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Chapter 6

COMPRESSION MACHINES
Alban Lynch

INTRODUCTION
Compression machines are used to break a wide range of different-sized solids, from
run-of-mine ore to  micron particles 7he machines used as the feed becomes Àner
are – in order of particle size – the gyratory crusher, jaw crusher, cone crusher, high-
pressure grinding rolls (HPGRs) and vertical roller mills. The exact sequence of machines
is dependent on the task required, the material types and the necessary throughput.

PRIMARY CRUSHERS

Gyratory crusher
The gyratory crusher was patented in 1881 after years of failure with experimental
machines, and since that time there have been few fundamental changes to the original,
successful design. The crusher consists of a vertical cone suspended at the top and held
by a gyrating eccentric sleeve at the bottom. The eccentric assembly that causes the
gyration gives the crusher an open and closed side setting (OSS and CSS respectively),
and it is this movement that causes rocks to be trapped between the movable surface
(mantle) and the Àxed surface (concave or bowl), resulting in them being nipped and
broken. The mantle then recedes from the concave and the broken particles move down
the chamber. After more crushing cycles, the product is discharged.
A sketch showing how the crusher works is given in Figure 6.1a and an FLSmidth gyratory
crusher is shown in Figure 6.1b. The capacity of the crusher depends on the physical size of
the crusher, the discharge opening (OSS) and the Áowability of the feed. ,n large gyratory
crushers, the crushing chamber is very steep and therefore the Ànes content of the feed
will have a signiÀcant impact on the throughput of a machine. The relationship between
capacity and discharge opening (OSS) is shown in Table 6.1. ,t is important to note that in
Table 6.1, the discharge opening quoted is the OSS. ,n cone crushers, throughput is always
quoted in terms of CSS. Gyratory crushers do not require a feed system as other crushers
do, and trucks can directly discharge their load into the gyratory crusher.

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A B

FIG 6.1 – Gyratory crusher: (A) how a gyratory crusher works,

and (B) top-service gyratory crusher (images courtesy FLSmidth).

TABLE 6.1
Capacities (Mt/h) of gyratory crushers with different discharge settings (source: Metso).
Feed opening Discharge opening (mm) kW Crusher weight
(mm) 150 175 200 230 250 (t)
1065 2335 2820 375 119
1370 2885 3145 3485 450 242
1525 4540 5295 5805 600 398
1525 5525 7335 8280 8890 1200 553

Jaw crusher
The jaw crusher was patented in 188 after the Àrst crusher had been built in 18 to
prepare rocks for road building. Essentially, the design has changed little since that time.
A jaw crusher consists of converging movable and Àxed jaws as shown in Figure 6..
The moving jaw is driven through a toggle joint, which exerts immense pressure
on the jaw. Figure 6. shows a double toggle jaw crusher conÀguration, which was
traditionally used for crushing harder feed types as the use of the double toggle
arrangement provided a better crushing action. The need for a double toggle jaw
crusher is indicated by unconÀned compressive strength (8CS) measurements a 8CS
measurement in excess of  0Pa requires a double toggle. Single toggle machines
as shown in Figure 6., were commonly reserved for lighter crushing duties. Over
the last  years, advances in design and fabrication have allowed single toggle jaw
crushers to become the machine of choice, even for harder applications. They offer
higher throughput and reduced mass compared to the double toggle machines. The
capacity of any size of machine depends on its CSS, which can be adjusted. Data
showing the relationship between capacity and CSS for a hard, dry ore are given in
Table 6.. Capacities are dependent on the ore and do not apply to difÀcult ores such
as those containing sticky clays.

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FIG 6.2 – Double toggle jaw crusher (image courtesy Pennsylvania Crushing).

FIG 6.3 – Single toggle jaw crusher (image courtesy ThyssenKrupp).

TABLE 6.2
Approximate throughputs of jaw crushers (Mt/h) (data from Terex Corporation).
Feed opening Closed side setting (mm) kW Crusher weight
(mm) 100 150 200 250 300 (t)
1220 × 915 190–210 340–370 485–535 150 37
1220 × 1065 370–410 535–590 660–730 185 45
1500 × 1275 465–515 625–690 775–860 930–1030 250 80

Comparison of jaw and gyratory crushers

Jaw crushers are usually preferred for lower-capacity concentrators and quarries
because they are smaller, less expensive and easier to maintain than gyratory crushers,
which are more expensive and more mechanically complex. Crushing by jaw crusher
is intermittent because of the reciprocating motion of the movable jaw, meaning that
productivity is relatively low compared with a gyratory crusher with the same power
that works continuously. While gyratory crushers have high maintenance costs, their
higher processing capacity means that they are usually selected as the primary crushers
in large-scale concentrators. They also have a relatively high reduction ratio of up to
ten. The costs of jaw crushers and gyratory crushers consist of capital and operating
costs. Generally, the costs of a jaw crusher installation are much lower than that of a

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gyratory crusher, but the long-term costs of a jaw crusher tend to be higher. If both jaw
crusher and gyratory crusher can meet the requirements of feed size, range of discharge
openings and processing capacity, it is the initial cost and ongoing operating cost that
are the most important elements in crusher selection. The main advantage of gyratory
crushers is the ability to accept feed directly from trucks; jaw crushers require a feed
system as well as a grizzly to remove oversize rocks.

CONVENTIONAL CONE CRUSHERS

&one crushers work on a similar principle to gyratory crushers but crush much Àner by
using smaller gaps, which requires a different design of the machine. Figure 6.4 shows
how the feed cone crusher Áows over the mantle cone , which rotates eccentrically
inside the concave and is crushed between them.
Cone crushers now in use are commonly derived from the Symons crusher, which was
patented about 1930. This crusher was built as two models: the Standard Symons for
secondary crushing and the Shorthead Symons for tertiary and quarternary crushing.
The reason for the Shorthead Symons was that crushing is more energy efÀcient than
grinding and Àner crushing meant that less energy was required to produce Àne particles
by grinding. With both standard and shorthead crushers available, it became possible to
use secondary and tertiary circuits with an intermediate storage bin, and these circuits
were used for many years. Numerous crusher manufacturers have continued to use this
naming convention, including Metso and FLSmidth. The example shown in Figure 6.5
is the Raptor cone crusher from FLSmidth, which includes both shorthead and standard
units. Table 6.3 summarises the relationship between capacity and CSS for cone crushers.
The Metso Nordberg series of cone crushers show a similar range of capacities for the
same CSS values.
The other main type of cone crusher is generally termed a ‘hydroset’ or bottom-
supported machine and is shown in Figure 6.6.

FIG 6.4 – Sketch of a cone crusher (image courtesy Hakan Dundar).

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FIG 6.5 – A7 Raptor XL1300 cone crusher (image courtesy FLSmidth).

TABLE 6.3
Relationship between feed rate and closed side setting for FLSmidth Raptor cone crushers.
Crusher Small Small Large Large
Closed side setting Feed range Closed side setting Feed range
(mm) (Mt/h) (mm) (Mt/h)
Shorthead fine 10 250–350
Shorthead medium 13 325–450 13 770–1200
Shorthead coarse 16 400–550 16 870–1250
Standard fine 25 525–770 25 1200–1900
Standard medium 38 650–1050 38 1700–2100
Standard course 45 780–1250 45 1900–2500

FIG 6.6 – Hydroset-style cone crusher (image courtesy FLSmidth).

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SuperÀcially, these crushers have a closer resemblance to a gyratory-style crusher,

but they are designed to fulÀl the same duty as the Symons and its derivatives. ,n the
hydroset-style machines, the discharge setting (CSS) is adjusted via a hydraulic cylinder
under the main shaft. This is different to the Symons-style machines, which are adjusted
via a thread arrangement that moves the concave relative to the crushing head. The
hydroset system provides automatic overload protection to permit the passage of tramp
iron or other uncrushable material. The system then automatically returns the mainshaft
smoothly to its original position (Sandvik).

HIGH CAPACITY CRUSHING CIRCUITS

Different machines are used in a series when a high reduction ratio is required, as shown
in Figure 6., which is the Áow sheet of a  0ta plant crushing a low-grade copper
sulÀde ore at %ougainville Copper Ltd. ,n this example, the machines included two
gyratory crushers, eight secondary cone crushers and 16 tertiary cone crushers. Each
gyratory circuit crushed  th, with the CSS being 1 mm. An average of 66 th
were broken in each secondary crusher operating with a CSS of 6 mm. 9alues for
the tertiary crushers were 41 th operating with a CSS of 6 mm. Typical particle size
distributions (PSDs) for the secondary and tertiary crusher feed and product are shown
in Figure 6.8.
Although %ougainville Copper Ltd only operated between 16 and 18, it was
the highest capacity concentrator of the time and the crushing plant is still the largest
installation of its type. Crushing was in two independent parallel lines of crushers and
screens. The plant operated for 96 per cent of the available time, and the runtime for both
the secondary and the tertiary crushers was 91 per cent, giving an overall utilisation of
8 per cent. The crushing plant achieved  0ta at a P80 of  mm. The %ougainville
crushing plant was an iconic installation. ,ts overall utilisation of 8 per cent, which
was achieved by targeting maximum crushing power in combination with best practice
maintenance, is still considered to be at the top end of the range. ,n most crushing plant
designs, it is now common to target 75 per cent overall utilisation.

FIG 6.7 – Crushing circuit at Bougainville Copper Ltd showing the roles of
compression crushers (image courtesy Bougainville Copper Ltd).

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FIG 6.8 – Particle size distributions of flotation feed and secondary and tertiary cone crusher
feeds and products at Bougainville Copper Ltd (image courtesy Bougainville Copper Ltd).

BED BREAKAGE CRUSHERS

%ed breakage compression crushers break rocks by applying pressure to a bed rather
than a layer of particles, and this concept was the basis of a crusher built by engineers at
The ,nstitute of 0ineral Processing (0ekhanobr) in St Petersburg, Russia. Commercial
compression crushers include the Rhodax crusher made by Fives FC% in France and the
9ibrocone crusher made by Sandvik in Sweden.

Rhodax crusher
Fives FC%, which makes the Rhodax crusher, is a 00-year-old French company with
expertise in turnkey cement plants, cement and mineral grinding plants and processing
equipment for the cement and mineral grinding industries. The crusher is an inertial
grinder that works on the pressurised bed fragmentation principle. The fragmentation
force is caused by the rotation of unbalanced masses rather than by an eccentric mass
as is the case in a conventional crusher. This makes it possible to achieve very high
reduction ratios. %y controlling the speed of rotation of the unbalanced masses, the
grinding force can be modiÀed, thus changing the product size distribution.
The components of the Rhodax crusher are
x the bowl subassembly (bowl), which consists of a frame supporting the bowl liner
x the cone subassembly (cone), which is a structure supporting the vertical shaft and
the cone (head) protected by the mantle
x the cone, which is attached to the bowl by rods and ball joints
x the bowl, which is supported by elastic suspensions to minimise the transmission
of vibrations.
The driven part of the Rhodax is the bowl, while the cone subassembly is allowed to
deÁect as a result of the applied grinding force. The mantle (cone liner) is free to rotate
around the centre shaft. The variables that are controlled are the gap opening and the
rotation speed of the unbalanced masses. High-pressure Rhodax crushers have motors
from 0–900 kW and produce 600 th of Àne crushed rock from 150 mm feed. Figure 6.9
presents details of the Rhodax crusher.

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FIG 6.9 – Rhodax crusher: (A) components, (B) crushing mechanism (image courtesy Fives FCB).

Vibrocone crusher
The 9ibrocone crusher is similar to the Rhodax crusher and its method of operation is
discussed in 8S patent 795475 (%elotserkovsky, 010). The discharge gap and rotor
speed are controlled by internal sensors to produce the maximum feed rate. The main
shaft is supported by a spherical bearing. An unbalanced weight rotating around the
main shaft causes the mantle to swing without restraint, and the rock is crushed by
multiple compressions between the mantle and the concave (Figure 6.10). The crusher
is choke fed and all particles in the moving bed are compressed, resulting in breakage.
8ltrasonic sensors detect the position and angle of inclination of the mantle and the data
are used to control the crusher by varying the discharge gap and rotational speed of the
shaft. A comparison of the Rhodax and 9icrocone bed breakage compression crushers
is shown in Table 6.4.

TABLE 6.4
Comparison of bed breakage compression crushers.
Sandvik Vibrocone crusher Fives FCB Rhodax crusher
Rated power (kW) 400 Up to 900
Capacity (Mt/h) 200–300 Up to 600
Feed size (max) 150 220
Product size 80% passing 6–8 mm, 50% passing 2–4 mm 0–500 μm to 0–40 mm in closed circuit

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A B C
FIG 6.10 – Sketches of the Vibrocone crusher (US patent 7954735). (A) The crusher with its sensors
(R, D1) and controller (D4), (B) an example of the angle and deviation of the mantle moving
without restraint, (C) Vibrocone crusher in operation (images courtesy Fives FCB).

ROLLS CRUSHERS
Rolls crushers represent one of the oldest types of compression machine and consist
of two counter rotating rolls, with the feed material fed into the gap between them.
The rolls surface is mostly smooth or has a superimposed pattern of wear protection.
,n some cases, teeth are afÀ[ed to the surface. $n e[ample of a modern rolls crusher is
shown in Figure 6.11.
Due to the wear displayed when crushing abrasive material, rolls crushers fell out of
favour, with gyratory and cone crushers typically preferred. However, over the last ten
years, rolls crushers have begun to regain some favour due to their ability to deliver very
high throughputs and advances in wear materials and teeth change-out procedures.
The main applications for rolls crushers are usually in oil sands, but a recent application
in iron ore in Brazil has been reported.
$ modern development of the rolls crusher is the H3*R crusher, which is discussed in
more detail in a later section.

FIG 6.11 – Modern rolls crusher (image courtesy ThyssenKrupp).

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MINERAL SIZERS
Sizers were developed in the mid-to-late 1970s to break coarse coal efÀciently within
compact dimensions. The basic concept of the sizer is to apply pressure to material and
cause it to fracture along natural planes of weakness. This is done by the use of two
rotors with large teeth on small diameter shafts driven at low speed by a direct high-
torque drive system. This concept is shown in the 00D twin shaft mineral SizerŒ
illustrated in Figure 6.1.
The rotating shafts in the sizer have large teeth attached to them that form scrolls
similar to Archimedean screws. These help to spread material around the machine.
The interlaced toothed rotor design allows undersize to pass through the gaps
generated by the slow-moving shafts to prevent further degradation of already
undersize material. An adjustable breaker bar is positioned centrally in line with and
below the breaker shafts.
The nature of the crushing mechanism for a sizer is shown in Figure 6.1. The material
is initially gripped by the leading faces of opposed rotor teeth. These subject the rock
to multiple point loading, inducing stress into the material to exploit any natural
weaknesses. From initial breakage, the product is further broken in tension by being
subjected to three-point loading, which is applied between the front tooth faces on
one rotor and rear tooth faces on the other. Any lumps of material that still remain

FIG 6.12 – An MMD Sizer (image courtesy MMD).

A B C

FIG 6.13 – Breakage in an MMD Sizer. (A) Stage 1 – initial breakage of large material: teeth closing. (B) Stage 2 – further
breakage of material as the teeth pass each other at the mid-point: teeth passing. (C) Stage 3 – breakage of remaining
oversize from teeth chopping through the breaker bar: teeth chop through breaker bar (images courtesy MMD).

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oversize are held by the Àxed teeth of the breaker bar and broken by the chopping
action of the rotors.
The 00D Sizer has a number of sizer, shaft and tooth conÀgurations to enable the
primary, secondary and tertiary reduction of materials. On certain materials, primary
00D sizers can process at rates in excess of 1 000 th. The method of reduction utilising
the weakness of materials in shear and tension offers a controlled three-dimensional
outfeed product with different tooth designs to facilitate different sizes of outfeed in an
efÀcient manner.
A typical reduction ratio in a sizer is 51, and rocks that are 000 mm in size and even
larger can be reduced. Sizers can handle dry hard and wet sticky material simultaneously
through the same machine, even where the moisture content is over 0 per cent. They
are suitable for softer rocks such as bauxite and pisolitic iron ore, but can also process
‘hard rock’ up to 400 0Pa with satisfactory results. For example, metalliferous ores
at CODELCO Andina and El Teniente (approximately 0 0Pa) are currently being
crushed successfully. The rock quality designation (RQD) gives a better indication of
the weaknesses that exist in the rocks to be processed and that can be exploited by the
00D method of reduction.
As Table 6.5 indicates, sizers are smaller than other crushers, with height being a
measure of particular signiÀcance because it is the main parameter deÀning the opening
that must be prepared when a sizer is to be used underground. The 1500 series of sizers,
which is currently the largest series, has a height of 195 mm, but larger capacity sizers
are being developed.
The nominal capacity of each unit is 1000 th of medium-hard limestone. The infeed
size is 750 mm and the product size is 50 mm.

TABLE 6.5
Comparison of primary mineral crushers (MMD).
Equipment Gyratory Jaw Sizer Double roll Impactor
crusher
Dimensions (mm) 11 938 2240 × 1680 1000 series 1800 × 1800 2000 × 2200
Weight (t) 120 170 60 70 85

ROLLER MILLS
%reakage occurs in roller mills by compression, and because this type of breakage is
more energy efÀcient than impact breakage, there is a trend towards using roller mills
for Àne-grinding circuits. The perennial problem with roller mills that limits their use
with hard or abrasive material is wear of the rollers and the grinding surfaces, but this
is now being reduced by the development of new materials for their construction and of
new designs for the wearing surfaces (refer to Figure 6.14).
Roller mills are suitable for grinding friable materials. For example, the Gundlach
machine can grind up to 40 th of 19 mm friable material and yield a 1– mm product.
Sturtevant is another manufacturer of roller mills. Table 6.6 provides some details of
horizontal roller mills.
The largest horizontal roller mills now in operation are those that are used to crush
hot cement clinker, leaving the kiln to the size at which it can be ground in roller mills

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A B C

FIG 6.14 – Some crushing roll designs: (A) one inch pin, (B) herringbone roll,
(C) 27 pocket tooth roll (images courtesy Gundlach crushers).

TABLE 6.6
Horizontal roller mills (Sturtevant Inc).
Power (kW) Feed size (mm) Product size Capacity (t/h)
2 19 12.7 mm to 850 micron 0.25 to 2
5 19 12.7 mm to 850 micron 1 to 7
2 × 10 38 19 to 1.6 mm 5 to 44

or ball mills. The hot clinker passes through a cooling zone and is then crushed by
horizontal rolls (refer to Figure 6.15). The rolls have a wide gap to break the coarser
lumps and maintain a high capacity. The kiln and cooling and crushing system operate
at up to 1 500 td. Hot clinker breaks easily, and hammer mills are also used for
breakage.

A B
FIG 6.15 – (A) Cooling system and (B) crushing rolls for hot clinker. Rolls are
up to 4 m long, 8.5 m wide and 0.9 m deep (images courtesy Claudius Peters).

HIGH-PRESSURE GRINDING ROLLS

,nterparticle compression is an efÀcient method of breaking particles that is used in
high-pressure grinding rolls (HPGR). The material is choke fed into the gap between the
spring-loaded, counter-rotating rolls and forms a bed that is compressed. Each particle
in the bed is stressed at every point that it has contact with other particles, meaning that
inter-particle breakage occurs. The compression of the bed is demonstrated in Figure 6.16,

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which shows that one roller rotates in Àxed bearings and the other in moveable bearings,
with high pressure applied to the moveable roller via the hydraulic pistons. Table 6.7
presents a comparison of HPGRs in terms of speciÀcations and capacities.
Agglomeration also occurs with compression machines, and a HPGR machine is often
followed by a device to break up the agglomerates. HPGRs are rarely used as stand-
alone machines to produce Ànished cement as HPGR products contain coarse particles
that must be ground further (refer to Figure 6.17). This is easier with compressed rather
than with uncompressed particles because the high pressure forms microcracks that
reduce grindability and minimise the energy required for further grinding. HPGRs
work on similar feed size particles to cone crushers, but the shapes of the product PSDs
differ because of different breakage mechanisms (Figure 6.18).

FIG 6.16 – High-pressure grinding rolls crushing mechanism (image courtesy ThyssenKrupp).

TABLE 6.7
Sizes and capacities of commercial high-pressure grinding rolls.
KHD FLSmidth Koppern Polysius Metso Fives FCB
Diameter (m) 1.0–2.6 0.58–2.7 0.80–2.80 0.95–2.60 0.8–3.0 1.6–4.6
Width (m) 0.5–2.3 0.26–1.85 0.20–1.60 0.65–1.75 0.5–2.0 0.54–1.67
Power (kW) 280–6000 100–5800 150–4000 440–6800 220–11 500 200–3800
Throughput (t/h) 30–4200 100–3000 35–2000 >3000 70–4800 70–1200
The Fives FCB machine refers to the Horomill.

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FIG 6.17 – Particle size distribution comparison of high-pressure grinding rolls and cone crushers (image courtesy Weir Minerals).

FIG 6.18 – Feed and product size distributions from high-pressure grinding rolls (image courtesy Hakan Dundar).

As shown in Figure 6.19, HPGRs, ball mills and separators are used in cement clinker
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A B

C D

FIG 6.19 – Alternative flow sheets in a cement plant using high-pressure grinding rolls, a ball
mill and a separator. (A) Open-circuit pregrinding, (B) hybrid grinding, (C) semi-finish grinding,
(D) closed circuit grinding, (E) finish grinding (images courtesy Hakan Dundar).

breakage occurs in compressed bed machines, and it is usual to follow HPGRs with
a de-agglomerating unit. HPGRs were only used with softer minerals for many years
because hard abrasive ores caused wear on the expensive rollers, but better materials
and new designs for the wearing surfaces have reduced this problem.
A Àner size distribution is produced from the centre of the HPGR than the two edges.
Depending on the product size distribution requirements, edge products are sometimes
recycled to the feed for further crushing.

VERTICAL ROLLER MILLS

Particles are broken in vertical roller mills (9R0s) by spring-loaded rollers compressing
them against a base plate as they Áow across the roller path from the centre to the edge
of the mill. Figure 6.0 shows the comminution zone and separator in a vertical mill.
Particles leaving the grinding zone in a 9R0 fall into a rising air or gas stream that
sweeps them into a separator in the top of the machine. The Àne product leaves the
circuit and the coarse product is returned for further grinding. ClassiÀcation between
the grinding zone and the separator occurs in regions where the particles are being swept
upwards, as well as in the separator. The circulating load is high for example, with coal
it may be 500 per cent at the separator and as high as 000 per cent directly above the
rollers. High speciÀc gravity mineral particles such as silica accumulate in the separator
reject and increase wear on the grinding surfaces. Techniques are being developed to
remove heavy, abrasive materials from the reject before it enters the grinding zone.
,n some machines, described as ballrace mills, balls replace the vertical rollers. 9R0s
have been used to grind coal for more than 100 years and are now used for harder and
more abrasive materials. Table 6.8 gives an indication of the mills now available and
their capacities. The main differences between roller mills are in the comminution zone,
and the various methods used to apply forces to the rollers are shown in Figure 6.1
(%rundiek, 1989).

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A B

FIG 6.20 – Vertical roller mill: (A) rollers and separator in a Gebr Pfeiffer mill,
(B) typical particle size distribution of product and reject (images courtesy Gebr Pfeiffer).

TABLE 6.8
Sizes and capacities of vertical roller mills.
Power (kW) Feed rate (t/h)
FLSmidth
Cement 800–11 000 35–685
Slag 900–13 200 25–500
Polysius
Cement raw material 580–4800 90–740
Clinker 3000 Blaine 502–3188 33–209
Granulated Slag 4500 Blaine 700–4450 22–139
Hard coal 50° Hardgrove 30–1250 22–96
Loesche
Coal 400–2400 40–300
Cement 2500–7800 60–340
Ore 7800 >2000
Gebr Pfeiffer
Cement raw material 1600–12 000 250–1400
Granulated slag 2000–6000 Blaine 2500–12 000 70–390
Cement 2000–6000 Blaine 2200–12 000 80–550

With each different method of applying pressure, the rollers track differently.
Uncompacted cement tends to aerate so that a compacting roller leads each grinding
roller and forms a compact mass that can be ground. The PSD of cement is sharper
with VRMs than with ball mills and is in a narrower band. A sharper cut potentially
means less variability in product consistency and more predictable results in product

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 CHAPTER 6 t COMPRESSION MACHINES

A B

C D

FIG 6.21 – Methods of applying force to grinding rollers. (A) Raymond ring-roller mill, (B) EVT (CE) roller
mill, (C) Loesche roller mill, (D) MPS roller grinding mill, (E) ring-ball mill (images courtesy Loesche).

performance. %y changing the operating parameters in 9R0s, signiÀcant adjustments

in the PSD, retention time and Àneness of the Ànished cement can be achieved. This can
help with plant operations as production is switched between different cement types.

HOROMILLS
Horomills, seen in Figure 6., were developed by Fives FC% and are a recent addition
to the group of mills that use compression breakage.

FIG 6.22 – The Horomill (image courtesy Fives FCB).

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 CHAPTER 6 t COMPRESSION MACHINES

The key components of the Horomill are a shell driven at supercritical speed and a roller
compressing the mineral bed at high pressure by means of hydraulic jacks. Capacities
for different product sizes (Blaine numbers) for cement, slag and raw meal are given in
Table 6.9. The electrical power available with the largest machine is 2940 kW.
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from the other after being ground several times between the shell and the roller as it
passes through the mill. The material centrifuges and scrapers remove the compressed,
comminuted bed from the wall and present it in a loosened form to the roller for further
grinding. The material being ground undergoes a multiple and controlled compression
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various product streams.

TABLE 6.9
Capacity of Horomills.
Size Indicative capacity t/h
Shell diameter Portland cement Blast furnace slag Raw meal
(mm) 3000 Blaine 4000 Blaine 3500 Blaine 4500 Blaine
2000 20 12 12 8 35–55
2800 50 30 30 20 90–140
3600 95 60 60 40 175–275
3800 110 70 130 90 260
4400 160 100 100 70 255–470

FIG 6.23 – Horomill-TSV® classifier closed circuit (image courtesy Fives FCB).

ENERGY USED IN DIFFERENT CIRCUITS

Before the 1980s, crushing circuits were the predominant mechanism for reducing
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years, a whole range of alternative circuits have emerged and found varying degrees
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PLOOFRQÀJXUDWLRQZKHUHFUXVKHUVDUHRQO\XVHGIRUSULPDU\VL]HUHGXFWLRQWRJHQHUDWH

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 CHAPTER 6 t COMPRESSION MACHINES

FIG 6.24 – Particle size distribution of streams in a Horomill-TSV® separator circuit

(image courtesy Hakan Dundar, data available from Metso).

a SAG feed with a top size of approximately 250–400 mm rocks and for the crushing of
pebbles generated by the SAG mill. Several circuits are now used to achieve the same
F80 to P80 for an ore, with all requiring different amounts of energy. Many factors are
considered when choosing a circuit, and Table 6.10 gives an indication of the relative
energy consumption of different circuits.
It is interesting to note that the push to reduce energy consumption in milling and
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Boddington and Karara Mining in Australia and Cerro Verde in Chile. There is also a
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DOUHDG\GHSOR\HGVXFKDQDSSURDFKLQFOXGLQJ,QPHW7URLOXVDQG1HZFUHVW5LGJHZD\
and wider application is being considered to explore options for further energy saving.

TABLE 6.10
Relative energy consumption of different comminution circuits (Marsden, 2011).
Circuit Decrease (%)
Semi-autogenous grinding mills, ball mills Base case
Semi-autogenous grinding mills, pebble crusher, ball mills 6.4
Autogenous grinding mills, pebble crusher, ball mills 22.1
Three-stage crushing, ball mills 25.7
Two-stage crushing, high-pressure grinding rolls, ball mills 34.6
Two-stage crushing, high-pressure grinding rolls, agitator mills ≈41.4
Improved classification ≈46

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Belotserkovsky, K E, 2010. Method for controlling process parameters of a cone crusher, US
3DWHQW 6DQGYLN 
Brundiek, +  7KH UROOHU JULQGLQJ PLOO ² LWV KLVWRU\ DQG FXUUHQW VLWXDWLRQ Aufbereitungs-
Technik  
Marsden, - 2  ,QQRYDWLRQ DQG HQHUJ\ HIÀFLHQF\ LQ FRSSHU H[WUDFWLRQ SDSHU SUHVHQWHG WR
3URFHPLQ&RQIHUHQFH6DQWLDJR'HFHPEHU
Taylor, J C,  5KRGD[LQHUWLDOFRQHJULQGHUJournal of The South African Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy,2FWREHUSS²

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 CHAPTER 6 t COMPRESSION MACHINES

Catalogues for crushers referred to in this chapter are available on the internet. The companies are
x Claudius Peters
x FLSmidth
x Gebr Pfeiffer
x Loesche Gmbh
x 0etso Nordberg (Symons crushers)
x 00D Group (Sizers)
x Pennsylvania Crushing
x Russell 0ineral Equipment (R0E)
x Sandvik (9ibrocone crushers)
x Thyssen.rupp.

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 HOME

Chapter 7

HIGH-SPEED IMPACT MILLS

Glenn Schumacher, Alban Lynch
and Thomas Warne

INTRODUCTION
In high-speed impact mills, breakage and shattering occurs by fast-moving hammers
impacting on slow-moving rock, or by the collision of fast-moving rocks with other
rocks or a breaker plate. Machines that use both techniques are available, but there has
been a greater application for comminution of moderate-to-low-hardness material of
low abrasion potential. The reason is because wear is a potentially serious problem.
A rule of thumb is that steel hammers are suitable for materials containing no more than
Àve per cent silica doubtful for a silica content of ten per cent to  per cent dangerous
for  per cent to  per cent and prohibitive if it e[ceeds  per cent. 5ock on rock
breakage reduces the problem of wear.
Four common types of high-speed impact mill are reviewed in this chapter.

VERTICAL SHAFT IMPACT CRUSHERS

The %armac rock-on-rock crusher is an e[ample of a vertical shaft impact 96I crusher.
It was devised in  by -im Macdonald, an engineer with the :ellington &ity &ouncil
in New Zealand. The basis for the crusher design was that stones will break if banged
together hard enough, and that steel will be protected from abrasion if covered with a
layer of trapped stones.
The crusher has a rotor that acts as a high-velocity, dry stone pump, hurling a
continuous rock stream into a stone-lined crushing chamber. Broken rock about
² mm in diameter enters the top of the machine from a feeder set and is accelerated
in the rotor to be discharged into the crushing chamber at velocities of up to  ms.
&ollision of high-speed rocks, with rocks falling in a separate stream or with a rock-lined
wall, causes shattering refer to Figure . . The product is typically gravel and sand-
si]ed particles. Barmac crushers are available from  to  k:.

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 CHAPTER 7 t HIGH-SPEED IMPACT MILLS

FIG 7.1 – Barmac vertical shaft impact crusher. The dry stone ‘pump’
(rotating drum) is shown in the centre of the machine (image courtesy Metso).

The product size distribution can be controlled by the rotor speed as shown in
Figure ..
In the Magotteau[ MA*·Impact® 96I crusher Figure . , the material to be crushed
falls onto a distributor at the centre of the rotating table. Particles are accelerated by
impellors on the table and driven toward anvils on the peripheral ring where the impact
causes shattering. The ma[imum table diameter is  mm, and four to Àve impellors
and  to  anvils can be used.
Table . gives an indication of the capacities of 96I crushers for different motor sizes.
&apacities are highly dependent on the characteristics of the material being crushed.

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FIG 7.2 – Product size distribution showing the effect of rotor speed
in a Barmac vertical shaft impact crusher (image courtesy Metso).

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 CHAPTER 7 t HIGH-SPEED IMPACT MILLS

FIG 7.3 – Magotteaux MAG’Impact® vertical shaft impact crusher (image courtesy Magotteaux).

TABLE 7.1
Examples of verticle shaft impact crusher specifications.
Barmac MAG’Impact®
Motor (kW) 75–600 200–500
Capacity (t/h) 60–477 200–500
Maximum rock velocity (m/s) 85 65

HAMMER MILLS
Hammer mills work on the principle that most materials will crush, shatter or pulverise
upon impact. The hammer mill is the most widely used crusher with thousands
employed worldwide in a large number of industries for primary and secondary
crushing of various material. In the minerals industry, hammer mills are used to crush
materials such as hard coal and lignite, limestone, bau[ite, phosphate rock and other
soft to medium-hard rocks or ores. Mill sizes range from small laboratory units to very
high capacity machines. A large  k: industrial machine is shown in Figure ..

FIG 7.4 – Sandvik 1800 kW hammer mill (image courtesy Sandvik).

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 CHAPTER 7 t HIGH-SPEED IMPACT MILLS

A hammer mill consists of a cylindrical chamber containing a horizontal shaft, which

in large industrial mills rotates between  and  revmin. Hammers are attached
to the shaft and have tip speeds up to ² mmin. Material enters the crushing
chamber through a feed chute, usually by gravity, and is shattered by a combination
of repeated hammer impacts, collisions with the walls of the grinding chamber and
particle²particle impacts. Figure . shows how a hammer mill works.
Perforated metal screens or bar grates cover the discharge opening of the mill and retain
coarse material for further grinding while allowing properly sized materials to pass as
Ànished product. The particles that are caught between the hammers and the screen bars
where the gap is small are broken by attrition. The feed to hammer mills is usually in the
range of ² mm and the  per cent passing size of the product is typically about
² mm. The feed rate depends on the hardness of the material and the product size.
In the maMority of hammer mill applications, the key factor determining Ànished
particle size is the screen and because of this, the screen size provides appro[imately
 per cent of the control over the Ànished particle size. The remaining  per cent is
attributed to the force of the impact on the material being processed. Force is determined
by rotor speed and the size and number of hammers.
The distance between the grinding wall and the hammer circle can be controlled in
some hammer mills by a mechanical or a hydraulic mechanism to adjust for wear and
optimise performance. The speed selected for a mill is based on the rotor diameter and
the material being crushed. /arge mills are operated at  to  revmin, smaller
industrial mills at up to  revmin and laboratory mills at  revmin.
:ear is a serious problem with hammer mills when abrasive material is broken. The cost
of wear ² which includes downtime as well as replacement parts ² can be reduced to some
e[tent by using hammers that are reversible, abrasion-resistant wear plates that are easily
replaced, and bar grates or perforated screens that are made from abrasion-resistant steel.
Because of wear, hammer mills are unsuitable for use with hard and abrasive ores.

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FIG 7.5 – Method of operation for a hammer mill (image courtesy Hakan Dundar).

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 CHAPTER 7 t HIGH-SPEED IMPACT MILLS

The capacity range of hammer mills designed by two vendors is indicated in

Tables . and ., which refer to their use with coal. These data are indicative only.
Detailed information about the performance of hammer mills can be obtained from the
manufacturers.

TABLE 7.2
Sandvik Mining hammer mills used for coal crushing.
Roll diameter × length (mm) Throughput (t/h)
1000 × 1000 75
1400 × 1800 250
1400 × 2600 400
1600 × 2600 500
1600 × 3400 700
Feed to 250 mm; product size to <1 mm depending on feed material; installed power to 1800 kW.

TABLE 7.3
Schutte Buffalo hammer mills used for coal crushing.
Throughput (t/h) Power (kW) Rev/min (max)
0.25–0.5 7.5 3500
0.5–1.0 15 3500
1.5–5 30 2325
6–15 75 1860
20–50 150 1395
50–100 225 1395
Maximum tip speed is 74 m/s.

ATRITA MILLS (COMBINED HAMMER AND ATTRITION MILLS)

Atrita mills have found applications in power stations. The Duple[ Atrita mill Figure .
is in effect two separate mills mirrored around the centre line of the mill. &oal Áows
from the central feed chute into both sides of the mill, initially passing to the hammer
section. Heavy swing hammers mounted on the shaft fracture the coal through multiple
interactions with both the hammers and striker plates mounted in the casing.
Partially ground particles Áow through a  mm screen to the Àrst effect attrition zone
upstream side of attrition section . Here the centripetal force induced by the spinning
rotor disc moves them outwards and they are further ground by impeller clips attached
to the disc. The coal passes through an annulus between the rotor disc and casing into
the second effect attrition zone where turbulent air currents and the clips continue to
grind the coal. Particles then pass into the e[haust fan, which consists of radial inner and
curved outer fan blades, and are transported to product destination. Further breakage
occurs as particles pass through the fan. Particle size distribution of the products from
each grinding zone, including the fan, are shown in Figure ..
At the *ladstone Power 6tation in 4ueensland, where  mills are operating, the
mill feed is ² mm and the Ànal product is  per cent passing . mm. The mills
at *ladstone have a rotational speed of  revmin. The tip velocity of the crusher

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