V.

Traditional battle:
 Realists (of many different, disagreeing sorts)
vs
 Nominalists (of many different, disagreeing sorts).
o Antisthenes said to Plato: “I can see the horse, Plate, but not horseness.”
o “I can see the individual object, but I can’t see the universal.”

VI.Identity of type: Type identity exhibits an important relativity:

o Are the two tokens of the same type?

They are not the same word.

But if you take as your type just being a word, then they are of the same type.

If you take as your type grammatical article, then they are again of the same
type (the first is the definite, the second the indefinite, article).

And there are many other types, of a more general sort, relative to which they
are tokens of the same type.

This relativity of identity of types is the foundation for the notion of a

property.

The two tokens have a number of properties in common but differ in many
others.

^以上，解释了单词 property 被定义的由来。

VII. The Realist about universals will take these properties seriously (or will at least
take certain selected properties seriously). The Realist will say that these
properties are really there in the world, as constituents of things, and will take
their sameness, where two different things have the same property, to be a matter
of strict identity. Two different things have the same constituent: horseness or
whatever.

VIII. The Nominalist will allow talk about properties. Such talk is impossible to avoid
in practice. The Nominalist may even allow that there really are such entities as
properties. But if he does admit properties, he will insist that they are not
universals, that they cannot be strictly identical across tokens. They are
particulars, as particular as the things that have them. Alternatively, he may try to
explain away talk of properties in terms of some form of unity possessed by the
tokens of a certain type. In either case the identity across tokens will be no more
than a loose and popular sort of identity.
IX. One reason that many philosophers have had for preferring Nominalist to Realist
theories is that Nominalism, by getting rid of types, appears to yield a more
economical theory. Something will be said about the attractions of economy at the
end of this chapter.