Teaching Life Skills in The Foundation Phase 2 Chapter 9

8/29/23, 11:03 PM TEACHING LIFE SKILLS IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE 2
Physical education in the

Foundation Phase
Soezin Krog
CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Movement and the brain
9.3 What is physical education in the Foundation Phase?
9.3.1 Psychomotor development
9.3.2 Cognitive development
9.3.3 Affective development
9.4 Motor development patterns
9.4.1 Reflexive behaviour
9.4.2 Rudimentary movement abilities
9.4.3 Fundamental movement
9.4.4 General movement skills
9.4.5 Specific movement skills
9.4.6 Specialised skill development
9.5 Developmental milestones
9.6 Why is physical education seen as part of life skills? (Aims)
9.6.1 Acquisition of movement skills
9.7 Theoretical framework for the presentation of physical education in the
Foundation Phase life skills programme
9.7.1 Body awareness
9.7.2 Dominance
9.7.3 Midline crossing
9.7.4 Spatial awareness
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9.7.5 Laterality
9.7.6 Eye–hand coordination
9.7.7 Foreground/background concepts
9.8 Teaching physical education in the Foundation Phase classroom
9.8.1 Planning
9.8.2 Teaming up with colleagues
9.8.3 Teaching style
9.9 CAPS and physical education in the Foundation Phase
9.9.1 Facilitating movement for the Grade R learner (five to six years)
9.9.2 Lesson layout
9.9.3 Facilitating the use of equipment
9.10 Physical activity assessment
9.11 Summary
THE PURPOSE OF THE CHAPTER
The purpose of this chapter is to provide the student with in-depth insight into
the physical development of young learners. It endeavours to create a
thorough understanding of the importance of movement as an indispensable
life skill. The chapter further provides student teachers with useful classroom
and curriculum guidelines to teach physical education as a subject in the
Foundation Phase. Figure 9.1 indicates the place of movement in the
Foundation Phase life skills programme.
THE SUBJECT LIFE SKILLS IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE
According to the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (DoBE, 2011) the
subject life skills in the Foundation Phase is divided into the following study areas:
FIGURE 9.1 The subject life skills in the Foundation Phase and
its study areas
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After you have studied this chapter, you will be able to
identify the value of physical education in the curriculum
analyse the link between movement and the brain
discuss the importance of developing fundamental motor skills
identify key planning aspects required to present adequate movement

experiences.
KEY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Affective domain: the child’s dealings with himself or herself (self-concept)

and other persons around him or her. This is often referred to as social
emotional development.
Body awareness: one’s understanding of one’s own body and where and
how it is moving. This involves combining and making sense of information
received from the sensory systems in the brain, namely the balance system
(called the vestibular system), the touch system (called the tactile system),
the sense organs for seeing (called the visual system) and the positioning
system (called the proprioceptive system).
Directionality: the learner’s ability to know, for example, the difference

between left and right or up and down, under and over.
Dysfunction in the sensory motor system: sensory motor system refers

to the relationship between sensation and movement. The sensory
messages come from our bodies and the world around us by means of the
central nervous system (CNS), which integrates and processes the
messages. A dysfunction occurs when the brain inefficiently processes
sensory messages coming from a person’s own body and his or her
surroundings. A child might not tolerate the tags of shirts, or might avoid
loud noises or find flickering lights highly stressful. He or she thus may
fluctuate between overreacting and underreacting to sensory messages
(Kranowitz, 2003).
Fundamental motor skills: basic movement patterns that form the basis of
many more complex skills used in games, sport and other recreational
activities.
Laterality: the learner’s awareness of the two sides (left and right) of the
body when moving.
Midline crossing: the learner’s ability to reach across the middle of the
body with the arms and legs crossing over to the opposite side, for example,
sitting cross-legged on the floor, writing from left to right and picking up a
block lying on the left side of the body with the right and placing it on the
right of the body at the table.
Motor cognitive domain: the relationship that exists between the

functioning of the body and the mind. Piaget emphasised the tremendous
importance of movement as an information-gathering device for children to
learn about themselves and their world (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003). It is
through good teaching that children gain cognitive awareness of themselves
and their world around them. They also begin to understand various
perceptual–motor concepts (body awareness, spatial awareness, laterality,
directionality and temporal awareness). Another aspect of this domain is to
use movement to increase the understanding of academic concepts, which
involve mathematics, science, language and arts as well as social studies
(Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003).
Movement activities: an essential ingredient of physical activity (Stiehl,

Don Morris & Sinclair, 2008). These are activities such as stability,
locomotion and manipulation activities (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003).
Physical education: the education of, by and through human movement

(Dauer, 1972). It is further considered those activities and experiences that
are concerned with physical movement, movement exploration, problem
solving and gaining an understanding of the human body and its
relationship to movement, as well as sports, games and other physical
activities, which are part of the physical education programme (Bucher &
Thaxton, 1979).
Sensory sensitivity: how aware children are with regard to each of their
sensory channels: sight, sound, taste, smell, touch and pain. Each person
has varying degrees of sensitivity and various ways of responding to these
sensitivities. A child who is highly sensitive tends to have very strong
reactions to highly stimulating surroundings. Others who are less sensitive
tend to be less responsive to the same factors. For example, tags on shirts,
the seams of socks, the feeling of sand on their hands, persons standing
too close to them, loud noises and the physical touch of people.
Spatial awareness: a learner’s perspective of space (i.e. above or below)

in relation to self and others or, for example, a learner’s perspective of the
space in a room.
Temporal awareness: the ability to predict when stimuli arrive at the

senses (Ayres, 1979).
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Quality physical education is within the reach of all teachers who are truly
dedicated to children’s learning. Across the world many children are
unable to take advantage of the many benefits of physical activity due to
poor or non-existent physical education programmes (Gallahue, 1993). The
very nature of the learner being vigorously involved in physical activity is
taken for granted and sadly we see more and more children uninvolved and
following sedentary lifestyles (Pica, 1995). The explosion of multimedia,
long working hours of parents, safety concerns of children when playing in
parks, untrained teachers offering physical education, smaller living areas
and overpopulated cities are only a few factors that have added to
decreasing the levels of physical activity (Krog, 2010). In view of the
global childhood obesity epidemic, the importance of physical activity is
now receiving considerable attention (Timmons, Naylor & Pfeiffer, 2007;

Van Deventer, 2007). Obesity is not the only health hazard that threatens
unfit learners; others such as heart disease and diabetes can also be
experienced later in life. This is all because poor movement habits tend to
remain from childhood to adulthood (Pica, 2008; Kalaja, Jaakkola,
Liukkonen & Digelidis, 2012). To date, the benefits of physical activities
far outweigh the negative effects of electronic media and very few
educators realise the contribution of physical education for the holistic
development of the learner (Centre for Excellence for Early Childhood
Development, 2011).
Gallahue (1993) clearly states that movement activities should be at the

very centre of learners’ lives, intertwining with all facets of their
development, which includes motor cognitive and affective domains.
Numerous researchers have emphasised that children who are denied the
benefits of vigorous physical activity are being denied experiences of
efficient movement, health benefits and improvement of self-esteem
(Gallahue, 1993; Krog & Krüger, 2011; Leppo, Davis & Crim, 2000;
Kokot, 2006).
The future of any society largely depends on its ability to foster the health
and well-being of the next generation. The most critical prerequisites for
economic productivity are positive school achievements. A strong
foundation for success is built during early childhood if a learner’s
cognitive skills, emotional well-being, social competence, and sound
physical and mental health are taken into consideration (National Scientific
Council on the Developing Child, 2007). All the more reason why physical
education in the Foundation Phase needs to be properly planned and

implemented within the school programme.
9.2 MOVEMENT AND THE BRAIN
Research over the years has intensified and has proved that there is a
positive link between physical activity and the brain (Jensen, 2000a). Brain
development relies on a variety of experiences, of which movement is the
newborn’s first. Movement is essential to learners’ development in general
and to their intellectual development in particular (Olds, 1994). Physical
activity has been found to enhance the learning process and assist children
with learning readiness (Krog & Krüger, 2011; Krog, 2015). In many cases
movement is seen to provide support for learners experiencing learning
difficulties. Movement activities have been found to have an impact on the
dysfunction in the sensory motor system and on brain functioning and
learning (Pheloung, 2006; Kokot, 2006). The relationship between
movement, the brain and learning will be discussed later in this chapter.
Learners learn better and retain more when involved in exploring physical
sites and materials (Gardner, 1999).
Research conducted by Ratey and Hagerman (2009) has found that moving
muscles produces proteins, which play a pivotal role in the mechanisms of
a person’s highest thought processes. Neurological development is also
stimulated by physical activity in that it promotes neural growth, which in
turn enhances motor development (Cheatum & Hammond, 2000).
Bluestone (2004) points out that the intricate functioning of the sensory-
motor system depends ultimately on interhemispheric integration (the

communication between the left and right cerebral hemispheres).
Research indicates that a weakness in motor development affects

perceptual adequacy and conceptual development (Krog & Krüger, 2011).
Therefore, physical activity is centrally important in learning and building
memory (Summerford, 2001) which no doubt further emphasises the
importance of including physical activity in the school programme.
Hannaford (2005) is of the opinion that learning is not all in a child’s head,
as the body plays an integral part in all the intellectual processes of the
child from the earliest moments in utero. The brain is fed environmental
information via the body’s senses, assisting in forming an understanding of
the information. Movement assists the brain to grow constantly as well as
changing and expanding our understanding. Hengstman (2001) sees
learners as learning mostly by doing and moving, which influences the
development of the motor, cognitive and affective domains.
9.3 WHAT IS PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE

FOUNDATION PHASE?
Physical education means many things to many people. It is an essential

subject, which is dedicated to learning more about the psychomotor
domain while at the same time focusing on the development of lifetime
physical activity patterns and behaviour. Physical education is often
mistakenly considered to be the same as competitive sport or as free-time
play. Some people have had meaningful experiences while others have
viewed it as a subject that is time wasting (Pangrazi & Beighle, 2014).

According to Pica (1995), movement experiences are vital in order for
children to expand their movement vocabulary, which relates to their
experiences of movement (body awareness, spatial awareness, laterality
and directionality). Movement promotes children’s self-confidence and
competence, which will affect them socially, emotionally and physically.
Teachers need to do far more than teach skills and physical fitness
(Pangrazi & Beighle, 2014). The importance of healthy eating habits,
reducing stress, avoiding substance abuse, reducing obesity, and
developing an active lifestyle should be emphasised in the school
programme and form part of it. It is insufficient to educate learners only
academically and omit opportunities and experiences to develop motor
skills as well as the three learning domains, namely the psychomotor
domain, cognitive and affective domains.
A physical education programme is part of the total educational

programme through which movement experiences contribute primarily to
the total growth and development of all children. Activities need to be
designed to help children learn motor and lifetime activity skills.
According to research (Kalaja et al., 2012), the ability to perform a variety
of fundamental movement skills will increase the likelihood of children
participating in different physical activities throughout their lives.
Physical education is an important tool to prepare learners to live

physically active, healthy lives by providing a carefully planned scope and
sequence of learning experiences. Failure to develop and refine
fundamental movement patterns and motor skills in the Foundation Phase
often leads to frustrations and failure during adolescence and adulthood. It

is necessary that these experiences be designed to foster the
developmentally appropriate acquisition of motor skills, health-related
fitness knowledge, confidence in being physically active, and an
appreciation of the benefits of physical activity with a focus on life-long
learning.
9.3.1 Psychomotor development

Psychomotor development is at the centre of a physical education
programme. It is an avenue by which both the cognitive and affective
competencies are developed. Psychomotor further refers to learning to
move with control and efficiency. Psychomotor development can be
divided into two components, namely movement abilities and physical
abilities. Movement abilities consist of three broad overlapping categories,
namely stability, locomotion activities and manipulation abilities
(Gallahue, 1982). These various categories will be discussed in a later
section. “Physical abilities” refers to physical fitness or motor fitness,
which includes spiritual, emotional, social and physical fitness. Muscular
strength, muscular endurance, respiratory endurance and muscular
flexibility are components of physical fitness. Another component of
physical ability is motor fitness. This encompasses speed, coordination,
agility, power and balance (Gallahue, 1982).
9.3.1.1 Categories of fundamental movement skills

Non-locomotion (stability)
Non-locomotion skills include: bending, turning, balancing, pushing,

twisting, rocking, swaying, lifting, carrying, stretching and pulling. These
skills form the basis of all other locomotion and manipulation skills.
Stability skills require maintaining equilibrium throughout a task.
Locomotion
Locomotion includes walking, hopping, jumping, sliding, running, leaping,
skipping and galloping. These skills see the body being transported in a
horizontal or vertical direction from one point to another. These skills are
refined later in a learner’s life and are applied in specific sports such as
high jump, football, athletics and soccer (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003).
Manipulation
Manipulation refers to the use of hands, feet and other body parts.
Activities include hitting, throwing, kicking, catching, dribbling, volleying
and rolling. These activities can lead to better hand–eye and foot–eye
coordination. It requires the use of a wide range of equipment such as
balls, bean bags, bats, hockey sticks and other hitting implements
(Pangrazi, 2007). Figure 9.2 provides a visual presentation of the
categories of fundamental movement skills.
FIGURE 9.2 Categories of fundamental movement skills
9.3.2 Cognitive development

Piaget (in Gallahue, 1982) was at the forefront of recognising the
importance of movement in the development of both the psychomotor and
cognitive aspects of the child’s behaviour. He emphasises the importance
of movement as an information-gathering tool for children in order to
explore and learn about the world around them. The use of movement as a
means of developing cognitive abilities should be considered. A large body
of research has recognised movement as a tool to enhance learning
readiness in children (Ayres, 1979; Cheatum & Hammond, 2000; Corso,
1993; Kokot, 2006; Krog & Krüger, 2011).
Learning through movement has been capitalised on more and more during
the last decade (Pheloung, 2006; Pica, 2008). Perceptual–motor learning
involves the implementation and refinement of sensory sensitivity in one’s
world through movement by expanding mainly on the learner’s spatial and
temporal world. The development of perceptual–motor skills and
fundamental academic concepts are now being included within a
movement programme. The development of perceptual–motor skills firstly
requires the development of body awareness, spatial awareness and

directionality. Secondly, movement concepts are ideal to reinforce ideas
involving science, mathematics, languages and social studies.
Incorporating perceptual and motor processes forms a unit and requires
maturity and experience. Learners need to develop a kinaesthetic
sensitivity to their surroundings using their sensory awareness through
visual, auditory and tactile experiences (Ayres, 1979; Gallahue, 1982;
Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003).
9.3.3 Affective development

Educators also need to focus on the enhancement of the affective domain
within the physical education programme. This aspect entails the learner’s
ability to interact and react effectively with themselves as well as with
other people. It is also referred to as socioemotional development.
Movement activities provide the ideal opportunity for children to explore
experiences that enable them to gain greater perceptions of themselves as
individuals and how to relate to their peers.
The development of self-concept and peer relations are two concepts,

which are strengthened through movement and provide for improved
emotional growth (Gallahue, 1982; Papalia, Olds & Feldman, 2004). Self-
concept is the individual’s personal perception of his or her physical,
cognitive and social competence.
Self-concept entails a sense of belonging, perceived competence,

recognition of worthiness and acceptance of oneself as well as one’s
uniqueness and virtue (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003). Parents are in the
ideal situation to provide experiences, which include climbing trees, ropes,

ladders or crawling through homemade tunnels, to enhance a child’s sense
of accomplishment. Tasks aimed at developing accomplishment by
focusing on “I can” attitudes can add great value to a child’s self-concept
(Gallahue, 1982). Activities in physical education should include the
affirmation of “I can climb the ropes, or I can hop in the hoops”.
Positive socialisation as part of developing the affective domain can be

enhanced in physical education as it occurs in a social setting, which
requires decision making. It enhances the development of positive moral
behaviour and teaches the virtues of honesty, teamwork, loyalty, self-
control and fair play (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003). Grouping children
together during a lesson can enhance the positive socialisation
opportunities required at an early age.
9.4 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS
The motor development of the child follows a sequential pattern, moving

from simple reflexes to highly complex movement patterns (Gallahue &
Donnelly, 2003). The phases of motor development follow a hierarchical
order and no child will pass through the phases at the same time (see
Figure 9.4).
FIGURE 9.3 The interrelated nature of motor development
Source: Gallahue (1982)
9.4.1 Reflexive behaviour

The first few months of the life of a newborn are characterised by
involuntary movements, and these occur from in utero (in the womb) to
almost one year of life. Reflex movements (first phase of motor
development) include primitive reflexes such as rooting and sucking
reflexes. These are considered the survival reflexes of the newborn. With
time these primitive reflexes are transformed to postural reflexes, which
assist in helping to control body movements (Gallahue, Werner & Luedke,
1975; Gallahue, 1982; Goddard Blythe, 2003).
9.4.2 Rudimentary movement abilities

The first voluntary movements of an infant are rudimentary, which help
form the basic building blocks for more developed movement tasks
(Gallahue et al., 1975). As the child grows, these rudimentary movement

abilities (second phase of motor development) are influenced by
maturation and development. They follow a sequential pattern, which
enhances neurological development. A visual presentation of the most
important rudimentary movements is included in Figure 9.5.
The rudimentary movement phase and its effect on learning is vital

(Goddard Blythe, 2003). A child first has to gain control over movement
and the ability to sit or stand still, before he or she has the fundamental
equipment necessary for learning in the classroom. It is necessary to point
out how certain milestones in the child’s development are relevant to
learning and have an impact on activities in the classroom.
FIGURE 9.4 Phases of motor development
Source: Adapted from Gallahue et al. (1975: 5)
Figure 9.6 presents a list of some of the major rudimentary movement

abilities required during infancy. These movements do not appear at
exactly the same time and vary from child to child. This stage is
characterised by uncoordinated movements as the child tries to execute

various motor patterns. The establishment of these rudimentary
movements has an impact on a child’s ability to cope when he or she
reaches school-going age. Reference is made to low muscle tone observed
while doing academic tasks, a lack of general coordination and poor
concentration in the class (Pheloung, 2006).
9.4.2.1 Prone with head extension

The baby lying on his or her stomach (prone position) attempts to lift his or
her head. This is an act of defying the forces of gravity, which assists with
the development of muscle tone that helps the child to support himself or
herself when sitting upright on a chair (Liddle & Yorke, 2004: 43–47).
Being able to control the head is necessary in order to gain control of the
rest of the body (Goddard Blythe, 2003a: 2). During infancy babies move
their heads, which causes a flex movement of the limbs on one side of the
body. They are eventually able to move their head independently from
other limbs. With repeated opportunity the child is able to cross the
midline by bringing the one side of the body to the other side (Goddard
Blythe, 2003a: 2).
FIGURE 9.5 Rudimentary movement

phases
Source: McCall & Craft (2000: 154)
FIGURE 9.6 Selected rudimentary movement abilities (up to two years

of age)
9.4.2.2 Rolling
When lying on their backs (supine), small babies prepare for rolling by
rocking from side to side. They proceed to rolling onto their stomach and
then again onto their backs. This continuous action assists in developing an
adequate midline crossing ability. Rolling also enables the child to defy
gravity and cross the midline. Writing and reading requires being able to
cross the midline when reading and writing across the page. Tying shoe
laces and drawing a figure of 8 lying on its side, or passing one object from
the one side of the body across to the other side of the body are all crossing
midline activities. Further benefits of rolling include the optimal
connections between the eyes, hands and other parts of the body
(Pheloung, 2006).
Sitting during infancy helps to develop muscle tone, which forms a stable
base for effective hand activities. Sitting also assists with developing
balance as the hips and shoulders need to work separately in order for a
child to rotate. At the same time the head needs to be kept up (Goddard
Blythe, 2003a; Hansford, 1992). Writing is a strenuous activity for children

and they tend to tire easily, which can be due to insufficient muscle tone.
9.4.2.3 Crawling
Crawling is a huge milestone in motor development that is linked to a
child’s visual development. During crawling the child needs to focus on
objects close to him or her as well as objects at a distance. While crawling,
the child also focuses on the hands, which is estimated to be the same
distance a book is held from the eyes once the child starts reading. These
hand–eye movements together form the basis of the nerve network, which
leads to the eventual development of hand–eye coordination (Hannaford,
2005). At the same time crawling contributes to the development of left-
and right-side integration of the body. This is necessary for walking as well
as stabilising the shoulder girdle, which is needed for fine motor control
activities (De Jager, 2009).
FIGURE 9.7 Midline crossing activities
Crawling is also a major contributing factor to the development of spatial

awareness, distinguishing between left and right, and the recognition of b,
d and p. It increases strength and coordination in the wrists, hands and
fingers, and develops the vestibular, visual and tactile systems (Liddle &
Yorke, 2004; Pheloung, 2006; Goddard Blythe, 2003).
9.4.3 Fundamental movement

Fundamental movement patterns (third phase of motor development) are
established between the ages of two and seven years. These patterns
develop from the rudimentary movement abilities during the early years in
which young children explore and experiment with the movement potential
of their body as they run, jump, throw, catch and balance their bodies.
Movement is general rather than specific, with movement patterns that are
characterised by the ability to move in various ways to a given stimulus.
The environment needs to be structured so that the young child is able to
explore successfully and achieve his or her maximum potential. The
fundamental movement abilities involve progressing from the initial stage
to the elementary and finally the mature stage.
9.4.4 General movement skills

Between the ages of eight and ten years, children become more involved in
a wide variety of physical activities that are important to them. It is during
this age that they develop general movement skills. More emphasis is
placed on the accuracy and form of their skills. The child should be
encouraged to develop a far more reasonable degree of competence.
Adding more exposure to physical activities will enable them to gain more
practice in a particular activity.
9.4.5 Specific movement skills

Specific movement skills develop between the ages of 11 and 13 years
(Grades 6 to 8). Psychologically the child is more mature and capable of
coping with the required form, skill and accuracy of the activity.
Refinement is necessary so that the child can acquire more complex skills.
This stage sees the refinement of fundamental and general movement
abilities (Gallahue et al., 1975).
9.4.6 Specialised skill development

Specialised skill development starts around 14 years of age and will
continue into adulthood. Sport skills need to be developed at a much
higher level and more often at a professional level. Lessons will require
intense planning and careful consideration. There should be a caution
against early specialisation at all costs. Intensive skills training at a young
age can be harmful. According to Gallahue et al. (1975: 6), the emphasis
should be on learning to move more effectively and efficiently.
9.5 DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES
Phases of motor development serve as a guideline for parents and other

adults to help understand what is expected physically of children at
different ages. Not all children are able to do the same things physically.
There are, however, certain activities that are required of children at certain
ages. The level of expertise is what will differ. Unrealistic expectations
should be set aside, for example expecting a two-year-old to button up a
shirt. Their fine motor control is of such a nature they will not be able to
do it. Catching a ball is another activity which is often expected of children
at a young age. The size of the ball will make the activity more
complicated.
General guidelines are offered for the ages of four to six years in the
appendices at the end of this chapter. These can be used to assess prior
knowledge and capabilities for Grade R and sometimes even for Grade 1
learners.
Parents and teachers need to be aware of what their children can do

physically. Making activities too difficult will do damage to the child’s
self-esteem. It is important to know that gross motor skills develop first,
followed by fine motor skills. Problems with motor development have
been found to have an impact on a child’s academic, behavioural and
motor performance (Cheatum & Hammond, 2000: 17–19).
9.6 WHY IS PHYSICAL EDUCATION SEEN AS PART OF

LIFE SKILLS? (AIMS)
Physical education is part of life skills in the curriculum prescribed for

Foundation Phase. Physical education is important for the well-being of
each learner and assists in preparing learners for life and its various
possibilities. Learners have to be equipped for meaningful and successful

living within our rapidly changing society. Physical activity provides the
ideal opportunity to get young learners involved, which will benefit them
throughout their lives.
Life skills focuses on the holistic development of learners, which includes

the social, personal, intellectual, emotional and physical growth of
learners. In the Foundation Phase (Grades R–3), four study areas have
been identified, namely beginning knowledge; personal and social well-
being; creative arts, and physical education. The aim is to guide and
prepare learners for life and all its possibilities. A further aim with life
skills is to ensure exposure to a range of knowledge, skills and values.
In physical education, the focus is on gross motor and fine motor skills as
well as perceptual development. These all make a significant contribution
to learners’ social, personal and emotional development (DoBE, 2011).
9.6.1 Acquisition of movement skills

At the very core of a developmental physical education programme is the
acquisition of fundamental movement skills. Martin and Hands (2003)
state that fundamental movement skills are basic movement patterns that
form the basis of many more complex skills used in games, sport and other
recreational activities. They form the basis for daily living as well as for
participation in physical activities. Young children already benefit from
good coordination and control of movement when engaged in physical
activity, play, sports and social interactions (Larkin & Summers, 2004).
Although motor development is a process continuing throughout life, early

childhood is the optimal phase to learn and develop fundamental motor
skills (Gallahue, Ozmun & Goodway, 2006). This development is
established through an interactive process of aspects related to the
individual, the task and the environment (Newell, 1985).
Motor development initially develops as reflexes (grasping and sucking as

a baby), progresses to gross motor and lastly to fine motor activities.
Children often battle with fine motor activities (colouring in, pasting,
cutting and writing) and far too often more practice in this activity is
emphasised. On the contrary, more attention should be placed on the
development of gross motor activities (Krog, 2010).
Gross motor development refers to the development of skills such as

rolling over, sitting up, crawling, walking and running. Gross motor
activities will also include active outdoor play such as hitting and kicking a
ball, riding a bicycle, skipping with a rope and throwing a ball. These
movements form the basis of fine motor development. Fine motor
development pertains to small muscle activity, such as that involved in
writing, drawing and colouring. These movements are reliant on a strong
foundation of fundamental motor skills.
FIGURE 9.8 Linear development of movement
Gallahue and Donnelly (2003) describe an aim as the overarching purpose

or intent of what we do. Being specialists in physical education, these
authors see a large portion of the day being dedicated to developing gross
motor activities, which encourage and develop learning to move and
moving to learn. Learning to move is focused on acquiring increased
movement skills and enhancing physical fitness by means of physical
activities. However, learning through movement focuses on the positive
effects, both cognitive and physical, on the development of children.
Quality physical education programmes must have clearly defined goals.

These goals must focus on helping children become skilful movers as well
as knowledgeable and expressive in their movement. Further activities
need to promote health benefits. At the same time, children must be
assisted to develop both perceptual motor and cognitive concept learning,
which assist learners in becoming more effective multisensory learners.
Self-discovering learning and cooperative learning promotes affective
development (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003).
The current Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) applied

in schools in South Africa focuses on developing the learner’s gross and
fine motor skills and perceptual development in the Foundation Phase
(DoBE, 2011). Physical and motor development is seen as an integral part
of the holistic development of learners. Many agree that positive attitudes
and values are developed through play, movement, games and sport
(DoBE, 2011; Timmons, Naylor & Pfeiffer, 2007).
9.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE

PRESENTATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE
FOUNDATION PHASE LIFE SKILLS PROGRAMME
The critical link between movement and learning is underestimated and

often considered non-existent. A large body of research (Kokot, 2006;
Goddard Blythe, 2003; Krog & Krüger, 2011) has recognised the link
between movement and learning. The complex interplay between the child
and the environment relies on the sensory motor system to receive and
store information (Thompson, 2008). The departure of this chapter is based
on a neurological perspective, which takes into account the place, role and
value of motor development in the life of the child from birth until nine
years of age.
The neural connections in the brain formed as a result of movement form

the basis of the child’s exploration of his or her surroundings. Movement
activities assist with the development of certain perceptual–motor skills,
which are vital for the learner to function effectively in the classroom.
Pheloung (2006: 2) developed and focuses on the “ladder of learning” as
she describes it, as the foundation that needs to be in place in order to
optimise learning. The “move to learn” programme, which Pheloung
proposes for improving perceptual–motor skills, is based on a neurological
perspective of motor development. Great success has been achieved with
the implementation of this programme (http://www.movetolearn.com.au;
Krog, 2010; Krog & Krüger, 2011).
The physical education programme requires the development of a number

of aspects, which are necessary for the child’s holistic development.
Should these aspects be insufficiently developed, this can have
implications for learning, as will be made evident in section 9.7.1.
FIGURE 9.9 The ladder of learning
Source: Pheloung (2006)
9.7.1 Body awareness

Body awareness refers to a mindfulness of the various body parts such as
legs, arms, head and feet, knees, elbow, shoulders as well as how they
function in relation to other body parts. Body awareness is one of the first
movement concepts that have to be developed. The total development of
the child is based on his or her awareness of himself or herself, his or her
abilities and how he or she relates to others. A good sense of body
awareness enhances self-esteem and the child will be willing to partake in
activities due to this. Should a child not be aware of his or her body and
ability to move, he or she could experience problems such as
pointing at the incorrect body part
awkward gait when walking, moving or running

low self-esteem
lack of perseverance
disliking of sport and movement activities in general
lack of coordination and unhappiness in his or her body.
9.7.2 Dominance
Dominance refers to the regular use of one hand, particularly for activities
requiring special coordination such as writing. There can also be a
dominant eye, foot, ear or whole side of the body. In order to determine a
learner’s dominant side, teachers need to observe a learner while throwing
a ball into a box, writing his or her name on paper, kicking a ball into a box
or picking up an object.
Dominance is only fully established around the age of eight. This is often
why many Grade 1 learners find the first formal year of school
problematic. Lack of dominance, together with insufficient opportunities
for movement activities during physical education, can be detrimental to
their progress in school. Should a learner have problems with dominance at
this age, activities are needed in order to assist the child. Difficulties in the
classroom due to mixed dominance or non-dominance need to be recorded.

These children often show difficulties in learning.
This interchanging of hands could confuse messages from the brain

resulting in delayed learning and development. A number of symptoms can
be observed in the classroom, such as
taking longer to complete written work

uncertainty of which hand to use
untidy writing
inability to organise belongings on the table

reluctance to participate in ball games.
Provide opportunities for the learner to throw a bean bag into a box with
the dominant hand a number of times each day. Other activities such as
kicking with the dominant foot, catching with the dominant hand as well as
throwing activities have proven to be successful. The dominant hand or
foot is the one which the teacher notices to be used the most by the learner.
9.7.3 Midline crossing

The midline is the imaginary line down the centre of a person’s body from
head to feet. The acquisition of this concept is very important for learning.
Learners need to be able to: pass objects from the one side of the body to
the other side; read from left to right; write from left to right; visually track
words written across a page; draw letters and symbols that require crossing
the midline, for example the figure 8; use scissors to cut out pictures; tie
shoe laces, and tie bows. Learners who are not able to cross the midline
may often display the following symptoms:
Poor coordination
Picking up objects in one hand and passing them to the other by putting
their hands together in the middle
Repositioning the page when writing and turning their body in order to
do crossover actions such as the figure 8 on its side
Difficulty with cross-pattern walking
Difficulty with spelling and mathematics
Difficulty with reading from left to right
Stopping writing in the middle of the page
Finding visual work stressful
Turning their heads to the side in order to read

Finding writing difficult, so switching hands (they write to the middle of
the page and swap the pencil or pen to the other hand).
9.7.4 Spatial awareness

Awareness of space begins with an inner awareness of the body and
progresses to an awareness of space around a person, the room, desk, the
space of the writing paper, etc. Teachers must ask the learner the question:
“Where is your body in relation to [something else]?” The development of
spatial awareness is of utmost importance in order for the learner to
function optimally in the classroom. A learner’s position in space will
transfer to the paper in various ways, for example: the learner’s ability to
write between the lines; the size and position of letters and symbols, and
the position between letters, symbols and objects.
Should learners not have had enough opportunities for the development of
spatial awareness, they could experience problems with the following:
Reversing the letters p, d, b and figures 3, 5 or 7
Not knowing how far away they are standing from friends
Bumping into people and objects
Knocking things over
Showing a tendency to draw only on one side of the page and not using
the entire space even when they are allowed to
Drawing small pictures in comparison to the space available on the page

Not liking to move in small spaces
Inability to keep between the lines when writing
9.7.5 Laterality
This refers to people’s automatic awareness of the right and left sides of
their own bodies and left and right in general. This is an important aspect
that needs to be developed. As children mature, they develop a sense of
laterality, but it has to be practised on as many occasions as possible.
Should a child not be proficient with laterality, he or she will present the
following:
Reversing letters such as d and b

Being unsure of which side is which (struggling to identify left and
right)
Problematic coordination
Lack of fluent movements, so that he or she bumps into objects
Untidy and unstructured school work
9.7.6 Eye–hand coordination

This is the ability of the learner to use his or her eyes and hands together
well, for example catching a ball, which is an important movement that has
an impact on the classroom. When a child has to copy from the board, he
or she needs to see the visual object or written work presented and at the
same time transfer this information to paper. Often eyes can not track
along the line of words written on the whiteboard and this results in the
possible scrambling of letters and incorrect words being read or written.
Providing activities such as bean bag catching and throwing will assist in
strengthening the eye muscles, which will result in better visual tracking.
9.7.7 Foreground/background concepts

During infancy the child will experience objects in various relations to
himself. The understanding of the different positions also forms an
important foundation of the child’s learning. The proficiency of the learner
to identify objects that are near, far, in the foreground or in the background
is necessary to enable efficient learning. In a physical education lesson, the
concepts of position and distance as mentioned can be made part of the
programme in order to enhance them. The use of obstacle courses with

directions (flashcards) is a good example of providing these kinds of
experiences.
9.8 TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE

FOUNDATION PHASE CLASSROOM
9.8.1 Planning
The current curriculum allows for two hours of physical education per
week. This is not adequate, but at least it has found its way back into the
curriculum. According to the CAPS document for the Foundation Phase
(Grade R to Grade 3), recommended equipment includes logs, planks,
tyres, balls, bean bags, wheel toys, markers, a jungle gym, obstacle course
items and music. Activities that need to be emphasised in CAPS include:
locomotion, perceptual motor, rhythm, coordination, balance, spatial
orientation, laterality, and sports and games (DoBE, 2011).
9.8.2 Teaming up with colleagues

Not all educators are trained in the field of physical education. Some
schools are in a fortunate position to have highly qualified physical
education specialists at their school. Many educators assume that they
require a degree in human movement science to present physical
education. This would be the ideal, but with lots of enthusiasm and
dedication the planning of lessons can be made easier if educators team up
with colleagues. Teaming up with colleagues makes the planning a
collaborative effort and decision making is preinstructional so that teachers

of the specific grade agree on the content; equipment and teaching style;
utilisation of the class time; the venue (playground or hall), and
instructional formations.
It is necessary to have flexible and meaningful lesson plans. The lesson

plan must include the number of learners, equipment, learner transitions,
level of physical activity and assessment. Lessons that run smoothly are
inclined to achieve the relevant outcomes far easier than unplanned
lessons.
According to Pangrazi and Beighle (2014), the specific teaching style that
is going to be used involves a range of variables, which are not limited to
the below-mentioned aspects:
Activities to be taught
Learner’s development levels and motivation
Class size
Equipment and facilities
Lesson objectives and skill development
9.8.3 Teaching style

A number of teaching styles exist and can be used in various combinations
in order to teach physical education. Three styles will be discussed briefly.
9.8.3.1 Direct style

This is a teacher-managed approach, which entails the teacher instructing

the entire class or small groups. It starts off with a demonstration of the
skills and while learners are busy in groups, the teacher moves around to
observe each group that is busy with the same activity. This direct style
makes the teacher a lecturer, major demonstrator, motivator, organiser,
disciplinarian and director. It is a controlled environment and a safe haven
for the learners. Providing variations for learners with different needs is
problematic.
9.8.3.2 Task style (stations)

Learners are divided into various groups and assigned to various stations.
Each station has a different activity requirement. Each station is provided
with sufficient equipment for all learners so that they do not stand around
unproductively and wait their turn. The time spent at each station might
vary depending on the task at hand. It is mostly determined by the stations
that take the most time, for example the obstacle course. Once each learner
of the specific group has completed the obstacle course, the necessary cue
to rotate is given. With this kind of activity the focus is on the learner and
not on the teacher (Pangrazi & Beighle, 2014).
9.8.3.3 Free-exploration style

This style of teaching allows the child freedom to explore the various
activities and it focuses more on child-centred learning. Learners choose
their own equipment and explore within a designated area, for example:
“You can select your own equipment and see what you can do with it.” The
teacher is not allowed to demonstrate and only motivates the learners while
moving freely around the movement area. Self-discovery is an important

part of learning a person’s limitations and capabilities.
9.9 CAPS AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE

FOUNDATION PHASE
Each year learners are steadily growing at about 10 cm in height and

gaining two to three kilograms in weight. This change is noticeable as the
body becomes more slender and their body proportions are more adult-
like. Six-year-olds start losing milk teeth and their legs are much shorter in
relation to the trunk. The child’s centre of gravity, however, remains high.
Even though these children are becoming more coordinated in gross motor
movements teachers cannot expect them to be perfect in their execution of
movement activities.
During the presentation of movement activities in the physical education

lesson, proper planning is required. Gross motor activity is essential after
the physical confinement of a typical school day. Cooperative games
should be part of gross motor activity. The environment must include
challenges. Teachers have to pay attention to the developmental
differences between preschool children, Foundation Phase learners and
primary school children. This will ensure adequate development of
physical abilities.
9.9.1 Facilitating movement for the Grade R learner (five to six

years)
Children of five to six years are still somewhat uncoordinated with certain
movements. They are, however, very enthusiastic to take part in fun-filled
movement activities. These learners will still be doing some of the
activities of the four- to five-year-old, and will start mastering these
aspects:
Locomotion activities such as skipping, climbing, hopscotch,

wheelbarrow walking, going down a large slide, and riding small
scooters and a two-wheeled bike
Non-locomotor activities such as balancing on one leg and standing on a
balance beam
Manipulative activities such as hitting with a baseball bat and swingball
games, using oversized balls and bats. The skills of skipping with a
rope, roller-skating and bicycling should be improving week by week.
Between the ages of six and seven there is little differentiation between
friends of the same and opposite sex. Grouping children is not a problem
due to gender as girls and boys can be grouped together. A preschool child
is more top heavy and tends to be clumsy. However by seven, their centre
of gravity has lowered and their balance improves with more experience.
Manipulative skills are slowly developing. Learners vary in their ability to
manipulate equipment. Some have well-coordinated eye–hand
coordination while others might shy away from manipulation activities.
Most can kick, bounce, throw and catch a ball. Handling a hockey stick,
cricket bat and racquets can still be difficult for some to manage. In order
to provide an overview of what the child is capable of, the teacher can
design a few checklists to evaluate the child’s ability. Below are a few
examples (tables 9.1, 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4).
TABLE 9.1 A gross motor checklist for Grade R
Gross motor Achieved Almost Not yet

activity achieved achieved
Balances on
one foot for 10
seconds, with
arms upraised
Walks forward
10 steps heel to
toe, keeping
balance
Balances on
tiptoes, bending
forward from
hips
Marches, skips
to rhythm
Can throw a
ball in a box (2
m away)
Cross-pattern
walking over a
rope
Physiological growth changes occur in females from the ages of eight to 12

years; in males from nine to 13 years. Further rapid development of small
muscle skills takes place during this time. Eye–hand, eye–foot
coordination is quite good and the upper body is in good proportion to the
lower body. Learners are eager to do things well. Winning and losing are
of tremendous importance, which means games can be effectively applied
as a closing activity to practise skills. Rules must be established and
adhered to in order to provide boundaries for children. A decrease in
egocentricity is noticeable at this age. Children can be divided into pairs or
groups of up to four for games and rhythmic movements. Learners can
concentrate for longer periods at a time and lessons can be lengthened to
30–40 minutes. There is also an increase in peer awareness, and peer
acceptance becomes important.
TABLE 9.2 A gross motor checklist for Grade 1

Balances on
one foot for 10
seconds, with
arms upraised
Walks forward
10 steps heel to
toe, keeping
balance
Balances on
tiptoes, bending
forward from
hips
Marches, skips
to rhythm
Can throw a
ball in a box (3
m away)

Cross-pattern
walking over a
rope
Jumps
sideways, feet
together, three
successive
jumps of about
12–14 inches
Catches a
tennis ball
bouncing off a
wall from a
distance of 3 m
Can hit a ball
with a hockey
stick, racquet or
cricket bat
Can throw
underhand
Can throw with
left and right
hands
Can catch with
two hands
Can catch with
one hand

Balances on
one foot for 10
seconds, with
arms upraised
Walks forward
10 steps heel to
toe, keeping
balance
Balances on
tiptoes, bending
forward from
hips
Marches, skips
to rhythm
Can throw a
ball in a box (3
m away)
Cross-pattern
walking over a
rope
Balances on
one foot for 20
seconds, with
eyes closed
Jumps
sideways, feet
together, three
successive
jumps of about
50 cm
Can jump over
a rope 40 cm
high
Catches a
tennis ball

bouncing off a
wall from a
distance of 3 m
Can hit a ball
with a hockey
stick, racquet or
cricket bat
Can throw
underhand
Can throw with
left and right
hands
Can catch with
two hands
Can catch with
one hand

Balances on
one foot for 20
seconds, with
eyes closed
Walks forward
10 steps heel to
toe, keeping
balance
Balances on
tiptoes, bending

forward from
hips
Marches, skips
to rhythm
Can throw a
ball in a box (3
m away)
Cross-pattern
walking over a
rope
Jumps
sideways, feet
together, three
successive
jumps of about
50 cm
Can jump over
a rope 40 cm
high
Catches a
tennis ball
bouncing off a
wall from a
distance of 3 m
Can hit a ball
with a hockey
stick, racquet or
cricket bat
Can throw
underhand
Can throw with
left and right
hands
Can catch with
two hands

Can catch with
one hand
9.9.2 Lesson layout

The planning of a movement lesson that consists of multiple stations
provides an opportunity to have the whole class busy at the same time. A
number of stations must be planned, which include the use of a variety of
motor skills discussed in this chapter, such as laterality activities, crossing
the midline, locomotion, manipulation, stability, and body awareness.
Having an obstacle course in one of the stations can include a combination
of motor skills and provides problem solving at the same time. The number
of children in the class will dictate how many stations are required as it is
essential that all learners are involved at a station and sufficient equipment
is available for all the learners. For example, 30 children in a class can be
split up into six stations with five children at each station or five stations
with six children. The planning of your lesson must be completed on one
A4 page (see lesson layout for Grade R on page 338.)
It is necessary that the rotation between stations is planned and explained

to learners before you start. For example: 1→2→3→4 (clockwise or anti-
clockwise). There must be a group at each station and on the blow of the
whistle, they start. When the whistle blows again, they stop and pack the
equipment neatly and on the next signal they rotate to the next station.
A few guidelines that should be remembered for planning of a multiple

choice physical education lesson:
The teacher must make sure there is sufficient equipment beforehand.
Boundaries must be laid out so that the learners are only allowed within
that area.
Each station must be numbered.

The learners must know to which groups they are allocated.
The relevant flash cards showing directions or activities must be placed

at the stations.
Rules and procedures must be explained.

The rotation between stations must be explained.
The learners must have fun.

A warm-up and a cooling-down session must be planned.
It takes time to arrange the lesson and get the class to follow the routine. In
the beginning it might seem chaotic and noisy, but learners need to have
fun. With time and proper planning you can succeed in organising
wonderful lessons. While the learners are at stations, take the opportunity
to observe which motor skills are problematic for learners. Have a class list
available and tick off the concepts you have included, for example body
awareness, spatial awareness and locomotion. Lists for assessment have
been included in this chapter.
LESSON LAYOUT: Grade R (multiple choice lesson)

WARM-UP: Swing arms slowly. Make large circles

with your arms as if you are a windmill. Stretch up
on your toes. Up and down movements. Each
station must be explained to the learners or briefly
ask them what they think they must do.
Station 1: Obstacle Station 2: Exploration
course area
Aim: Develop spatial Aim: Develop problem
awareness, balance, solving, exploration and
gross motor creativity
development and Questions: What can be
locomotion done with the
Questions: Who knows equipment? Can you see
what to do here? What the flashcard? What plan
can we do here? Can can you make to
you take the bean bag complete this station?
with you?
Station 3: Station 4:
Aim: Throwing, develop Aim: Dribble and kick,
hand–eye coordination develop eye–foot
activities coordination
Question: Can you use Question: Can you kick
the bean bag to knock the ball around the
over the tins? markers and into the
box?
COOLING DOWN:
Let the children do stretching activities, for example
touch their toes, keep their knees straight. Stretch
slowly. Side stretches while standing with feet apart.
LESSON LAYOUT: Grade 2 (multiple choice lesson)
INTRODUCTION/WARM-UP: Children take part in

an active warm-up. The educator explains each
station’s activity to the children. (Make use of open
questions, for example “What do you think we
should do here?”)
Station 1: Obstacle Station 2: Exploration
course area
Aim: Develop spatial Aim: Promote spatial
awareness, balance, awareness, exploration
gross motor skills and and creative thinking
locomotion Questions: What can
Questions: Who knows we do with all the
what to do? What can equipment? What does
we do here? Can you the flashcard mean?
take the bean bag with Can you think of a clever
you? Can you do the plan?
obstacle course?
Station 3: Locomotion Station 4: Hand–eye

Aim: Develop coordination
locomotion, strength and Aim: Develop hand–eye
balance coordination and number
Questions: Can you concepts
move in the bag on the Questions: Can you
zig-zag line without throw the ball into the
falling over? How far did basin? How many times
you get before you fell? did you throw the ball
into the basin?
COOLING DOWN: Children and the educator sit

together and discuss the stations. Which was the
best activity? Which was the most
difficult/easiest/nicest? How many times did you
throw the ball into the water? Basic stretching
activities can be added.
9.9.3 Facilitating the use of equipment

The most important apparatus in physical education is the human body.
Using equipment enhances the movement programme and therefore bears
merit. Many games and activities require specific types of equipment. A
variety of equipment such as ladders, beams, boxes and climbing structures

offer a great variety of movement possibilities, which children/learners
might not experience elsewhere. Adding a variety of equipment can also
help alleviate self-consciousness and encourage children/learners who
might not otherwise want to partake in movement activities. Furthermore
the incorporation of equipment is far more practical for a number of
reasons: large groups can be accommodated, it makes the movement lesson
more interesting and the skill levels improve without much effort. Learners
find the activities stimulating and fun and will partake without resistance.
Many schools have limited budgets to purchase equipment. It is suggested

that teachers consider making equipment which can be used in the physical
education lessons (see also Chapter 4 on technology about making
equipment from waste material). Over time equipment can also be
purchased. A large number of items can be made from waste material.
Children can decorate the items themselves. Teachers must make sure they
have enough storage space for the equipment. Learners should also assist
with the packing away of the equipment. In the next section, a few ideas
for inexpensive equipment are provided.
9.9.3.1 Balls
Balls are useful for a variety of manipulation activities such as movement
exploration, rolling, throwing and catching, bounding and dribbling,
volleying, foot dribbling and kicking. Many different materials can be used
to make balls of various sizes and weights. This includes wool balls, sock
balls, paper balls, shape balls, foam-chip balls, velcro balls, tether balls,
balloons and beach balls, and even stuffed shopping bag balls.
Paper balls: crush or roll up some paper and bind with masking or
electrical tape. The more tape used, the heavier the ball.
Sock balls: stuff a thick sock with a plastic bag filled with either beans
or rice, fastened with masking tape and placed inside another sock.
Twist the sock twice so it is tight, then draw the top of the sock opening
over the ball repeatedly until there is no length of sock left.
Wool balls (pompoms): place two cardboard doughnuts together (the

larger the hole, the bigger the ball). Pass wool through the centre holes
and wrap around the doughnuts. Cut around the outer edge of the
doughnuts. Tie the wool between the doughnuts tightly with string, then
remove the cardboard. Trim as required. For a handle, use a long piece
of string to tie the wool.
Foam-chip balls: cut up a foam sponge into chip-shaped pieces. Place

the chips in a cup by wrapping them in a thin piece of foam or piece of
stocking material. Secure the cup of chips with masking tape. The ball
has an irregular light pattern and is great when used with a scoop.
Shopping bag balls: roll newspaper into balls. Take a plastic shopping
bag and fill with the newspaper. Tie the handles to prevent the paper
from falling out. The plastic balls are big and light enough for learners
to kick around.
9.10 PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ASSESSMENT
Assessing a learner’s motor development is important as it provides an

indication of what the learner is able to do and what needs improvement.
Name of learner: PHYSICAL GROSS MOTOR

_________________________ DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT
Date of birth: Mass: COORDINATION
_________________________ _________________kg Basic motor
Current age: Length movements (run,
_________________________ ________________cm climb, jump and hop)
Grade: GENERAL HEALTH Agile
_________________________ Lively Controlled
Date of assessment:
Energetic Good
_________________________
Sometimes slow Somewhat clumsy
Tires easily Uncontrolled
BALANCE BODY AWARENESS DOMINANCE

Handling of bean bag/ball Knowledge of body Prefers:
Well controlled parts Hand
Names body parts Left/right/both/unsure
With confidence
Uncontrolled Names most body Foot
parts Left/right/both/unsure
Shows body parts
Eye
Shows certain body Left/right/both/unsure
parts
Unable to name or
show body parts
EYE–HAND LATERALITY DIRECTIONALITY

COORDINATION Inner concept of left Physically perform an
Stringing and right activity indicating
Skilful Sure ❑ up ❑ over
Not yet competent Unsure ❑ down ❑ around
Uncoordinated ❑ under ❑ behind
❑ in front of
MOVEMENT ACTIVITIES MOVEMENT MIDLINE CROSSING

Participation ACTIVITIES Agile
Enthusiastic Skills Controlled
Active participation Adept Good
Agile
Usually participates Somewhat clumsy
Shaky/unsteady Daring Uncontrolled
Uses own initiative
Disruptive Avoidant
Satisfactory
Hesitant
Observes others Clumsy
No skills mastered
yet
9.11 SUMMARY
Most learners follow a predictable sequence in the acquisition of

movement skills, but each learner does it at his own rate. As they mature,
children will have the ability to develop fundamental gross motor skills.
However, without the proper learning experiences and opportunities for
practice, learners may develop inefficient movement patterns. This will
delay or prevent them from refining the basic skills into game and sport
skills. Emerging motor skills require ample practice time as well as proper
planning within a lesson. Sufficient equipment is required for learners to
develop optimally and appropriately.
Physical activity involves the accumulation of a wide variety of

movements. These movement activities will benefit every learner
physically, cognitively and affectively.
Student activities
1. Can you think of factors that contribute to the modern child’s sedentary
lifestyle?
2. What does the development of a child’s self-concept entail? Indicate at least

five movement activities that can be used to enhance self-concept.
3. Discuss the meaning of “learning to move” and “learning through

movement”.
4. Developing the ability to cross the midline is important for academic

success. Explain what problems a child might experience should he or she
not be able to cross the midline.
5. Design a lesson consisting of four stations. The lesson must include a

warm-up activity as well as a cooling down at the end of the lesson. You
must only use one A4 page for your lesson. Provide the layout of the lesson
as well as drawings of the activities at each station and the equipment that
you suggest using.
Appendices
Physical development milestones: six weeks to nine months
Age Average Might be able Should be

milestone to able to
Six Holds head up Follow React in a
weeks briefly. objects with startled
way to

Turns briefly to his eyes. sudden
sources of movement
Smile
light and or a loud
voluntarily.
sound. sound.
Lift and turn
Communicates his head Suck
by crying. strongly.
when lying
on his back.
Three Raises chest Sit up with Smile.

months on elbows some Respond
when lying on support. to
his tummy. Coo and movement
Holds head up gurgle. and
when held Squeal sound.
upright. when
Smiles and happy.
laughs
Focus on
spontaneously.
small
Turns towards objects.
familiar voices. Reach out
to objects.
Four Pulls his upper Lift his Coo and

months body up when chest with gurgle.
his hands are straightened Respond
held. arms when to mother
Holds his head placed on and
up when held tummy. father’s
upright. voice.
Grasps a Follow
rattle. movement
with his
eyes.
Six Reaches out Sit unaided. Roll over

months and grasps and back

objects. Imitate the again.
sound of
Puts objects Use both
other
into his mouth. hands.
voices.
Bounces when Have
held in a Make control
double-
standing over limb
syllable
position. and hand
sounds like
Rolls from movement.
‘goo-goo’.
stomach to Babble
back. Look for and coo.
dropped
toys.
Nine Holds a toy in Pick up a Hold his

months each hand. small object head up
between the steadily.
Claps hands.
thumb and
Eats finger Sit
forefinger.
foods. unaided.
Crawl or Grasp and
Drinks from a inch his way hold
cup. across the objects.
Shouts or floor.
Babble
gestures for Pull himself
and coo.
attention. to a
Makes singing standing
sounds. position.
Waves Stand
goodbye. unaided for
a few
seconds.
Say “mama”
or “dada”.
Respond to
single
instructions.
Sources: National Network for Childcare (2002: 1–5); De Jager (2009: 99–116)
Physical development milestones: 12–24 months

Twelve Walks while Take a few Say
months his hands steps “mama” or
are held. unaided. “dada”.
Walks while Roll and Crawl or
holding on catch a creep with
to furniture. large ball. legs
Stands extended.
unsupported Put food in
for a few his mouth.
seconds.
Pulls self to
a standing
position.
Says at
least five
words.
Understands
simple
instructions.
Responds to
own name.
Points to
objects.
Fifteen Can walk String Pull himself

months unaided. together two to a
words. standing
Has a
position.
vocabulary Climb up
of over 10 stairs. Stand
words. unaided.

Attempts to Say at
feed himself least five
with a words.
spoon.
Can stack at
least two
blocks.
18 Walks Successfully Make an

months unaided. feed himself effort to
with a walk.
Can walk
spoon.
backwards.
Throws a Turn the
pages of a
ball without
book.
falling.
Picks up Identify
toys from pictures in a
the floor book.
without
falling.
Makes two-
word
sentences.
Understands
most
instructions.
24 Runs. Undress Walk

months himself. unaided.
Kicks a ball.
Climbs up Walk on Use at
and down tiptoe. least two-
stairs. Repeat word
nursery sentences.
Builds a
rhymes and Understand
tower of six
songs. simple
blocks.
commands.

Can draw Jump on
horizontal both feet.
and vertical
lines.
Says short
phrases.
Refers to
himself by
name.
Sources: National Network for Childcare (2002: 1–5); De Jager (2009: 99–116)
Gross motor development chart – age range: two years and six
months to six years (walking to jumping)
Two years Three Four Five Six years

six months years years years
Walking Walks up and Walks alone Walks or Can Walks
down stairs upstairs. turns heel/toe backwards
two feet to a alone up walk. toe/heel.
step with hand and Walks
on wall. down up and
stairs, down
one foot stairs
to a carrying
step. objects
Walks in both
easily on hands.
narrow
line.
Running Runs well While While Can
straight running can running stop,
forward. turn around can start,
obstacles skilfully turn
and navigate while
corners. and turn running.
Two years Three Four Five Six years

six months years years years
sharp
corners.
Walking Walks on Can stand Can now Runs Runs
on toes tiptoe after and walk on run on lightly on around
demonstration. tiptoe. tiptoe. toes. obstacle
course.
Jumping Jumps with Jumps from Can From Jumps
both feet in the bottom jump standing, over a
place. of a step of from a jumps rope 25
a flight of low with two cm above
steps, two height feet the
feet with two together. ground.
together. feet
together.
Standing Tries to stand Maintains Stands Can
on one on one foot. standing on one stand on
foot balance foot for either
with heels two to foot for
together, seven eight to
can stand seconds. twelve
momentarily seconds.
on
preferred
foot.
Source: Singh (1993: 21)
Gross motor development chart – age range: two years and six
months to six years (hopping to bouncing)
Two years Three Four years Five years Six years

six months years
Hopping Generally At three Hops on Can hop Able to
not present. years six preferred foot forward hop on
months can four to six about ten alternate
hop one to times. hops on

six months years
three times preferred legs for 3
on preferred foot, one m.
foot. leg is more
dominant.
Galloping Generally Some Most Can
not present children have children gallop,
(basic) but a basic can gallop leading
inefficient galloping in a with the
gallop at pattern on coordinated right leg
about four preferred foot. way. or left leg.
years.
Skipping Generally Approximately Most 85% can
not present 15% can skip children skip.
(one-footed at this stage. about to
skip at achieve
about four this on
years old) alternate
feet.
Throwing Ball thrown Can throw a Can roll a Immature Throws
with ball ball. underarm and can
forearm overhead. pattern if catch
extension small ball bounced
only. used, can tennis
toss one to ball with
five bean both
bags into a hands.
container.
Catching Responds Catches Can catch Thrower Catches
to “aerial” large ball bean bag, must be with
ball with tossed can catch accurate hands,
delayed gently and large ball with for a starting to
arm accurately elbows bent. successful catch
movements. onto or catch, tennis
between catches ball.
straight with
arms. clapping
then
scooping

six months years
action
using arms
to chest.
Bouncing Generally Can bounce Bounces/pats Small Single
not present, a large ball large ball two bounce and bounce
can roll a fairly or more times catches and catch
ball to an competently. with both small ball mastered,
adult. hands. but not attempts
always more
successful. than one
bounce
but often
too
forcefully
and the
bounce is
irregular,
dominant
side only.
Source: Singh (1993: 22)
Gross motor development chart – age range two years six months to
six years (kicking to rhythm)

six months years
Kicking Kicks a large Kicks a Walks up Stands on Kicks
ball. ball and kicks a one leg and moving
strongly. stationary kicks with object,
ball. the other moves to
becoming object in
stronger, an attempt
reluctant to to stop it.
kick moving
ball.

six months years
Riding Sits on pedal Rides Expert Rides small Has
tricycle cycle and tricycle tricycle bicycle with started to
steers but pushing rider, training master a
propels with pedals and executing wheels. small
feet on the steers sharp U- bicycle.
floor. around turns.
corners.
Climbing Climbs easy Climbs Climbs Skilful in Requires a
playground playground ladder and climbing, variety of
equipment. equipment, trees, sliding, equipment
often using alternate swinging to
two feet on arm and and encourage
to a step. leg digging. exploration
position. in
climbing.
Rhythm Children Whole Movements Move Galloping,
begin body of separate rhythmically jumping
developing movement body parts to music, and
their to music. to music, marches in running in
rhythmic walking to time. rhythm to
abilities rhythm. simple
during tunes.
infancy –
coping
response to
soft
rhythmical
sounds. As
they grow,
they
continue to
explore and
expand their
environment.
Source: Singh (1993: 23
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Teaching Life Skills in The Foundation Phase 2 Chapter 9

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8/29/23, 11:03 PM TEACHING LIFE SKILLS IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE 2

Physical education in the

THE PURPOSE OF THE CHAPTER

THE SUBJECT LIFE SKILLS IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE

After you have studied this chapter, you will be able to

identify the value of physical education in the curriculum

analyse the link between movement and the brain

discuss the importance of developing fundamental motor skills

identify key planning aspects required to present adequate movement

KEY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Affective domain: the child’s dealings with himself or herself (self-concept)

Directionality: the learner’s ability to know, for example, the difference

Dysfunction in the sensory motor system: sensory motor system refers

Motor cognitive domain: the relationship that exists between the

Movement activities: an essential ingredient of physical activity (Stiehl,

Physical education: the education of, by and through human movement

Spatial awareness: a learner’s perspective of space (i.e. above or below)

Temporal awareness: the ability to predict when stimuli arrive at the

now receiving considerable attention (Timmons, Naylor & Pfeiffer, 2007;

Gallahue (1993) clearly states that movement activities should be at the

education in the Foundation Phase needs to be properly planned and

9.2 MOVEMENT AND THE BRAIN

motor system depends ultimately on interhemispheric integration (the

Research indicates that a weakness in motor development affects

9.3 WHAT IS PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE

Physical education means many things to many people. It is an essential

viewed it as a subject that is time wasting (Pangrazi & Beighle, 2014).

A physical education programme is part of the total educational

Physical education is an important tool to prepare learners to live

often leads to frustrations and failure during adolescence and adulthood. It

9.3.1 Psychomotor development

9.3.1.1 Categories of fundamental movement skills

Non-locomotion skills include: bending, turning, balancing, pushing,

FIGURE 9.2 Categories of fundamental movement skills

9.3.2 Cognitive development

requires the development of body awareness, spatial awareness and

9.3.3 Affective development

The development of self-concept and peer relations are two concepts,

Self-concept entails a sense of belonging, perceived competence,

ideal situation to provide experiences, which include climbing trees, ropes,

Positive socialisation as part of developing the affective domain can be

9.4 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS

The motor development of the child follows a sequential pattern, moving

FIGURE 9.3 The interrelated nature of motor development

Source: Gallahue (1982)

9.4.1 Reflexive behaviour

9.4.2 Rudimentary movement abilities

(Gallahue et al., 1975). As the child grows, these rudimentary movement

The rudimentary movement phase and its effect on learning is vital

FIGURE 9.4 Phases of motor development

Source: Adapted from Gallahue et al. (1975: 5)

Figure 9.6 presents a list of some of the major rudimentary movement

characterised by uncoordinated movements as the child tries to execute

9.4.2.1 Prone with head extension

FIGURE 9.5 Rudimentary movement

Source: McCall & Craft (2000: 154)

FIGURE 9.6 Selected rudimentary movement abilities (up to two years

Blythe, 2003a; Hansford, 1992). Writing is a strenuous activity for children

FIGURE 9.7 Midline crossing activities

Crawling is also a major contributing factor to the development of spatial

9.4.3 Fundamental movement

9.4.4 General movement skills