions of FDEs cannot always be determined.
Numerous and varied methods are available in literature for solv-
ing fractional differential equations either numerically or analytically.
Some of the newly established numerical strategies are mentioned
here. Mourad et al. [6], solved FDEs by controlled Picard’s method via
Simpson’s rule. Diethelm et al. [7] solved FDEs by Adams predictor–
corrector method. In [8], authors solved multi-term time fractional
non-linear Kdv equation numerically. Firdous et al. [9] developed
operational matrix method to solve linear and non-linear fractional
differential equations.
Quadrature methods are also applied to approximate the solu-
tions of FDEs. The basic concept beyond quadrature methods is to
approximate the integrals. The trapezoidal rule, Simpson’s rule, fi-
nite difference method and other numerical techniques are frequently
used to approximate integral’s value. Some of the recently formulated
techniques for approximating fractional integrals (FIs) are listed here.

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mariaabbasi1007@gmail.com (M. Amjad).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocs.2024.102234
Received 7 July 2023; Received in revised form 7 December 2023; Accepted 6 February 2024
Available online 8 February 2024
1877-7503/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Amjad and M. ur Rehman Journal of Computational Science 76 (2024) 102234
( )𝑘
1 𝑑
Mohamed [10] solved ordinary and partial FDEs by fractional differen- where 𝑘,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥) ∶= 𝜑′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝛷(𝑥). It is worth mentioning that the case
tial and integral quadrature method. In [11], non-linear delay integral
𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥 gives 𝜇,𝜑
𝑎 𝛷(𝑥) = 𝜇𝑎 𝛷(𝑥), which is standard RL fractional
equation was solved by using Simpson’s rule. Zhao et al. [12] developed
derivative of order 𝜇.
product integration scheme for the solution of fractional ordinary dif-
ferential equation by using local Fourier expansion. Garrappa et al. [13]
employed product integration method to approximate the solution of Definition 2.2 ([17]). For the positive real number 𝜇, 𝑘 − 1 < 𝜇 ≤ 𝑘,
linear FDEs. In [14], fractional Volterra integral equation was solved and 𝛷, 𝜑 ∈ 𝐶 𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝜑′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], we define
by both product integration and Haar wavelet method. Cameron and 𝜑−Caputo fractional derivative of order 𝜇 > 0 as
Mckee [15] verified the convergence of product integration method for ∗
𝜇,𝜑 𝑘−𝜇,𝜑 𝑘,𝜑
𝑎 𝛷(𝑥) ∶= 𝑎  𝛷(𝑥),
Abel’s equation. Rehman et al. [16] solved FDEs by quadrature method.
Aneela and Rehman [17], developed a numerical technique based on where  𝑘−𝜇,𝜑 is the 𝜑−RL fractional integral of order 𝑘 − 𝜇. Again, it
quadrature rule to approximate the solution of 𝜓−FDEs. must be noted that the case 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥 gives ∗ 𝜇,𝜑 ∗ 𝜇
𝑎 𝛷(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝛷(𝑥), which
Inspiration for this research is accumulated from the work cited is the Caputo fractional derivative of order 𝜇.
above. Here, we present a numerical method based on Newton–Cotes
In present work, we will be referring to several crucial lemmas that
quadrature rule, namely product integration method to solve FDEs in-
play a significant role in our methodology. These lemmas highlight
volving fractional derivatives with respect to a function 𝜑, particularly
known as 𝜑−fractional differential equations. The 𝜑-Caputo derivative certain structural properties such as the semi-group property, the com-
has proven to be effective in modeling certain real-world phenomena. position property of 𝜑−RL fractional integral and 𝜑−Caputo fractional
Almeida et al. [18] explored fractional relaxation-oscillation equations derivative.
that incorporated the 𝜑-Caputo fractional derivative. Almeida [19]
applied the 𝜑-Caputo derivative to model exponential growth and Lemma 2.3 ([20]). Suppose 𝜇, 𝜈 > 0, and 𝛷, 𝜑 ∈ 𝐿1 [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then, we have
decay. Almeida’s work emphasized the significance of selecting the ap- 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝑎𝜈,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥) = 𝑎𝜇+𝜈,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥).
propriate 𝜑-fractional derivative, demonstrating its impact on method
accuracy through careful analysis of empirical data. The basic idea Lemma 2.4 ([20]). For 𝑘 = ⌈𝜇⌉ and 𝛷, 𝜑 ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏], we have
∗ 𝜇,𝜑  𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥) = 𝛷(𝑥).
is to estimate the unknown solution by linear interpolation first, that 𝑎 𝑎
is accompanied by exact integration. The presented methodology is
applicable to particular classes of 𝜑−fractional differential equations. Lemma 2.5 ([20]). Assume that 𝑘 = ⌈𝜇⌉ and 𝛷, 𝜑 ∈ 𝐶 𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then, we
In this work, two distinct classes of 𝜑−FDEs are solved by two slightly have
different schemes. These schemes are developed for initial value prob- ∑
𝑛−1
𝑘,𝜑 𝛷(𝑎)
lems containing 𝜑−FDEs with one derivative term having constant 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 ∗ 𝜇,𝜑
𝑎 𝛷(𝑥) = 𝛷(𝑥) − (𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑎))𝑘 .
𝑘=0
𝑘!
coefficients as well as multi-term 𝜑−FDE having variable coefficients.
MATLAB programs have been developed and utilized to solve certain
classes of 𝜑−FDEs using the proposed numerical methods. Lemma 2.6 ([20]). Let 𝜇 > 0 and 𝜈 > −1. Then 𝜑−Riemann–Liouville
The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 provides important fractional integral for the power function 𝛷(𝑥) = (𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑎))𝜈 is defined
(𝜈+1)
and fundamental findings from fractional calculus that will be used as 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥) = 𝛤𝛤(𝜈+𝜇+1) (𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑎))𝜈+𝜇 .
throughout the paper. Section 3 derives a formula for approximating
𝜑−FIs using product integration, which is illustrated with an example Definition 2.7. For 𝜇1 , 𝜇2 > 0 and 𝑥 ∈ R, the Mittag-Leffler function
in the same section. Upper bounds of error in numerical integration are ∑ 𝑥𝑘
(MLF) 𝐸𝜇1 ,𝜇2 is defined as 𝐸𝜇1 ,𝜇2 (𝑥) ∶= ∞𝑘=0 𝛤 (𝜇 𝑘+𝜇 ) .
estimated in Section 4. Section 5 is divided into two subsections, each 1 2

presenting a technique to solve a particular type of 𝜑−FDE. Section 5.1
proposes a numerical technique for solving multi-term 𝜑−FDEs with
variable coefficients, while Section 5.2 outlines a numerical technique
for approximating 𝜑−FDEs involving only one derivative term with
constant coefficients. The efficacy of these techniques is tested with
several examples, accompanied by tables and graphs, in Section 6.
Finally, concluding remarks are provided in Section 7.
Next, we present the generalized interpolation error, which is es-
sential in evaluating the error analysis of the proposed numerical
technique for computing the fractional integration of a function.
Lemma 2.8. Consider 𝛷 ∈ 𝐶 𝑛+1 [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑛 are distinct points
in the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑎 = 𝑥0 < 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 < ⋯ < 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏. Then
for each 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], there exist a number 𝜁 in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that

𝑛+1,𝜑 𝛷(𝜁) ∏
𝑛
2. Preliminaries 𝑒(𝑥) = 𝛷(𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛𝜑 (𝑥) = (𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 )),
(𝑛 + 1)! 𝑖=0
The subsequent section presents some fundamental and elemen-
where 𝑃𝑛𝜑 (𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 𝑛 in 𝜑(𝑥) that interpolates the
tary concepts of fractional calculus, which are prerequisite for the
function 𝛷 at points 𝑥0 < 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 < ⋯ < 𝑥𝑛 .
subsequent material.
The above Lemma is a generalization of the classical theorem for
Definition 2.1 ([17]). For the positive real number 𝜇, assume that interpolation error [21].
𝛷 is an integrable function on 𝐼 = [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝛷 ∶ [𝑎, 𝑏] → R
and 𝜑 ∈ 𝐶 1 [𝑎, 𝑏] is an increasing function such that 𝜑′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 for all 3. Numerical integration for fractional integrals with respect to a
𝑥 ∈ 𝐼, then 𝜑−Riemann–Liouville (RL) fractional integral of 𝛷 (or RL function
fractional integral of 𝛷 with respect to function 𝜑) of order 𝜇 > 0 is
defined by The product integration is utilized to estimate a particular type of
𝑥 𝑏
1 integral, ∫𝑎 𝛷(𝜏)𝑔(𝜏)𝑑𝜏, where 𝛷(𝜏) is a continuous function that may
𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥) ∶= (𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝛷(𝜏)𝑑𝜏.
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫𝑎 be smooth or absolutely integrable on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏], and 𝑔 may
Moreover, for 𝜇 ∈ R+ and 𝑘 = ⌈𝜇⌉, we define 𝜑−RL fractional exhibit singularities or experience rapid growth over the same interval.
( )𝜇−1 ′
derivative of order 𝜇 > 0 as If 0 < 𝜇 < 1, the singularity of the kernel function 𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝜏) 𝜑 (𝜏)
( )𝑘 occurs at 𝑥 = 𝜏 in the definition of the 𝜑−fractional integral. Therefore,
1 𝑑 it is worthwhile to develop an integration formulae in relation to the
𝜇,𝜑
𝑎 𝛷(𝑥) ∶= 𝑎𝑘−𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥),
𝜑′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 kernel function for approximating 𝜑−fractional integrals.

2
M. Amjad and M. ur Rehman Journal of Computational Science 76 (2024) 102234

Fig. 1. Examining exact and numerical values for different 𝜇 at 𝑚 = 50.

The function 𝛷(𝑥) in Definition 2.1 for 𝜑−fractional integral 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 , After some obvious simplifications, we get
is interpolated by polynomial 𝑛𝜑 (𝑥). The Lagrange interpolating poly- 𝑘−1 [
1 ∑ 1
nomial with respect to a function is 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥𝑘 ) = 𝛷(𝑥𝑖 )(𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 )
𝛤 (𝜇) 𝑖=0 (𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ))
∑
𝑛
𝑥𝑖+1
𝑛𝜑 (𝑥) = 𝜑𝑛,𝑘 (𝑥)𝛷(𝑥𝑘 ), (3.1) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑘 )) (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1
𝑘=0 ∫𝑥𝑖
∏ 𝜑(𝑥)−𝜑(𝑥 )
𝑥𝑖+1
where 𝜑𝑛,𝑘 (𝑥) ∶= 𝑛𝑠=0,𝑠≠𝑘 𝜑(𝑥 )−𝜑(𝑥𝑠 ) . For 𝑛 = 1, the product Newton– × 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝛷(𝑥𝑖 ) (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝑘 𝑠 ∫𝑥𝑖
Cotes quadrature rule with respect to a function follows as
𝑥𝑖+1
𝑥 [ ] − 𝛷(𝑥𝑖+1 ) (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇
1 ∫𝑥𝑖
𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥) = (𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1 𝜑′ (𝜏) 𝜑1,0 (𝜏)𝛷(𝑎) + 𝜑1,1 (𝜏)𝛷(𝑥) 𝑑𝜏.
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫𝑎 × 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝛷(𝑥𝑖+1 )(𝜑(𝑥𝑘 )
(3.2) 𝑥𝑖+1 ]
− 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 )) (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑑𝜏 .
∫𝑥𝑖
It is worthy of note that we have subdivided the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] into
equally sized 𝑚 sub-intervals, having quadrature nodes given as 𝑎 = The formula for approximating fractional integral with respect to a
𝑥0 < 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 < ⋯ < 𝑥𝑚 = 𝑏 with ℎ = (𝑏 − 𝑎)∕𝑚, where 𝑚 ∈ N. For 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , function 𝜑 by product integration in simplified form is given as
Eq. (3.2) gives us 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥0 ) = 0. Since for the case 𝑥 = 𝑥1 , the only [ 𝛬𝜇+1,𝜑 − 𝛬𝜇+1,𝜑
∑
𝑘−1
𝑘,𝑖+1 𝑘,𝑖 { }
discretization nodes are 𝑥0 and 𝑥1 respectively, hence from Eq. (3.2), 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥𝑘 ) = 𝛷(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝛷(𝑥𝑖+1 )
(𝜑(𝑥 𝑖+1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥 𝑖 ))
we get 𝑖=0
] (3.5)
[ [ ]
1
𝑥1
× 𝛬𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝛬𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥𝑖+1 ) ,
𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥1 ) = 𝛷(𝑥0 ) (𝜑(𝑥1 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇 𝑘,𝑖 𝑘,𝑖+1
𝛤 (𝜇)(𝜑(𝑥1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥0 )) ∫𝑥0
(𝜑(𝑥 )−𝜑(𝑥 ))𝜇
× 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑑𝜏 − 𝛷(𝑥1 ) where 𝛬𝜇,𝜑
𝑘,𝑖
∶= 𝑘
𝛤 (𝜇+1)
𝑖
. Note that, for 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝜇 = 1, Eq. (3.5)
𝑥1 ] reduces to composite trapezoidal rule given as
× (𝜑(𝑥1 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1 (𝜑(𝑥0 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑑𝜏 . [ ]
∫𝑥0 𝑥𝑚
𝑏−𝑎 ∑
𝑚−1
𝛷(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝛷(𝑥0 ) + 2 𝛷(𝑥𝑘 ) + 𝛷(𝑥𝑚 ) .
After some mathematical manipulations, we have ∫𝑥0 2 𝑘=1
[ ]
(𝜑(𝑥1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥0 ))𝜇 Now in order to demonstrate the effectiveness of 𝜑−fractional prod-
𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥1 ) = 𝜇𝛷(𝑥0 ) + 𝛷(𝑥1 ) , (3.3) uct integration, we provide an example.
𝛤 (𝜇 + 2)
which is the trapezoidal rule for 𝜑−fractional integration on the inter-
Example 3.1. For 𝑥 ∈ [0, 1], we evaluate the 𝜑−fractional integral
val [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ]. It is to be noted that for 𝜇 = 1 and 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥, formula in
𝐼𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥), where 𝛷(𝑥) = (cos(𝜔𝜑(𝑥))), 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥2 , and 𝜔 ∈ R.
(3.3) reduces to the classical trapezoidal rule. Generally, for 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑘 , in By expanding 𝛷(𝑥) in term of MLF and using Lemma 2.6, we get the
Definition 2.1, 𝜑−RL fractional integral becomes exact value of integral as 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥) = (𝜑(𝑥))𝜇 𝐸2,1+𝜇 (−𝜔2 (𝜑(𝑥))2 ), where
𝐸2,1+𝜇 is the Mittag-Leffler function. We evaluate 𝜑−fractional integral
1 ∑
𝑘−1 𝑥𝑖+1
𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥𝑘 ) = (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝛷(𝜏)𝑑𝜏, of 𝛷(𝑥) numerically by product integration rule (3.5). Table 1 presents
𝛤 (𝜇) 𝑖=0 ∫𝑥𝑖
maximum error for distinct choices of 𝜇 and 𝑚.
where 𝑘 = 2, 3, 4, … , 𝑚. The polynomial 𝑛𝜑 (𝑥) given in Eq. (3.1) is We see that maximum error for distinct values of 𝜇 goes on de-
then used to interpolate 𝛷(𝑥) at the remaining nodes 𝑥𝑘 ’s. Hence, the creasing as we decrease the interval size by increasing 𝑚. Firstly, error
decreases greatly for small 𝑚, then it decreases slowly for large 𝑚. The
Newton–Cotes quadrature rule with respect to a function 𝜑 will take
solution is computed by creating MATLAB programs for the numerical
the form as given in Eq. (3.4).
method given in Eq. (3.5). The comparison between the exact and
1
𝑥𝑘 [ numerical values for 𝜇 = 0.28, 𝜇 = 0.49, 𝜇 = 0.81, 𝜇 = 1, 𝜔 = 3, and
𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥𝑘 ) = (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1 𝜑′ (𝜏) 𝜑1,0 (𝜏)𝛷(𝑥𝑖 )
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫𝑎 (3.4) 𝑚 = 50 is depicted in Fig. 1(a). In this figure, the solid lines represent
]
+ 𝜑1,1 (𝜏)𝛷(𝑥𝑖 + 1) 𝑑𝜏. the exact solution, while the numerical solutions are represented by

3
M. Amjad and M. ur Rehman Journal of Computational Science 76 (2024) 102234

Fig. 2. Exact and approximate values for different 𝜇 at 𝑚 = 100.

Table 1 where 𝐸 ∶= 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝑒(𝑏). As can be seen (𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑎))(𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑏)) ≤ 0, for
Maximum error for distinct choices of 𝜇 and 𝑚.
all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]. This implies
𝜇 𝑚 = 50 𝑚 = 100 𝑚 = 200 𝑚 = 400
2,𝜑 𝛷(𝜁) 𝑏
0.28 8.0219e−05 2.0802e−05 5.3586e−06 1.3724e−06 𝐸= (𝜑(𝑏) − 𝜑(𝑥))𝜇−1 (𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑎))(𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑏))𝜑′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥, (4.3)
0.49 9.5723e−05 2.4195e−05 6.0987e−06 1.5337e−06 2𝛤 (𝜇) ∫𝑎
0.81 1.0471e−04 2.6200e−05 6.5520e−06 1.6383e−06 ( )( )
1.00 1.0937e−04 2.7361e−05 6.8400e−06 1.7100e−06 where 𝜁 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏). Expanding the integrand 𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑎) 𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑏) in
( )
1.28 1.1808e−04 2.9541e−05 7.3863e−06 1.8467e−06 (4.3) in powers of 𝜑(𝑏) − 𝜑(𝑥) and evaluating the resulting integral,
1.49 1.2637e−04 3.1615e−05 7.9056e−06 1.9765e−06 we obtain
1.81 1.3466e−04 3.3674e−05 8.4190e−06 2.1048e−06
2.00 1.3396e−04 3.3496e−05 8.3743e−06 2.0936e−06 𝑏
−(𝜑(𝑏) − 𝜑(𝑎))𝜇+2
(𝜑(𝑏)−𝜑(𝑥))𝜇−1 (𝜑(𝑥)−𝜑(𝑎))(𝜑(𝑥)−𝜑(𝑏))𝜑′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = .
∫𝑎 (𝜇 + 1)(𝜇 + 2)
(4.4)
dotted lines. Fig. 1(b) illustrates the maximum absolute error obtained
by the proposed method for 𝜇 = 0.28, 𝜇 = 0.49, 𝜇 = 0.81, 𝜇 = 1, 𝜔 = 1, By substituting (4.4) into Eq. (4.3), we obtain the desired outcome,
and 𝑚 = 50. Similarly Fig. 2(a) shows the correspondence between thereby completing the proof of the theorem. □
exact and approximate solutions for distinct values of 𝜇 at 𝑚 = 100.
It is to be noted that for 𝜇 = 1 and 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥, (4.1) yields error for
In particular, Fig. 2(a) displays the result for 𝜔 = 6. While Fig. 2(b)
classical trapezoidal rule given as
presents absolute error for 𝜔 = 5 and 𝑚 = 100.
2 𝛷(𝜁)
𝐸=− (𝑏 − 𝑎)3 .
12
4. Error analysis
In Theorem 4.2, we present an evaluation of error analogous with
product integration for fractional integration with respect to a function
This section focuses on the error analysis of the proposed numer- 𝜑 with the assumption that the function 𝛷(𝑥) is sufficiently smooth.
ical method for computing 𝜑−fractional integrals by integrating the
Lagrange polynomial with respect to a function 𝜑 for 𝛷(𝑥), instead of Theorem 4.2. If 𝜑 is an increasing function and 𝛷 ∈ 𝐶 2 [𝑎, 𝑏], then the
𝛷(𝑥) itself. To this end, we introduce the following results. error associated with the product integration of 𝜑−fractional integral at the
𝑘th node of the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is given by
Lemma 4.1. If 𝛷 ∈ 𝐶 2 [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝜑 is an increasing function such that (
1 ( ) ∑(
𝑘−2
𝜑′ (𝑥) ≠ 0, then the error associated with trapezoidal rule for 𝜑−fractional 𝐸𝑘 = 2𝛬𝜇+2,𝜑 − 𝜑(𝑥2 ) − 𝜑(𝑥1 ) 𝛬𝜇+1,𝜑 − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖+2 )
2 𝑘,1 𝑘,1
integrals is given by 𝑖=1
)
)
2,𝜑 𝛷(𝜁) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ) 𝛬𝜇+1,𝜑 2,𝜑
𝛷(𝜁),
𝐸=− 𝜇(𝜑(𝑏) − 𝜑(𝑎))𝜇+2 , (4.1) 𝑘,𝑖+1
2𝛤 (𝜇 + 3)
(𝜑(𝑥𝑘 )−𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 ))𝜇+1
where 𝜇 ∈ (1, 2] and 𝜁 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏). where 𝛬𝜇+1,𝜑
𝑘,𝑖+1
∶= 𝛤 (𝜇+2)
, 1 < 𝜇 ≤ 2 and 𝜁 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏].

Proof. Using Lemma 2.8, we obtain Proof. We determine the error for product integration for fractional in-
tegrals with respect to a function 𝜑 given in Eq. (3.5) by the procedure
2,𝜑 𝛷(𝜁) ∏
1
𝑒(𝑥) = 𝛷(𝑥) − 𝑃1𝜑 (𝑥) = (𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 )). (4.2) discussed in Lemma 4.1. Here for the case of composite 𝜑−fractional
2 𝑖=0 product integration we have
Applying 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 on both sides of Eq. (4.2) and estimating it at 𝑥 = 𝑏 we
1 ∑
𝑘−1 𝑥𝑖+1
get 𝐸𝑘 = (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1 𝐷2,𝜑 𝛷(𝜁𝑖 )(𝜑(𝜏) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ))
2𝛤 (𝜇) 𝑖=1 ∫𝑥𝑖
𝑏
1 × (𝜑(𝜏) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 ))𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑑𝜏.
𝐸= 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝜁)(𝜑(𝑏) − 𝜑(𝑥))𝜇−1 (𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑎))(𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑏))𝜑′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥, (4.5)
2𝛤 (𝜇) ∫𝑎

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M. Amjad and M. ur Rehman Journal of Computational Science 76 (2024) 102234

for some 𝜁𝑖 ∈ (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ). Note that, the integrand (𝜑(𝜏) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ))(𝜑(𝜏) − and Asgari [24] developed operational matrix of fractional integra-
𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 )) in (4.5) can be expanded in powers of (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏)) as tion using triangular functions. Diethelm et al. [25] verified the ex-
istence,uniqueness, and stability of the solution of multi-term FDEs.
[
1 ∑ 2,𝜑
𝑘−1 𝑥𝑖+1
Secer [26] used differential transform method for the analytical solu-
𝐸𝑘 =  𝛷(𝜁𝑖 ) (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇+1 + (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1
2𝛤 (𝜇) 𝑖=1 ∫𝑥𝑖 tion of fractional wave and heat equation with variable coefficients.
An effective approach to solve fractional partial differential equation
× (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ))
{ containing variable coefficients by variational iteration method is pre-
× (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 )) − (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇 (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 )) sented in [27]. While Chen et al. [28] used generalized fractional-order
]
} Legendre functions for this purpose. An efficient method to approxi-
+ (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 )) 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑑𝜏.
mate FDEs with variable coefficients by Taylor basis functions is given
(4.6) in [29]. Tamilselvan [30] used second order spline method for nu-
merical solution of Bagley–Torvik equation with variable coefficients.
After some mathematical manipulations, Eq. (4.6) gives us Herrera et al. [31] obtained the solution of Caputo and RL-fractional
differential equation numerically. Wang et al. [32] established the
1∑
𝑘−1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑍 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝜁𝑖 ), (4.7) existence as well as uniqueness of the solution of FDE containing
2 𝑖=1 𝑖
variable coefficients.
[ ( ) ( )( )] Influenced by the work cited above, here we focus on determining
where 𝑍𝑖 ∶= 2 𝛬𝜇+2,𝜑
𝑘,𝑖
− 𝛬𝜇+2,𝜑
𝑘,𝑖+1
− 𝛬𝜇+1,𝜑
𝑘,𝑖
+ 𝛬𝜇+1,𝜑
𝑘,𝑖+1
𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ) ,
the numerical solution of 𝜑−FDEs, which is based on the product
and note that 𝑍𝑖 ≤ 0 for 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑘 − 1. The error term needs to be integration strategy formulated in Section 3. For this purpose, we first
scrutinize more closely. Since the Extreme Value Theorem assurances define a general class of an initial value problem involving a multi-term
that for a function having two continuous derivatives, there always 𝜑−FDE as
exists two constants 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] such that ∑
𝑠
∗ 𝜈 ,𝜑
2,𝜑 2,𝜑 2,𝜑 2,𝜑
𝜇,𝜑
𝑎 𝑢(𝑥) + 𝜆𝑟 (𝑥)∗ 𝑎𝑟 𝑢(𝑥) = 𝛷(𝑥), 𝑚 − 1 < 𝜇 ≤ 𝑚, (5.1)
 𝛷(𝑙1 ) = max  𝛷(𝑥) and  𝛷(𝑙2 ) = min  𝛷(𝑥). 𝑟=0
𝑎≤𝑥≤𝑏 𝑎≤𝑥≤𝑏
subject to the initial condition 𝑠,𝜑 𝑢(𝑎) = 𝑢𝑠 , for 𝑠 = 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑚 − 1,
Consequently, for all 𝑖, we have 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝑙2 ) ≤ 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝜁𝑖 ) ≤ 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝑙1 ). This
𝜆𝑟 ∈ R, 0 = 𝜈0 < 𝜈1 < 𝜈2 < ⋯ < 𝜈𝑠 < 𝜇, and 𝛷(𝑥) is a continuous
implies
function on some closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏].
𝑍𝑖 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝑙1 ) ≤ 𝑍𝑖 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝜁𝑖 ) ≤ 𝑍𝑖 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝑙2 ). (4.8) This section deals with two classes of 𝜑−FDEs, which are estimated
by two slightly distinct product integration schemes. We present each
For 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑘 − 1, adding inequalities in (4.8), we get
scheme individually, starting with the general case and moving forward
∑
𝑘−1 ∑
𝑘−1 ∑
𝑘−1
to the particular one.
𝑍𝑖 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝑙1 ) ≤ 𝑍𝑖 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝜁𝑖 ) ≤ 𝑍𝑖 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝑙2 ).
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
5.1. Scheme 1
This means that

1 ∑
𝑘−1
We use substitution method for converting Eq. (5.1) into an integral
2,𝜑 𝛷(𝑙1 ) ≤ 𝑍 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝜁𝑖 ) ≤ 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝑙2 ), (4.9)
𝑄𝑘 𝑖=1 𝑖 equation.
∑
where 𝑄𝑘 ∶= 𝑘−1 𝑖=1 𝑍𝑖 . By Intermediate Value Theorem, there would
𝑣 ∶= ∗ 𝜇,𝜑
𝑎 𝑢. (5.2)
be 𝜁 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] in such a way that from Eq. (4.9), we get 2,𝜑 𝛷(𝜁) =
1 ∑𝑘−1 2,𝜑 Applying 𝑎𝜇,𝜑
on both sides of 𝜑−FDE in Eq. (5.2) and using
𝑄𝑘 𝑖=1 𝑍𝑖  𝛷(𝜁𝑖 ). This implies that error term for product integra- Lemma 2.5, we get
tion for fractional integrals with respect to a function 𝜑 can be written
as ∑
𝑚−1
𝑗,𝜑 𝑢(𝑎) ( )𝑗
( 𝑢 = 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝑣 + 𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑎) . (5.3)
1 ( ∑(
) 𝜇+1,𝜑 𝑘−2 𝑗=0
𝑗!
𝐸𝑘 = 2𝛬𝜇+2,𝜑
𝑘,1
− 𝜑(𝑥 2 ) − 𝜑(𝑥 1 ) 𝛬𝑘,1 − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖+2 )
2 𝜈 ,𝜑 𝜈 ,𝜑
)
𝑖=1 (4.10) In order to determine the term ∗ 𝑎𝑟 𝑢, we apply ∗ 𝑎𝑟 on both sides
) 𝜇+1,𝜑 2,𝜑 of Eq. (5.3), we have
− 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ) 𝛬𝑘,𝑖+1  𝛷(𝜁).
∗ 𝜈 ,𝜑 𝜇−𝜈𝑟 ,𝜑
𝑎𝑟 𝑢 = 𝑎 𝑣 + ℎ(𝑥, 𝜈), (5.4)
Which completes the proof. □
∑𝑚−1 𝑢𝑗 𝛤 (𝑗+1) ( )𝑗−𝜈𝑟
where ℎ(𝑥, 𝜈) ∶= 𝑗=⌈𝜈𝑟 ⌉ 𝑗! 𝛤 (𝑗−𝜈𝑟 +1) 𝜑(𝑥)−𝜑(𝑎) . Using Eq. (5.3) and
Corollary 4.3. Under the hypothesis of Theorem 4.2, for the case 𝜇 = 1 (5.4) in Eq. (5.1), we get
and 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥, error in composite trapezoidal rule will be
∑
𝑠
𝜇−𝜈𝑟 ,𝜑
𝑣(𝑥) = 𝜆𝑟 (𝑥)𝑎 𝑣 + 𝑔(𝑥, 𝜈), (5.5)
ℎ3 ∑
𝑘−1
(𝑏 − 𝑎)ℎ2
𝐸𝑘 = − 2 𝛷(𝜁𝑖 ) = − 2 𝛷(𝜁), 𝑟=0
12 𝑖=0
12 ∑ (∑𝑚−1 𝑢𝑗 𝛤 (𝑗+1) ( )𝑗−𝜈𝑟 )
where 𝑔(𝑥, 𝜈) ∶= 𝛷(𝑥) + 𝑠𝑟=0 𝜆𝑟 (𝑥) 𝑗=⌈𝜈 𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑎) .
𝑟 ⌉ 𝑗! 𝛤 (𝑗−𝜈𝑟 +1)
where 𝜁 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]. Determining the value of 𝑣 at 𝑥0 we get 𝑣(𝑥0 ) = 𝑔(𝑥0 , 𝜈). Similarly
evaluating 𝑣 at 𝑥 = 𝑥1 and by using the trapezoidal rule for 𝜑−fractional
5. Evolution of numerical scheme
integrals given in Eq. (3.3), we get
∏𝑠 [ 𝑠 ( )𝜇−𝜈𝑟
Numerous methods have been developed to approximate the nu- 𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈𝑟 + 2) ∑ 𝜑(𝑥1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥0 )
𝑣(𝑥1 ) = 𝑟=0 𝜆𝑟 (𝑥1 )
merical solution of fractional differential equations. Some recently 𝐵(𝜇, 𝜈) 𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈𝑟 + 2)
𝑟=0
developed schemes for solving multi-term FDEs include Adam-type ]
( )
predictor–corrector method [22], implicit product integration trape- × 𝜇 − 𝜈𝑟 𝑣(𝑥0 ) + 𝑔(𝑥1 , 𝜈) , (5.6)
zoidal rule [22], and explicit product integration rectangular rule [22]. ( )𝜇−𝜈𝑟
∏𝑠 ∑𝑠
Avci et al. [23] used a numerical technique based on fractional Taylor where 𝐵(𝜇, 𝜈) ∶= 𝑟=0 𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈𝑟 + 2) − 𝑟=0 𝜆𝑟 (𝑥1 ) 𝜑(𝑥1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥0 )
∏𝑠
vector for the approximate solution of multi-term FDE. Maleknejad 𝑟=0,𝑟≠𝑠 𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈𝑟 + 2). Now, at 𝑥𝑘 = 𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)ℎ, for 𝑘 = 2, 3, … , 𝑚,

5
M. Amjad and M. ur Rehman Journal of Computational Science 76 (2024) 102234

Eq. (5.5) gives In general, at 𝑥𝑘 = 𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)ℎ, we obtain the expression of 𝑢 at the

remaining nodes 𝑥𝑘 ’s as
∑
𝑠
𝜆𝑟 (𝑥𝑘 ) ∑
𝑘−1 𝑥𝑖+1
𝑣(𝑥𝑘 ) = (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−𝜈𝑟 −1 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑔(𝑥𝑘 , 𝜈). 𝜆 𝑘 𝑥
𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈𝑟 ) ∫ 𝑥𝑖 𝑢(𝑥𝑘 ) = (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑢(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝜙(𝑥𝑘 ). (5.14)
𝑟=0 𝑖=0
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫𝑥0
Using formula for approximating 𝜑−fractional integral (3.5), and after
Using the Formula for product integration for 𝜑−fractional integrals
some algebraic manipulations, we have
(3.5) in Eq. (5.14), we get
∏𝑠 [
∑
𝑠
𝑟=0 𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈𝑟 + 2) 𝜆𝑟 (𝑥𝑘 ) [ ( )
𝑣(𝑥𝑘 ) = 𝜆 ∑
𝑘−1
(𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 ))𝜇+1 − (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ))𝜇+1
𝐵(𝜇, 𝜈) 𝑟=0
𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈𝑟 + 2) 𝑢(𝑥𝑘 ) =
𝛤 (𝜇 + 2) 𝑖=0 (𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ))
( 𝑉 𝜇−𝜈𝑟 +1,𝜑 − 𝑉 𝜇−𝜈𝑟 +1,𝜑 { }
∑
𝑘−2
𝑘,𝑖+1 𝑘,𝑖
× × 𝑢(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝑢(𝑥𝑖+1 )
𝑖=0
(𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 )) [( )𝜇
) + (𝜇 + 1) 𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ) 𝑢(𝑥𝑖 )
{ } [ 𝜇−𝜈 ,𝜑 𝜇−𝜈 ,𝜑 ] ]
× 𝑣(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝑣(𝑥𝑖+1 ) + 𝑉𝑘,𝑖 𝑟 𝑣(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝑉𝑘,𝑖+1𝑟 𝑣(𝑥𝑖+1 ) (𝜇 − 𝜈𝑟 + 1) ( )𝜇 ]
− 𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 ) 𝑢(𝑥𝑖+1 ) +𝜙(𝑥𝑘 ).
]
∑
𝑠
𝜆𝑟 (𝑥𝑘 ) 𝜇−𝜈 ,𝜑
+ 𝑉𝑘,𝑘−1𝑟 (𝜇 − 𝜈𝑟 )𝑣(𝑥𝑘 − 1) + 𝑔(𝑥𝑘 , 𝜈) , (5.15)
𝑟=0
𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈𝑟 + 2)
By extracting the term 𝑢(𝑥𝑘 ) out of the summation, Eq. (5.15) is then
(5.7)
rewritten as
[ 𝑘−2( ( )
𝜇−𝜈𝑟 ,𝜑
where 𝑉𝑘,𝑖 = (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ))𝜇−𝜈𝑟 . At 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖ℎ, Eq. (5.3) takes the ∑ (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 ))𝜇+1 − (𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ))𝜇+1
𝜆
form 𝑢(𝑥𝑘 ) =
𝑖 𝑥 𝛤 (𝜇 + 2) 𝑖=0 (𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ))
1 { }
𝑢(𝑥𝑖 ) = (𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝜙(𝑥𝑖 ), × 𝑢(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝑢(𝑥𝑖+1 )
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫𝑥0
)
[( )𝜇 ( )𝜇 ]
∑ 𝑗,𝜑 𝑢(𝑎) ( )𝑗
+ (𝜇 + 1) 𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ) 𝑢(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 ) 𝑢(𝑥𝑖+1 )
where 𝜙(𝑥) ∶= 𝑚−1 𝑗=0 𝑗!
𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑎) . Evaluating 𝑢 at 𝑥0 , we get
𝑢(𝑥0 ) = 𝜙(𝑥0 ). Similarly at 𝑥 = 𝑥1 and by using Eq. (3.3), we get the (
+ 𝜑(𝑥𝑘−1 )
expression of 𝑢 as given in Eq. (5.8). ) { } [( )𝜇
− 𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) 𝜇 𝑢(𝑥𝑘−1 ) − 𝑢(𝑥𝑘 ) + 𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑘−1 ) 𝑢(𝑥𝑘−1 )
(𝜑(𝑥1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥0 ))𝜇 ( ) ]
𝑢(𝑥1 ) = 𝜇𝑣(𝑥0 ) + 𝑣(𝑥1 ) + 𝜙(𝑥1 ). (5.8) ]
𝛤 (𝜇 + 2) × (𝜇 + 1) +𝜙(𝑥𝑘 ).
Using Eq. (3.5), the required formula for approximate solution of
multi-term FDE with respect to a function 𝜑 by product integration in Upon further mathematical manipulations, we have
simplified form is [ ( 𝜇+1,𝜑 𝜇+1,𝜑
1 ∑
𝑘−2 𝑉𝑘,𝑖+1 − 𝑉𝑘,𝑖 { }
[ 𝛬𝜇+1,𝜑 − 𝛬𝜇+1,𝜑 𝑢(𝑥𝑘 ) = 𝜆 𝑢(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝑢(𝑥𝑖+1 )
∑
𝑖−1
𝑖,𝑘+1 𝑖,𝑘 { } 𝜇,𝜑
𝜑(𝑥𝑖+1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 )
𝑢(𝑥𝑖 ) = 𝑣(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝑣(𝑥𝑘+1 ) 𝛤 (𝜇 + 2) − 𝜆𝑉𝑘,𝑘−1 𝑖=0
𝜑(𝑥 𝑘+1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥 𝑘 )
𝑘=0
] (5.9) + (𝜇 + 1)
[ ] )
+ 𝛬𝜇,𝜑
𝑖,𝑘
𝑣(𝑥 𝑘 ) − 𝛬 𝜇,𝜑
𝑖,𝑘+1
𝑣(𝑥 𝑘+1 ) +𝜙(𝑥𝑖 ), [( 𝜇,𝜑 ) ( 𝜇,𝜑 ) ] ( 𝜇,𝜑 )
× 𝑉𝑘,𝑖 𝑢(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝑉𝑘,𝑖+1 𝑢(𝑥𝑖+1 ) +𝜇𝜆 𝑉𝑘,𝑘−1 𝑢(𝑥𝑘−1 )
where 𝑖 = 2, 3, 4, … , 𝑚 and 𝑣(𝑥𝑘 )’s is determined from Eqs. (5.6) and ]
(5.7). At 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , we have 𝑢(𝑥0 ) = 𝜙(𝑥0 ) = 𝑢0 , while Eq. (5.8) and (5.9)
+ 𝛤 (𝜇 + 2)𝜙(𝑥𝑘 ) .
present the solution of 𝑢 at 𝑥𝑖 ’s for 𝑖 = 2, 3, 4, … , 𝑚.

5.2. Scheme 2 (5.16)

( 𝜇,𝜑 )𝜇
where 𝑘 = 2, 3, 4, … , 𝑚 and ∶= 𝜑(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ) . The formula in
𝑉𝑘,𝑖
In the instance where Eq. (5.1) contains only one derivative term (5.16) is used to approximate the solution of 𝜑−fractional differential
with a constant coefficient, we offer a simpler approach. Consider the equations by product integration. At 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , we have 𝑢(𝑥0 ) is simply 𝑢0 ,
differential equation of order 𝜇 while the solution at remaining nodes 𝑥𝑘 ’s is obtained from Eqs. (5.13)
∗
𝜇,𝜑 and (5.16).
𝑎 𝑢(𝑥) − 𝜆𝑢(𝑥) = 𝛷(𝑥), 𝑚 − 1 < 𝜇 ≤ 𝑚, (5.10)

subject to 𝑠,𝜑 𝑢(𝑎) = 𝑢𝑠 , for 𝑠 = 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑚 − 1, and 𝜆 is any constant. 6. Numerical illustrations

Applying 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 on both sides of 𝜑−fractional differential Eq. (5.10), we
obtain We present some examples to demonstrate the applicability of the
𝑥
𝜆 presented schemes. It is noteworthy that all the established schemes are
𝑢(𝑥) = (𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑢(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝜙(𝑥), (5.11)
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫𝑎 implemented by developing MATLAB programs.
∑ 𝑢𝑗 ( )𝑗
where 𝜙(𝑥) ∶= 𝑎𝜇,𝜑 𝛷(𝑥) + 𝑚−1 𝑗=0 𝑗! 𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑎) . We discretize the Example 6.1. We consider an initial value problem (5.10) for 𝜑−FDE
interval [𝑎, 𝑏] into equally sized 𝑚 sub-intervals as 𝑎 = 𝑥0 < 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 <
with
⋯ < 𝑥𝑚 = 𝑏 with ℎ = (𝑏 − 𝑎)∕𝑚, where 𝑚 ∈ N. Evaluating 𝑢 at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 ,
we get 𝑢(𝑥0 ) = 𝜙(𝑥0 ) = 𝑢0 . Similarly, evaluating 𝑢 at 𝑥 = 𝑥1 , we have 𝛷(𝑥) = 𝛤 (𝜇 + 1) − 𝛤 (𝜇 + 2)𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜆((𝜑(𝑥))𝜇 − (𝜑(𝑥))𝜇+1 ), 𝑢0 = 0, 𝑢1 = 0,
𝑥1
𝜆
𝑢(𝑥1 ) = (𝜑(𝑥1 ) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑢(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝜙(𝑥1 ). (5.12) (6.1)
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫𝑥0
where 𝜑(𝑥) ∶= log(1 + 𝑥), 𝜇 ∈ (1, 2], and 𝑥 > 0. The exact solution of
By using the trapezoidal rule (3.3), we get
initial value problem (6.1) is 𝑢(𝑥) = (𝜑(𝑥))𝜇 − (𝜑(𝑥))𝜇+1 . Corresponding
1 [
𝑢(𝑥1 ) = 𝜇𝜆(𝜑(𝑥1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥0 ))𝜇 𝑢0 integral equation for this initial value problem is given as
𝛤 (𝜇 + 2) − 𝜆(𝜑(𝑥1 ) − 𝜑(𝑥0 ))𝜇 𝑥
] 𝑢(𝑥) =
𝜆
(𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝜏))𝜇−1 𝜑′ (𝜏)𝑢(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝜙(𝑥),
+𝛤 (𝜇 + 2)𝜙(𝑥1 ) . (5.13) 𝛤 (𝜇) ∫0

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M. Amjad and M. ur Rehman Journal of Computational Science 76 (2024) 102234

Fig. 3. Graphical representation of the approximate solutions and absolute error.

Fig. 4. Exact and numerical values for different 𝜇 at 𝑚 = 100.

Table 2 In Fig. 3(b), the absolute errors corresponding to these approximations

Maximum error for distinct 𝑚 and 𝜇.
are displayed. The exact and numerical solutions over the interval [0, 2]
𝑚 𝜇 = 1.18 𝜇 = 1.44 𝜇 = 1.59 𝜇 = 1.78 𝜇=2 are presented in Fig. 4(a) at 𝑚 = 100, 𝜆 = −11, and 1 < 𝜇 ≤ 2. While
10 2.1000e−03 5.0337e−04 6.0034e−04 6.4819e−04 6.0797e−04 Fig. 4(b) shows the corresponding absolute error over the interval [0, 2].
30 1.3076e−04 9.0052e−05 9.6740e−05 9.0531e−05 7.3423e−05
60 2.0257e−05 2.6237e−05 2.7299e−05 2.3680e−05 1.8499e−05
90 8.8491e−06 1.2711e−05 1.2674e−05 1.0678e−05 8.2337e−06 Example 6.2. We consider an initial value problem (5.1) for multi-
100 7.3633e−06 1.0516e−05 1.0362e−05 8.6747e−06 6.6707e−06 term 𝜑−FDE with 𝜆0 = −𝜔1 , 𝜆1 = −𝜔2 , 𝜆2 = 𝜆3 = ⋯ = 𝜆𝑚 = 0, and
150 3.5923e−06 5.0066e−06 4.7436e−06 3.8899e−06 2.9663e−06
200 2.1410e−06 2.9285e−06 2.7123e−06 2.1981e−06 1.6688e−06
𝛷(𝑥) = −𝐸𝜇,1 (−(𝜑(𝑥)𝜇 )) − 𝜔2 (𝜑(𝑥))−𝜈 𝐸𝜇,1−𝜈 (−(𝜑(𝑥)𝜇 )) − 𝜔1 𝐸𝜇,1 (−(𝜑(𝑥)𝜇 )),
(6.2)
(𝜇+1) (𝜇+2)
where 𝜙(𝑥) ∶= (𝜑(𝑥))𝜇 −(𝜑(𝑥))𝜇+1 −𝜆 𝛤𝛤(2𝜇+1) (𝜑(𝑥))2𝜇 +𝜆 𝛤𝛤(2𝜇+2) (𝜑(𝑥))2𝜇+1 +
subjected to initial conditions 𝑢0 = 1, 𝑢1 = 0. Here 𝜇 ∈ (1, 2] and
𝑢0 + (𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑(𝑎))𝑢1 . Table 2 exhibits maximum error for distinct choices 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥2 . The exact solution of initial value problem (6.2) is
of 𝑚 and 𝜇. 𝑢(𝑥) = 𝐸𝜇,1 (−(𝑥 + 𝑥2 ))𝜇 , where 𝐸𝜇,1 is the Mittag-Leffler function. By
We see that as 𝑚 increases, the approximated values which are fixing 𝜈 = 1, the maximum error for different preferences of 𝜇 and 𝑚 is
obtained by presented method are getting close to exact values and given in Table 3.
the maximum absolute error decreases, which exhibits the effective- Tabulated values show that as we increases 𝑚, the numerical values
ness of proposed methodology. The exact and approximate solutions which are obtained by proposed method are getting close to exact
of 𝜑−fractional differential equation and the corresponding absolute values and the maximum absolute error decreases. The exact and
errors are depicted in Fig. 3. Moreover, in this case we have chosen 𝜇 = approximate solutions of 𝜑−fractional differential equation and the
1.18, 𝜇 = 1.44, 𝜇 = 1.59, 𝜇 = 1.78, and 𝜇 = 2. Particularly, in Fig. 3(a) corresponding absolute errors are displayed in Fig. 5. Moreover, in
the solutions of 𝜑−fractional differential equation are approximated by this case, for 𝜈 = 1, we have chosen 𝜇 = 1.36, 𝜇 = 1.52, 𝜇 =
fixing 𝑚 = 50 and 𝜆 = 1. In Fig. 3(a), the exact solutions are shown 1.76, 𝜇 = 1.87, and 𝜇 = 2. Particularly, in Fig. 5(a) the solutions of
by solid lines, while approximated solutions are shown by dotted lines. 𝜑−fractional differential equation are approximated by fixing 𝑚 = 50,

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M. Amjad and M. ur Rehman Journal of Computational Science 76 (2024) 102234

Fig. 5. Exact and numerical values for different 𝜇 at 𝑚 = 50.

Fig. 6. Exact and numerical solution at 𝑚 = 200 and error at distinct values of 𝑚.

Table 3 (6.3)
Error for various values of 𝑚 and 𝜇.
𝑚 𝜇 = 1.36 𝜇 = 1.52 𝜇 = 1.76 𝜇 = 1.87 𝜇=2 with the conditions 𝑢0 = 0 and 𝑢1 = 𝜆𝜇 sin(2𝜆𝜇). Here 𝐸2,4−𝜇 is the
10 1.8900e−02 2.6400e−02 4.2800e−02 8.7200e−02 1.8720e−01 Mittag-Leffler function, 𝜑(𝑥) ∶= log(1 + 𝑥) and 1 < 𝜇 ≤ 2. Problem (6.3)
30 1.9000e−03 2.6000e−03 5.2000e−03 1.0500e−02 2.9500e−02 is defined over the interval [0, 1] with 𝑏(𝑥) = 𝑒−𝑥 . The exact value of
60 4.6287e−04 6.3432e−04 1.3000e−03 2.6000e−03 7.7000e−03 𝜑−FDE (6.3) is 𝑢(𝑥) = sin(2𝜆𝜇) sin(𝜆𝜇 log(1 + 𝑥)). Table 4 is presenting
90 2.0108e−04 2.7777e−04 5.6769e−04 1.2000e−03 3.4000e−03
the maximum error for distinct values of 𝜇 and 𝑚.
100 1.6210e−04 2.2423e−04 4.6003e−04 9.3867e−04 2.8000e−03
150 7.0659e−05 9.8509e−05 2.0358e−04 4.1621e−04 1.2000e−03
The graphs of exact and numerical results for 𝜇 = 1.25, 𝜇 = 1.5,
200 3.9259e−05 5.5028e−05 1.1425e−04 2.3384e−04 6.9306e−04 𝜇 = 1.75, 𝜇 = 2, 𝜆 = −4, and 𝑚 = 50 are shown in Fig. 7(a), while
Fig. 7(b) presents the maximum error at 𝜇 = 1.25, 𝜇 = 1.5, 𝜇 = 1.75,
𝜇 = 2, 𝑚 = 100, and 𝜆 = −1. In Fig. 7(a), dotted lines represent
numerical solutions, while exact solution is depicted by solid lines.
𝜔1 = −1, and 𝜔2 = −1. In Fig. 5(a), the exact solutions are shown by Similarly, for given 𝜑−fractional differential equation with 𝑏(𝑥) = 𝑒−2𝑥 ,
solid lines, while approximated solutions are shown by dotted lines. the comparison between numerical and exact values for some choices
In Fig. 5(b), the absolute errors corresponding to these approximations of 𝜇, 𝜆 = 5, and 𝑚 = 200 is depicted in Fig. 8(a). The purple shaded
are demonstrated. Fig. 6(a) presents the approximate and exact values surface is showing the numerical solution, while blue shaded surface is
at 𝑚 = 200, 𝜔1 = 𝜔2 = −1, and 1 < 𝜇 ≤ 2. Moreover, in Fig. 6(a), denoting the exact solution. Fig. 8(b) shows maximum absolute error
approximate solution is shown by purple shaded surface while exact for 𝑚 = 200, 𝜆 = 5, and 1 < 𝜇 ≤ 2. Moreover, we see that as 𝑚 increases,
solution is demonstrated by red shaded surface. Fig. 6(b) depicts the the approximate solution approaches to exact solution and maximum
absolute error for 𝑚 = 100, 𝑚 = 200, 𝑚 = 300, and 1 < 𝜇 ≤ 2. absolute error decreases.

Example 6.3. We consider an initial value problem (5.1) for 𝜑−FDE
with 𝜆0 (𝑥) = 𝑏, 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 = ⋯ = 𝜆𝑚 = 0, and
[ ]
𝛷(𝑥) = sin(2𝜆𝜇) −𝜆3 𝜇3 (𝜑(𝑥))3−𝜇 𝐸2,4−𝜇 (−𝜆2 𝜇 2 (𝜑(𝑥))2 ) − 𝑒−𝑥 sin(𝜆𝜇𝜑(𝑥)) ,
7. Conclusion
A numerical algorithm based on Newton–Cotes quadrature rule to
approximate the solutions of initial value problems of two significantly

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M. Amjad and M. ur Rehman Journal of Computational Science 76 (2024) 102234

Table 4
Error for different 𝑚 and 𝜇.
𝑚 𝜑(𝑥) = log(1 + 𝑥) 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥2
𝜇 = 1.31 𝜇 = 1.62 𝜇 = 1.83 𝜇 = 1.31 𝜇 = 1.62 𝜇 = 1.83
60 5.4489e−04 3.0363e−04 1.5000e−03 2.7000e−03 3.0363e−04 1.5000e−03
90 2.4412e−04 1.4108e−04 6.0068e−04 1.2000e−03 1.4108e−04 6.0068e−04
120 1.3791e−04 8.1485e−05 3.1318e−04 6.7804e−04 8.1485e−05 3.1318e−04
150 8.8508e−05 5.3103e−05 1.8873e−04 4.3391e−04 5.3103e−05 1.8873e−04
200 4.9932e−05 3.0496e−05 9.8062e−05 2.4415e−04 3.0496e−05 9.8062e−05
250 3.2017e−05 1.9799e−05 5.8917e−05 1.5626e−04 1.9799e−05 5.8917e−05

Fig. 7. Examining exact and numerical values for different 𝜇 at 𝑚 = 50.

Fig. 8. Examining exact and numerical values for different 𝜇 at 𝑚 = 200.

distinct classes of 𝜑−FDEs is presented in this paper. The product
integration formula for estimating 𝜑−fractional integrals is derived and
also it is applicability has been shown by numerical experiment. We
utilized the product integration formula to develop two bit different
schemes for the solutions of two classes of 𝜑−FDE. Numerical results
have demonstrated the precision of the proposed schemes. In addition,
an evaluation of the error in the proposed technique for approximating
fractional integral has been obtained. In conclusion, the outcomes of
the presented approach are effective, indicating that the method is
reasonably successful in estimating solutions of 𝜑−FDEs. The method
may be extended for non-linear 𝜑−FDEs and also for higher order
quadrature methods as well.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Maria Amjad: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology,
Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft. Mujeeb ur Rehman:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Visualization, Writing –
review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

9
M. Amjad and M. ur Rehman
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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Maria Amjad received her Master of Science degree in
Mathematics from the National University of Sciences and
Technology (NUST) in 2023. She is currently serving as
a Lecturer at Government Associate College (W) in Si-
hal, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Her research lies in numerical
methods for solving fractional differential equations.
Mujeeb ur Rehman received his PhD degree from the
National University of Science and Technology (NUST) in
2011. He is currently a full professor in the Department
of Mathematics at NUST School of Natural Sciences. His
research interests lie in the field of fractional calculus and
fractional differential equations.