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GE5 The Contemporary World lesson 1-8

The Contemporary World (Pangasinan State University)

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LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF GLOBALIZATION

Studying the Contemporary World

- Why do you need to study the world?

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Differentiate the competing conceptions of globalization.
2. Identify the underlying philosophies of the varying definitions of globalization.
3. Agree on a working definition of globalization for the course.

WHY DO YOU NEED TO STUDY THE WORLD?

1. Cure parochialism. From close-mindedness to stretched imagination, outlook, and concern. One's
concern is not only for their immediate context or environment.
2. It can teach you more about yourself. With knowledge about other countries, one can compare their
society's condition with that of other societies/countries. This comparison may point out uniqueness and
even similarities.
3. You are interacting with the world. As global citizens, being aware of what is happening with the world
is a given. With all the interconnectedness and interdependence, the events happening outside us might
bring a positive or negative impact.

Defining Globalization How

did Globalization Began?
• Trading of rare commodities like salt, spices and gold.
• In other words, there is exchange of goods among traders of different countries mainly because some of
these commodities and goods are not found in their own country.
Example: Silk Road (silk is a highly prized commodity) is an Asian ancient trade route that linked China and
Europe via an overland route to exchange silk, wool, gold, silver, jade, tea, spices, etc.
• Advancement in transportation and communication resulted to an easier and increased exchange of
information and goods easily.
- Geographical challenges are no longer an issue.

Globalization represents the global integration of international trade, investment, information technology and
cultures. Government policies designed to open economies domestically and internationally to boost development
in poorer countries and raise standards of living for their people are what drive globalization.

The literature on definitions of globalization revealed that definitions could be classified as either
1. broad and inclusive
2. narrow and exclusive

• Ohmae (1992) -..."globalization means the onset of the borderless worlds..."

• Robert Cox - "the characteristics of the globalization trend include the internationalizing of production,
the new international division of labor, new migratory movements from South to North, the new
competitive environment that accelerates these processes, and the internationalizing of the state...making
states into agencies of the globalizing word."

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VARIOUS DEFINITIONS OF GLOBALIZATION

Thomas Larson (2001) - "the process of the world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer.
It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit
with somebody on the other side of the world." (p.9)
Martin Khor, the former President of the Third World Network (TWN) regarded globalization as colonization.

World Health Organization:

Globalization is “the increased interconnectedness and interdependence of peoples and countries, is
generally understood to include two inter-related elements: the opening of international borders to increasing fast
flows of goods, services, finance, people and ideas; and the changes in institutions and policies at national and
international levels that facilitate or promote such flows. Globalization has the potential for both positive and
negative effects on development and health.

Thomas Friedman
"The inexorable integration of markets, transportation systems, and communication systems to a degree never
witnessed before- in a way that enabling corporations, countries, and individuals to reach around the world
farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper than ever before"

GLOBALIZATION: A WORKING DEFINITION

Manfred Steger
• "The term globalization should be used to refer to a set of social processes that are thought to transform
our present social condition into one globality.
• "The expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness across world-time and across
world-space."

GLOBALIZATION is the expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness across
worldtime and world-space. (Steger, 2013)
consciousness.

EXPANSION refers to both the creation of new Different levels of connections:

social networks and the multiplication of existing
1.Social Media (establishing global connections between people)
connections that cut across traditional political,
economic, cultural, and geographic boundaries. 2.International groups of non-government organizations (NGOs)

Expansion of global connections – with this connection,

INTENSIFICATION refers to the expansion,
stretching, and acceleration of these networks. transactions happen at a higher speed – integration of
economies, markets nation-states, cultures, institutions.

THE HUMAN PERCEPTION OF TIME AND SPACE;

Steger notes that globalization processes do not The perception that the world has become a smaller space and
occur merely at the objective, material level but distance has collapsed from thousands of miles to just
they also involve the subjective plane of human mouseclick away.
GLOBALIZATION (process) vs. GLOBALISM (ideology)

If globalization represents the many processes that allow for the expansion and intensification of global connection,
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globalism is a widespread belief among powerful people that the global integration of economic market is beneficial for
everyone, since it spreads freedom and democracy across the world.

growth of ‘super territorial’

GLOBALIZATION (Steger, 2014) relations between people.
As Economic Process
As Political Process
As Cultural Process
- How the evolution of
international markets and -The implication that economic
-Confronted with the question of
corporations led to an globalization might be leading to the
whether globalization increases
intensified form of global reduced control of national
cultural homogeneity or it leads to
interdependence. governments over economic policies.
greater diversity and heterogeneity.

- The notion that globalization - Political globalization as a

- Viewing globalization not
involves the increasing linkage process intrinsically connected to the
as a one-dimensional phenomenon,
of national economies through expansion of markets.
but as a multidimensional process
trade, financial flows, and
involving diverse domains of
foreign direct investments. - The central role of politics – activity and interaction, including
especially the successful mobilization the cultural sphere.
- The premium put on free trade. of political power – in unleashing the
forces of globalization.
- Increasing network of
- Two most important aspect of complex cultural interconnection
economic globalization: - The continued relevance of and independence.
1. changing nature of the conventional political units, operating
production process, either in the form of modern
- Culture no longer remains
2. liberalization and nationstates or global cities.
tied to fixed localities such as town
internationalization of
and nation, but acquires new
financial transactions. - The need for effective global meaning that reflect dominant
governance structures as a consequence themes emerging in a global
- Emergence of transactional of various forces of globalization. context.
financial system.
- The gradual process of relative
- Concept of ‘globality’,
- Creation of international deterritorialization that facilitate the
referring to the experience of living
financial markets.
and acting across borders.
GLOBALISM versus GLOBALIZATION
www.PEDIAA.com
GLOBALISM GLOBALIZATION
Globalism is an ideology based on the belief that Globalization is the spread of technology, products,
people, information, and goods should be able to cross information, and jobs across nations.
national borders unrestricted.
The ideological component of globalization. Involves increasing interconnection between people
and regions throughout the world.

Anthropologist Arjun Appadurai (1996) identifies multiple and intersecting dimensions of global cultural
flows he calls 'landscapes' or 'scapes' (Steger, 2014: 13).

These five conceptual dimensions are:

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1. Ethnoscape. Flows of people. The movement of people.

2. Technoscape. Flows of technology. Development and boom of technology that facilitates cross-border
connections and transactions. E.g. the internet, information technology, and engineering.
3. Finanscape. Flows of money. The flow of global capital. International banking and cash systems allow
this to happen. E.g. credit card systems.
4. Mediascape. Flows of information. The production and dissemination of information through electronic
means. The access of people to modern popular culture. E.g. access to international entertainment like
Hollywood films, K-drama, and anime; media such as newspapers, magazines, the social network.
5. Ideoscape. Flows of ideas. Ideologies of state, and social movements. E.g. posting of your views on a
certain event or human reality on Facebook; religious missionaries spreading their doctrines to other
regions or countries; environmentalism.
(Globalization occurs at multiple intersecting levels)

HOW CAN WE APPRECIATE THESE DEFINITIONS?

HOW CAN THESE HELP US UNDERSTAND GLOBALIZATION?

1. The perspective of the person who defines globalization shapes its definition.

"Globalization is a 'world of things' that have different speeds, axes, points or origin and termination, and varied
relationships to institutional structures in different regions, nations, or societies””. - Arjun Appadurai (as cited
in Chowdhury, 2016, p. 137)

2. Globalization is a debate and the debate is globalization.

- It is an uneven process that affects people differently.

3. Globalization is reality.

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Lesson 2 & 3: The Structures of Globalization

(The Global Economy, Market Integration, The Global Interstate System, Contemporary Global
Governance)

Globalization
"May be thought of initially as the widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide
interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life (Held, et. Al, 1999)
➤Aspects means the political, technical, cultural and economic features (Giddens, 1999:10).
Meaning, globalization is a multidimensional phenomenon

1. THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define economic globalization.
2. Identify the actors that facilitate economic globalization.
3. Define the modern world system.
4. Articulate a stance on global economic integration.

ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION
...a historical process, the result of human innovation and technological progress. It refers to the
increasing integration of economies around the world, particularly through the movement of goods,
services, and capital across borders. The term sometimes also refers to the movement of people (labor)
and knowledge (technology) across international borders (IMF, 2008 as cited in Benczes, 2014: 900).

INTERCONNECTED DIMENSIONS OF ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION

1. The globalization of trade goods and services.
2. The globalization of financial and capital markets.
3. The globalization of technology and communication.
4. The globalization of production.

ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION
We should note that globalization is multidimensional, complex, and does not influence or affect
nation-states in the same way which makes it an uneven process as well.

TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS (TNCs)

- TNCs are business organization whose activities are located to more than two countries and is
the organizational form that defines foreign direct investment (Lazarus 2001, p 10197)
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- Regarded as another important economic development that involves the changing nature of
global production.
- TNCs are believed to be the main driving force of economic globalization. - For realists, TNCs
still represent national interests and have means through which the rich can exploit the poor.
- The availability of cheap labor, resources, and favorable production conditions in the Third
World enhanced both the mobility and the profitability of TNCs.
- TNCs' ability to 'outsource' manufacturing jobs-that is, to cut labor costs by dispersing economic
production processes into many discrete phases carried out by low-wage workers in the global
south-is often cited as one of the hallmarks of economic globalization.
- Enterprises like Wal-Mart, General Motors, Exxon-Mobil, Mitsubishi, and Siemens belong to the
200 largest TNCs, which accounts for over half of the world's industrial output.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF)

- Founded at the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944 alongside the International
Banks for Reconstruction and Development (Now called World Bank)-which was
responsible for post war reconstruction, as two international institutions.
- The mandate of IMF was to promote international financial cooperation and strengthen
international trade.
- The IMF was expected to provide short-term financial assistance (loans) to countries.
- Official organization for securing international monetary cooperation.
- Help less-developed countries through research and giving monetary advice.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO)

- WTO was launched on January 1, 1995 and has become an official forum for trade
negotiations. - It is a formally constituted organization with legal personality.

WORLD BANK
- Two mandates of the institution: end extreme poverty and promote shared
prosperity.
- Offers financial and technical assistance to developing countries.

WTO, IMF, and WORLD BANK

- 3 institutions that underwrite the basic rules and regulations of economic, monetary, and trade
relations between countries.
- Many developing countries have loosened their trade rules because of the influence and pressure
of these institutions.

IS ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION A NEW PHENOMENON?

- There is no consensus (agreement) on its origin
- Best known example of archaic (old) globalization is through the Silk Road → long distance
trade
- Silk road is the oldest known international trade route (From China to Middle East to Europe)
(trivia: one of the most profitable products traded here is silk)
- However, silk road was international but NOT truly "global" because it had no ocean routes that
could reach the American continent
- Historians Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giraldez claims that globalization began when "All
heavily populated continents began to exchange products continuously – both with each other
directly and indirectly via other continents

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 Traced it back to 1571 with the establishment of galleon trade (connected Manila to Acapulco,
Mexico, thus Americas become connected to trading routes)

- Later, a more open trade emerged in 1857 when UK, US, and other European nations adopted the
gold standard at an international monetary conference in Paris.
• Its goal is to create a common system for more efficient trade
• But during World War I, countries exhausted their gold reserves when they funded their armies,
causing a downfall in their economy resulting to the abandonment of gold standard  They
adopted floating currencies that were no longer redeemable in gold.
• Today, the world economy operates on fiat currencies - currencies not backed up by gold but
their cost relative to other currencies
- This allowed countries to control their economies by increasing or decreasing the amount of
money in circulation

TIME EVENT
130 BCE – 1453 Silk Road, oldest known international trading route from China to the Middle East to
BCE Europe.
1571 Establishment of the Galleon Trade which connected to Manila to Mexico; made the
connection between the Americas and the trading routes possible.
1867 A more open trade system was established when nations like the United Kingdom, the
United States, and other European countries adopted the Gold Standard.
World War I (1914 To support the war efforts, the countries depleted their gold reserves, forced them to
– 1918) abandon the gold standards. European countries adopted floating currencies.
1920s – 1930s The Great Depression happened – the worst and longest recession ever experienced
by the Western World.
Early 20th Century The world economy operates based on fiat currencies – currencies that are not backed
by precious metals and whose value is determined by their cost relative to other
currencies. This system allows governments to freely and actively manage their
economies by increasing or decreasing the amount of money in circulation as they see
fit.

1944 Bretton Woods Conference gave birth to International Banks for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRC or World Bank), and International Monetary Fund (IMF).
1957 Establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC).
1964 The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was
established with the joint effort of the developing world.
1986 – 1994 Multilateral trade negotiations were carried out under the Uruguay Round.
1995 The Uruguay Round gave birth to a ‘real’ international trade institution, the World
Trade Organization (WTO).

- Today, because of the developments in transportation and communication, economic

interdependence also intensified
- Countries trade with each other due to lack or insufficient resources to satisfy their needs and
wants.
 Countries develop their own resources and then trade it for the resources they need. This can be
seen long time ago when people travelled long distances to exchange goods and commodities, i.e
BARTER SYSTEM

- Countries import goods and services because of the following reasons:

• There are better or cheaper qualities of commodities somewhere
• Commodities are more appealing
• There are no alternatives in their home country
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2. Market Integration
- Because of globalization which created the world economy, markets have also become
integrated.
- Fusing of many markets into one
- Global market integration means that price differences between countries are eliminated as all
markets become one.
- In one market, a commodity has a single price if these areas were part of the same market.
- Today, markets are MORE INTEGRATED than before because transportation costs have
continued to fall, and most tariffs have been scrapped altogether.

MARKET INTEGRATION
Integration is a state of affairs or a process involving attempts to combine separate national
economies into larger economic regions. – Ulrich Koester
Two Types of Integration
- Negative Integration
- Positive Integration

1. Negative Integration reduces non-tariffs and tariff barriers to trade as a main tool for integrating
markets.

2. Positive Integration adjusts domestic policies and institutions through the creation of
supranational arrangements.

Supranational Arrangements
- is a type of multinational political union where negotiated power is delegated to an authority by
governments of member states.
- The Government of Governments.

Forms of Integration
1. Preferential agreement.
2. Free Trade Area
3. Customs Union
4. Common Markets
5. Economic Union

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Preferential agreement – involves lower trade barriers between those countries, which have signed the
agreement.
Free Trade Area – reduces barriers to trade among member countries to zero, but each member
country still has autonomy in deciding the external rate of tariff for its trade with non-member country.
Customs Union – in this form, countries agree to abolish tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade in goods
flowing between them.
Common Markets – allows for free movements of labor and capital within the member country.
Economic Union – is the highest form of economic integration.

Why can’t governments print an unlimited amount of money? - Jonathan Smith

• In March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic rocked economies worldwide.
• Millions of people lost their jobs, and many businesses struggled to survive or shut down
completely.
• Governments responded with some of the largest economic relief packages in history— the
United States alone spent $2.2 trillion on a first round of relief.
• So where did all this money come from?
• Most countries have a central bank that manages the money supply and is independent from the
government to prevent political interference.
• The government can implement many types of economic policy, like decreasing people's taxes
and creating jobs through public infrastructure projects, but it actually can’t just increase the
money supply.
• The central bank determines how much money is in circulation at a time.
• So why can’t central banks authorize the printing of unlimited money to help an economy in
crisis?
• They could, but that’s a short-term solution that doesn’t necessarily boost economic growth in
the long-term, and can actually hurt the economy.

Why?

• With more money in circulation, manufacturers of goods like food, clothing, and cars could
respond to demand simply by raising prices, rather than manufacturing more of these goods and
creating new jobs in the process.
• This would mean you could no longer buy as much with the same amount of money— a
situation known as inflation.
• A little bit of inflation, about 2% a year, is considered a sign of economic health, but more can
quickly derail an economy.
• In recent decades, central banks have tried an approach called quantitative easing to infuse the
economy with cash while maintaining a low risk of severe inflation.

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• In this approach, a central bank increases cash flow by purchasing another entity’s bonds. 
Anyone can buy bonds from corporations or governments.
• When you buy a bond, you’re essentially loaning money to the company— or government—
with the promise that they’ll pay it back later with interest.
• This is why buying bonds is sometimes referred to as buying debt.
• When an individual buys a bond, they're using money that's already in circulation.
• But when the central bank buys a bond, it essentially creates cash, supplying money that didn’t
exist before in exchange for bonds.
• Both during the 2008-2009 financial crisis and again in 2020, the United States’ central bank, the
Federal Reserve, bought bonds from the US government called treasury bonds.
• Historically, many people have purchased these bonds as a safe form of investment, knowing the
US government will pay them back with interest.
• In early 2020, the Federal Reserve pledged to buy unlimited treasury bonds, loaning the U.S.
government an unprecedented amount of money— cash that the government used to fund relief
efforts like stimulus checks and unemployment benefits.
• This isn’t equivalent to simply printing money, though it may sound similar.
• Because of the way bonds are priced, by buying so many, the Federal Reserve effectively
lowered the return on them, which incentivizes other investors to lend to riskier entities like
small and midsize companies— in order to get a decent return.
• Encouraging lending this way should help companies of all sizes borrow money to funnel into
projects and hires, boosting the economy over time in addition to helping the government supply
people with urgently needed cash in the short term.
• The Federal Reserve’s pledge to buy unlimited government debt has raised some questions—
and eyebrows.
• In theory, this means the government could issue more bonds, which the central bank would
purchase.
• The government could then use the money from the new bonds to pay off the old bonds,
effectively meaning the government never pays back its debt to the central bank.
• Citing this and other theoretical scenarios, some economists have raised concerns that a central
bank buying government debt is a subversion of a system designed to protect the economy.
• Others have insisted these measures are necessary, and have so far helped stabilize economies.
• Though quantitative easing has become a lot more common in recent years, it’s still relatively
new, and potential consequences are still unfolding.

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Lesson 4: GLOBAL INTERSTATE SYSTEM

FOUR KEY ATTRIBUTES OF TODAY'S GLOBAL SYSTEM:

1. There are countries or states that are independent and govern themselves.
e.g. the Philippines is a nation-state, it has a sense of independence from other nation-states, and
has its government (the Republic of the Philippines).
2. These countries interact with each other through diplomacy. e.g. the Philippines has
international relationships with other countries.
3. There are international organizations, like the United Nations (UN), that facilitate these
interactions.
i.e. the UN is the center of global governance, and the Philippines is a member of this international
organization.
4. Beyond simply facilitating meetings between states, international organizations also take on
lives of their own. i.e. the United Nations has task specific agencies like the World Health Organization
(WHO) and the International Labor Organization (ILO), aside from being a meeting ground for
presidents and other heads of states.

COUNTRY OR THE NATION-STATE

• The nation-state is a relatively modern phenomenon in human history, and people did not
always organize themselves as countries.
• The nation-state is composed of two non-interchangeable terms:
NOT ALL STATES ARE NATIONS. NOT ALL NATIONS ARE STATES.

- e.g. Many commentators believe that the Bangsamoro is a separate nation existing within the
Philippines, but through their elites, they recognize the authority of the Philippine state (this is
a case of a state with multiple nations);
- The nation of Korea is divided into North and South Korea (this is a case of a single nation
with multiple states).

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State

- Refers to a country and its government.

- The institution that creates warfare and sets economic policies for a country. It is also a
political unit that has authority over its affairs.
- Independent political communities each of which possesses a government and asserts
sovereignty in relation to a particular portion of the earth's surface and a particular segment of
the human population (Bull, 1995 as cited in Schattle, 2014: 933).

Essential Elements of the State

1.Permanent Population - Inhabitants of the country

2.Territory - total portion of the land
3.Government - an entity that regulates relations among its own people and with other states.
4.Sovereignty-supreme power/authority of the state over its territory; refers to internal and
external authority
INTERNAL AUTHORITY:

• no individuals or groups can operate in a given national territory by ignoring the state.
i.e. groups like churches, corporations, and other entities must follow the laws of the state
where they establish their parishes, offices, or headquarters.
EXTERNAL AUTHORITY:

• a state's policies and procedures are independent of the intervention of other states.
i.e. Russia or Germany cannot pass laws for the Philippines and vice versa.
States have the following rights:

1. Right to govern its people

2. Right for self-determination
3. Right to impose country's policy
4. Right to take over issues in its jurisdiction

THE NATION
• "An imagined political community" - imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign (a conceptual
definition forwarded by Benedict Anderson in his most celebrated work, Imagined Communities:
Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (1983).
 "Imagined" in a sense that the nation allows one to feel a connection with the community of
people even if he/she will never meet all of them in his/her lifetime. E.g. you know that you live in a
territory with the people in the Visayas or Mindanao even if you haven't seen them in person. • The
concept emphasized organic ties to hold groups of people together and inspire the senses of loyalty
and belongingness (Schattle, 2014: 933).
Nations are viewed as socially constructed political communities that hold together citizens across
many kinds of cross-cutting identities: ethnicity, language, religions, and so forth (Schattle, 2014:
933).
Nations often limit themselves to people who have imbibed a particular culture, speak a common
language, and live in a specific territory.
Most nations strive to become states. Nation-builders can only feel a sense of fulfillment when the
national ideal assumes an organizational form whose authority and power are recognized and
accepted by "the people".

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Nationalism forms a close relationship between nation and state because it is the one that
facilitates state formation. Most nation-states are born out of nationalist movements. Sovereignty in a
state is established because of the nationalist sentiments for independence (Claudio & Abinales,
2018:
29).

Interstate System

• The origin of the concept of sovereignty can be traced back to the TREATY OF WESTPHALIA.
• To end the Thirty Years' War in 1648 between major continental powers ng Europe due to
religious conflict between the Catholics and Protestants.

• The Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France, Sweden, and Dutch Republic designed a system that
would avert wars in the future by recognizing that the treaty signers exercise complete control
over their domestic affairs and swear not to meddle in each other's affairs.
 Westphalian system faced a major challenge when Napoleon Bonaparte spread principles of the
French Revolution (1803) - liberty, equality, and fraternity- to the rest of
Europe which challenged the power of kings, nobility, and religion in Europe

• Napoleonic code - forbade birth privileges (equality), encouraged freedom of religion (liberty)
and promoted meritocracy in government service (equality).
- These threatened monarchies of Europe so they mustered their armies against Bonaparte
and his followers/armies.
• Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
• To prevent another war and to keep their systems of privilege, the royal powers created a
system that, in effect, restored the Westphalian system.
- Concert of Europe - an alliance of "great powers" (United Kingdom, Austria, Russia, and
Prussia) to restore the monarchical, hereditary, and religious privileges before the French
Revolution and Napoleonic Wars.
- The concert of Europe is an alliance that restored the sovereignty of states.
INTERNATIONALISM
A system a system of heightened interaction of various sovereign states.

- The principle of internationalism can be divided into two broad categories:

1. Liberal internationalism
2. Socialist internationalism.

PERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONALISM (Claudio & Abinales, 2018)

1. Immanuel Kant

- German philosopher Immanuel Kant likened the states in a global system to people living in a
given territory.
- Kant argued that without a form of world government, the international system would be
chaotic.
- Kant imagined a form of global government where states, like citizens of countries, must give
up some freedoms and establish a continuously growing state consisting of various nations
which will ultimately include the nations of the world.

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2. Jeremy Bentham

- British philosopher Jeremy Bentham (coined the term "international" in 1780) advocated the
creation of "international law" that would govern the inter-state relations.
- Bentham believed that objective global legislators should aim to propose legislation that would
create "the greatest happiness of all nations taken together".

3. Giuseppe Mazzini

- First to reconcile nationalism with liberal internationalism.

- He believed that a Republican government (no kings, queens, and hereditary succession) and
proposed a system of free nations that cooperated to create an international system.
- Free, independent states would be the basis of an equally free, cooperative international
system, the basis of global cooperation. This makes him a nationalist internationalist.

4. Woodrow Wilson

• Wilson saw nationalism as a prerequisite for internationalism.

• In his faith in nationalism, he forwarded the principle of self-determination - the belief that the
world's nations had a right to free, sovereign government.
• He believed that only by being democratic nations, they would be able to build a free system of
international relations based on international law and cooperation.
• He advocated for the creation of the League of Nations.
- At the end of WWI in 1918, he pushed to transform the League into a venue for conciliation and
arbitration to prevent another war.
• Unfortunately, US was not able to join the League because of the strong opposition from the
Senate.
• The League was also unable to prevent another war (WWII)
• Despite its failure, the League was able to give birth to some of the more tasks-specific
international organizations (IOs)
- Ex: WHO, ILO

 Kant - he emphasized the need to form common international principles

 Mazzini - it enshrined the principles of cooperation and respect among nation-states 
Wilson - it called for democracy and self-determination
THE IDEAS FROM THESE THINKIERS WOULD RE-ASSERT THEMSELVES IN
THE CREATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS IN 1946
5. Karl Marx

- Marx was an internationalist but he did not believe in nationalism.

- He believed that any true form of internationalism should deliberately reject nationalism, which
rooted people in domestic concerns instead of global ones.
- Marx placed a premium on economic equality; he did not divide the world into countries but
into classes (bourgeoisie proletariats).
- Marx and Engels opposed nationalism because they believed it preventing the unification of the
world's workers.
- After the death of Marx, his followers wanted his vision to materialize so they establish the
Socialist International (SI)
- After the collapse of SI, a more radical version emerged with the creation of USSR (Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics) led by Vlademir Lenin after they have overthrown Czar Nicholas Il in
the so-called Russian Revolution.

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PERSPECTIVES ON THE RELEVANCE OF THE NATION-STATE AMID GLOBALIZATION

(Benczes, 2014; Steger, 2014):

- Requirement for International Organizations

- Freeing from Intervention of other countries
- Globalization is redefining the role of the nation-state as an effective manager of the national
economy. The state as the main shelter from the perverse effects of a free market economy
(Boyer & Drache, 1996),
- It is misleading to assume that globalization has relegated the nation-state and its policies to
an obsolete or irrelevant status; governments are acting as the midwives of globalization
(Brodie, 1996).

PERSPECTIVES ON THE RELEVANCE OF THE NATION-STATE AMID GLOBALIZATION (Benczes, 2014;

Steger, 2014):

- Globalization transforms the national economy into a global one where there will be no national
products or technologies, no national corporations, no national industries (Reich, 1991).

EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON THE NATION-STATE

CHALLENGES POSED BY GLOBALIZATION:

1. Traditional Challenges - External Intervention / Invasion of other country e. g. Saddam Hussein

took over the oil of Kuwait
2. Challenges from National/Identity Movements - Confront cultural identity and/or national
identity (e.g. ISIS in which its goal is to take over the government
3. Global Economics
- Globalization as imposing a forced-choice upon states: either to conform to free-market
principles or run the risk of being left behind
- It demands the state to conform to the rules, (eg. free-market capitalism)
Eg: Golden Straitjacket (Thomas Friedman): states are now forced into policies that suit the
preferences of investment houses and corporate executives who swiftly move money and
resources into countries favored as adaptable to the demands of international business and
withdraw even more rapidly from countries deemed uncompetitive (Schattle, 2014; 933).

What now is the role of Nation States in Globalization?

Role of Nation-States in Globalization

• The nation states are the governing agencies and political units that affect and shape power
relations even in the international or global arenas.
• They have the power to determine economic, social and environmental objects for national
development and the capacity to ensure that transnational corporations meet these priorities
and to set the stage for new forms of participatory democracy whereby the citizens become
effectively involved in international policymaking on trade, investment, and finance (Cavanagh
and Mander, 2004 as cited in Schattle, 2014: 936).
• The nation-states of the world are here to stay and play key roles in the shaping of
globalization. This manifests in the formation of regional partnerships with neighboring
countries (e.g. the Philippines in the ASEAN); membership, and active participation in
international organizations and global governing bodies like the United Nations; adherence to
universal norms and values; and establishment of transnational networks among others.

Lesson 6: Contemporary Global Governance Global

Governance
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1. Identify the roles and functions of the United Nations.

2. Identify the challenges of global governance in the 21st century.
3. Explain the relevance of the state amid globalization.

• No state is accountable to any organization.

• Free from external intervention.
• But there is a pattern as to how each state should generally behave.
- E.g. adhere to global navigation routes, respect territorial boundaries of each other.

"How is the world governed even in the absence of a world government?"

• For Weiss and Thakur (2014), the answer to the question lies in global governance.
• Global governance as "the sum of laws, norms, policies, and institutions that define, constitute and mediate
trans-border relations between states, cultures, citizens, intergovernmental and non-governmental
organizations and the market-the wielders and the objects of exercise of the international public power"
(Weiss and Thakur, 2014: 535).
• "The way in which global affairs are managed. As there are no global government, global governance
typically involves a range of actors including states, as well as regional and international organizations.
However, a single organization may nominally be given the lead role on an issue.
• Thus, global governance is thought to be an international process of consensus-forming which generates
guidelines and agreements that affect national governments and international corporations (WHO, 2015).

Sources of Global Governance

1. States sign treaties and form organizations to help in the process of drafting and legislating public
international law, i.e. international rules that govern interactions between states. e.g. peace treaties.
2. International Non-government Organizations (NGOs), though they do not have formal state power, can
influence government or states to behave in a certain way. E.g. WHO, an international organization under
the UN, plays a key role in lobbying guidelines during the COVID 19 pandemic.

International Organizations

• International Organizations refer to "international intergovernmental organizations or groups that are

primarily made up of member-states" (Claudio & Abinales, 2018: 40).
• United Nations or institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank are usually
categorized and called International Organizations.
• International organizations are not a mere amalgamation of various state interests, but IOs can take on lives
of their own.
• 10s can become influential as independent organizations as they can lobby states to behave in a certain
way, like pressuring them to pass a certain law

Powers of IOs

Listed by Michael N. Barnett and Martha Finnemore in Claudio & Abinales, 2018:41

1. Power of classification - IOs can invent and apply categories, they create powerful global standards.

E.g. they can define what poverty means and through that, nation-states can determine who the poor in their
demographic area.

2. Power to fix meanings - a broader function related to the power of classification; the need to address here is
for concepts such as "development" to be well-defined. IOs are viewed as legitimate sources of information
by states, organizations, and individuals. The meaning they create have effects on policies.

E.g. if an 10 defined what it means when you say development, then states will pattern its policies to achieve
the kind of development defined by 10s.

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3. Power to diffuse norms - 10s can define and/or for codes of conduct or behavior. IOs also spread ideas
thereby establishing global standards.

Eg. They can also spread global standards about no discrimination on employment and occupation.

*Norms: accepted codes of conduct that may not be strict law but produce regularities in behavior.

 10s can be sources of great good and great harm (Claudio & Abinales, 2018: 41).
 As 10s embody global governance, in addition to the powers they have, the challenge for the actors
that comprise these 10s is to uphold fairness in their blanket deliberations, policies, and actions that
unevenly affect nation-states engaged in their multilateral bureaucracy and forum.
 Weiss & Thakur (2014) notes that the life and survival of IOs rest on two factors:
- (1) the capacity to change and adapt; (2) the quality of their governance.
 The capacity to adapt in an ever-changing international condition and to uphold a premium quality in
their leadership and practice of governance.

The United Nations

• Thakur (2011) even dubbed the UN as "both a global governance actor and site" (as cited in Weiss &
Thakur, 2014: 535).
• The United Nations is an international organization that is taking the lead in facilitating global dialogue
to uphold the global harmony among nation-states and strengthen their interconnectivity and
interrelationship (Schattle, 2014: 938).

Characterizing the United Nations

1. There are 193 sovereign member-states of UN. The Philippines is a member of the UN. Filipino diplomat
Carlos P. Romulo was elected General Assembly President from 1949-1950 (Claudio & Abinales, 2014: 42).

2. Six main organs of the UN:

Organization of the United Nations

Trusteeship Council General Assembly Security Council

Controls territories Debates issues & Authorizes economic & military

under UN supervision recommends actions actions insettling disputes

International Court of Justice Economic & Social Council Secretariat

Decides questions of Sponsors trade & human Administrator of UN coordinating

international law rights organizations work in UN agencies

GENERAL ASSEMBLY (GA)

The main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ of the UN. All 193 member-states of the
UN are represented in the GA-the only UN body with universal representation. Decisions on important
questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new members, and budgetary matters, require a
two-thirds majority of the General Assembly. The General Assembly, each year, elects a GA President to serve a
one-year term of office.

SECURITY COUNCIL (SC)

The primary responsibility is on the maintenance of international peace and security. It has 15
memberstates, 5 permanent with veto power (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United
States) and 10 non-permanent members. The Security Council takes the lead in determining the existence of a
threat to the peace or act of aggression. SC's presidency is rotational (changes every month).

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ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

The principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and recommendations on economic,
social, and environmental issues, as well as the implementation of internationally agreed development goals. It
has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms. It is the United Nations'
central platform for reflection, debate, and innovative thinking on sustainable development.

TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

As established in 1945 by the UN Charter, under Chapter XIII, to provide international supervision for
11 Trust Territories that had been placed under the administration of 7 member-states, and ensure that
adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government and independence.

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

The principal judicial organ of the UN. The Court's role is to settle, following international law, legal
disputes submitted to it by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized
United Nations organs and specialized agencies.

SECRETARIAT

Comprises the Secretary-General and tens of thousands of international UN staff members who carry
out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the General Assembly and the Organization's other principal
organs.

Characterizing the United Nations

3. The UN has significant roles in preventing and managing conflicts, championing human rights and
international humanitarian law, liberating the colonized, empowering women, educating children, housing the
refugees, liberating the colonized, and feeding the hungry among other (Weiss & Thakur, 2014: 535).

4. The UN provides and manages the framework for bringing together the world's leaders to tackle the
pressing problems of the day for the survival, development, and welfare of all peoples, everywhere (Weiss &
Thakur, 2014:
538).

Limitations of United Nations

1. The UN has never transcended the state's system and instead operates mainly as a forum for states to air
their differences and try to resolve them.
2. The UN has been unable to prevent many atrocities a around the world during its history. i.e. in the
presence of global policies, the UN is still unable to mediate and put an end to atrocities despite the
perpetrators being members of the UN themselves.

Gaps in Global Governance

WHO (2015):

"Critics argue that global governance mechanisms support the neo-liberal ideology of globalization and
reduce the role of the state (and thus its sovereignty) to that of an adjusting body for the implementation of
international policies. Some argue that, as a result, the interests of the poorest people and nations will be
ignored unless they have a direct impact on the global. economy."

World Health Organization (2015) argues that three primary gaps exist.

1. Jurisdictional gap – between the increasing need for global governance in many areas such as health
and the lack of an authority with the power, or jurisdiction, to take action.

2. Incentive gap – between the need for international cooperation and the motivation to undertake it. It is
said to be closing as globalization provides increasing impetus for countries to cooperate. However, there are
concerns that, as Africa lags further behind economically, its influence on global governance processes will
diminish

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3. Participation gap – refers to the fact that international cooperation remains primarily the affair of
governments, leaving civil society groups on the fringes of policy-making.

Weiss and Thakur (2014) elaborated ways on how to identify, diagnose, and fill the gaps through
managing knowledge, developing norms, promulgating recommendations, and institutionalizing ideas.

1. Knowledge gaps
2. Normative gaps
3. Policy gaps
4. Institutional gaps
5. Compliance gaps

1. Knowledge gaps

- Important because if we do not know the severity of a problem, or if we do not have the resources to
investigate a particular issue, then this could become difficult for effective global governance.
- If we do not have information or research, we will not only know the severity of the problem, but also
how to resolve the situation or problem.
- Therefore, the first step in addressing a problem is to recognize its existence to understand that there is
a problem – then collect necessary data

2. Normative gaps

- This follows the knowledge gaps

- After we recognize that an issue exists, it is important to establish norms address that problem.

3. Policy gaps

- As new problems emerge and new norms arise, they highlight gaps in policy that also need attention.
- The policy stage refers to the statement of principles and actions that an organization is likely to take in
the event of particular contingencies.
- Related to the specific policies that one can implement in order to address the stated problem.
- The UN's ability to convene and consult widely plays an enormous part in its ability to formulate
recommendations for specific policies, and institutional arrangements

4. Institutional gaps

- These are the challenges of implementing any policies that are put forth by the international community
- Once knowledge has been acquired, norms articulated and policies formulated, an existing institution
can oversee their implementation and monitoring.

5. Compliance gaps

One of the final challenges with regards to global governance. This includes effective implementation,
as well as enforcement

Conclusion

As the symbol of global governance, the United Nations is not a perfect international organization.
However flawed and limited the UN is, no one can discount how it mediates inter-state relations and how it
influences definitions, policies, state actions, and the social, economic, political, and cultural discourses at the
international level.

In the end, global governance resulted to global efforts that involve the dynamics and participation of
both nation states and non-nation-states actors.

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Lesson7:ASI
AN REGI
ONALI
SM

Quest
iont
oponder

How didthePhil
ippinesi
denti
fyi
tsel
ftootherAsi
an
countri
es?Whyar ewepar tofASEAN (
Associ
ati
onof
SoutheastAsi
anNation)?

-
ITI
SBECAUSE OFREGI
ONALI
SM

FEATURESOFREGI
ONALI
SM

• Iti
sabr oadt er
m seenoftenasapol i
ti
calandeconomi cphenomenon.
• Regional
ism,asaphenomenon,canbeexami nedinrelat
iontosoci
alst
ruct
uressuch
asidenti
ties,et
hics,r
eli
gion,ecol
ogi
calsust
ainabi
li
ty,andhealt
hamongot her
s.
• Al
so,apr ocessthatmus tbetreatedas"emergent
,soci
all
yconstit
utedphenomenon."
Itmeanst hatregionar
enotnat uralorgi
ven,butareconstr
uctedanddefinedby
pol
icymaker s,economicactor
s,andevensocialmovements.
-(
Claudi
o& Abi
nal
es,2018)

• Apsychi cphenomenon
• Builtaroundtheexpressionofgroupidenti
tyandloyal
tytother
egion
• Itpresupposestheconceptofdevelopmentofone'
sownr egi
onwit
houttaki
ngi
nto
considerat
iontheint
erestofotherregi
on
• Pr
ohi
bit
speopl
efr
om ot
herr
egi
onst
obebenefit
tedbyapar
ticul
arr
egi
on

• Countr
iesrespondtoglobal
izat
ioneconomical
lyandpol
it
ical
lydi
fferently
.
China:offer
scheapandhugewor kfor
cetoattr
actf
orei
gnbusi nesses

Si
ngapor
eandSwi
tzer
land:financi
alandbanki
nghub

Concept
ual
izi
ngt
heRegi
on

Edwar
dD.Mansf
eldandHel
enV.Mi
lner
:

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1. Regionsar
e"agr oupofcount r
ieslocatedi
nthesamegeographical
lyspecifiedarea"
or"anamalgamat i
onoftwor egion[or]acombinati
onofmorethant woregi ons
organiz
edtoregulateand"overseeflowsandpoli
cychoi
ces"

2. Ar egi
on'simpl i
cationmovesbeyondt hepr oxi
mityofconsti
tuentst ates.Apartfr
om
thisproximity,"member sofacommonr egionalsosharecultural,economic,
li
nguisti
c,orpol it
icalties"
.E.g.t
hel anguagesspokeninSout heastAsi aarebranches
oftheMal ayo-Polynesianlanguages,Asiancount ri
esshareacol lect
ivesocial
struct
ure,differ
entf r
om t heindi
viduali
sticstanceofWesterncount ries.

3. Regi
onal
izat
ionandr
egi
onal
ism shoul
dnotbei
nter
changed.
 Regi
onali
zat
ion-regi
onalconcent
rat
ionofeconomicflows;gr
owi
ngi
ntensi
tyof
i
nter
act
ionandcooper
ati
onbe t
weenneighbori
ngcountr i
es.
 Regi
onalism -apoli
ti
calpr
ocesscharact
eri
zedbyeconomi
cpol i
cycooperat
ion
andcoor
di nat
ionamongcountri
es;i
tisaninter
gov
ernmentalcol
labor
ation.

-(
Mansfiel
d& Mi
lner
,1999;Cl
audi
o& Abi
nal
es,2018)

Defini
ngTer
ms

• Regi
onali
zation(aneconomi cpr ocess)
- mar ketint
egr
ationassoci
atedwi t
hthecr oss-
bor
derflow ofcapi
tal
,labor
,and
technologywit
hinaspecificareaorregi
on
• Regi
onal
ism (apoli
ticalprocess)
- cooper
ati
onamongst atest
ocreat
einst
itut
ionst
ohel
pbr
ingaboutorsuppor
t
economicint
egrati
oni naregi
on

Reasonsf
orFor
mingRegi
onalAl
liances

1. Mi
li
tar
ydef
ense.Ex:Nor
thAt
lant
icTr
eat
yOr
gani
zat
ion(
NATO)

2. Tradi
ngpartner
s-countri
escanpoolthei
rresources,getbet
terr
eturnsf
ortheirexpor
ts,
andexpandtheirl
ever
ageinthet
radingarena.e.
g.Or gani
zati
onofthePetr
oleum
Exporti
ngCountri
es(OPEC)

3. Prot
ectthei
rindependencefrom pr
essuresofsuper
powerpolit
icsex:NAM (
Non-
ali
gned
Movement)-whichisanor ganiz
ationofcountr
iesthatr
efusetoali
gnwiththeWester
n
superpower
s

4. Economi ccr
isiscompelscountriestocometoget
here.g.regi
onalorgani
z ati
onscan
establ
ishanemer gencyfundt hatcanbeutil
izedbytheirconsti
tuentstatesstruckbyt
he
economiccrisi
stostabil
izetheireconomyandnotaffecttheothereconomi es.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofRegi
onal
ism

1. LocalI
dent
ity-s
trongl
ocali
dent
ityandal
oyal
tyt
other
egi
on.

2. Aut
onomy-Gr
eat
eraut
onomyi
sonechar
act
eri
sti
candapr
ior
ityofr
egi
onal
ism.

a. i
tcanbeeconomi
c-t
oadmi
nist
ereconomi
cresour
cesandmodi
fyfiscalpol
ici
es

b. pol
iti
cal-abi
li
tyt
opassl
awsandenf
orcel
ocalpol
ici
es

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 RegionalOrgani
zat
ionspref
erregionalpartnersovert her
est.Also,thi
srespondstothe
stat
es'att
empttoreducetheperceivednegativeeffect
sofglobal
izati
on.-Theref
ore,
regi
onali
sm isasor
tofcounter
-gl
obalizat
ion.

 Oneofthereasonsbehi
ndregi
onal
ism i
stheconcernforsecurit
y,whichistoensure
peaceandstabi
li
tyfr
om whi
chledtothecreat
ionoftheregionalor
ganizat
ionssuchas:

 Associati
onofSout heas
tAsi
anNati
ons(
ASEAN)
 Eur opeanUni on(EU)
 Carr i
beanCommuni ty(
CARICOM)
 Asia-PacificEconomi
c
 Cooper at
ion( APEC)

Fact
orst
hatl
eadt
ogr
eat
eri
ntegr
ati
onoft
heAsi
anr
egi
on

1. Trade-worl
deconomyi sint
ertwined.Weal
lwantorneedsome
thi
ngf
rom anot
her
partoft
heworl
d,globalt
radefaci
li
tatethat

2. Si
milarcult
ure-Asiancult
urei
sdi
ver
sebutweshar
esi
mil
art
hings.Thi
smakesi
t
easi
ert
ofitdur
ingnegot
iat
ions

3. Commongoals-t
err
itor
iesarenotf
arfr
om eachot
herandt
hei
rpopul
ati
oncanwor
k
toge
therfort
hei
rcommongoalofdevel
opment

Benefit
sofAsi
afr
om Regi
onal
ism

 AsianDevel
opmentBank(2008)repor
tedthebenefitsofAsi
afrom regi
onali
sm
1. Li
nkthecompeti
ti
vestr
engthsofi
tsdiverseeconomiesinordertoboostthei
r
pr
oduct
ivi
tyandsustai
ntheregi
on'sexcepti
onalgrowth

2. Connecttheregi
on'
scapit
almarke
tstoenhancefinanci
alst
abi
li
ty,r
educet
hecostof
capi
talandimproveoppor
tuni
ti
esforshar
ingri
sks

3. Cooper at
einsetti
ngexchangerateandmacr
oeconomicpolici
esinordertominimi
zethe
effect
sofglobalandregi
onalshocksandt
ofaci
lit
atet
her esolut
ionofglobali
mbal
ances

4. Tomakemor
eresour
cesavai
labl
efori
nvest
mentanddev
elopment

5. Exer ci
seleadershi
pingl
obaldeci
sionmaki
ngt
osust
aint
heopengl
obalt
radeand
financialsyst
ems

6. Bui
ldconnect
edinfr
ast
ructur
esandcoll
aborat
eoni ncl
usi
vedevel
opmenttor
educe
i
nequal
it
ieswithi
nandacrosseconomi
estostrengt
henpro-gr
owthpol
ici
es

7. Cr
eat
eregi
onalmechani
smst
omanageheal
th,saf
etyandenvi
ronment
ali
ssuesbe
tter

BENEFI
TSTHE WORLD GAI
N FROM ASI
AN REGI
ONALI
SM

1. Gener
atepr
oduct
ivi
tygai
ns,new i
deas,andcompe
tit
iont
hatboosteconomi
cgr
owt
hand
rai
sei
ncomesacr
osstheworl
d;

2. Contri
butetotheeffici
encyandst
abi
li
tyofgl
obalfinancialmarket
sbymakingAsian
capi
talmarket
sstrongerandsafer
,andbymaximiz ingtheproducti
veuseofAsi
an
savi
ngs;

3. Diver
sifysourcesofgl
obaldemand,hel
pingt
ostabil
izet
hewor l
deconomyanddi mi
nish
t
her isksposedbyglobalimbal
ancesanddownt
ur nsinothermajoreconomi
es;

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4. Pr
ovi
del
eader
shi
ptohel
psust
ainopengl
obalt
radeandfinanci
alsyst
ems;and

5. Creat
eregi
onalmechani
smstomanageheal th,safe
ty,andenvi
ronmentali
ssuesbe
tter
,
andthuscontr
ibut
etomoreeffect
ivegl
obalsolut
ionstotheseprobl
ems.

(
ADB,2008:14)

Lesson8:Gl
obalMedi
aCul
tur
e

"
Whendi
dgl
obal
izat
ionbegi
n?"

ArjunAppadurai(1996)cont
endst hatadvancesinmediatoget
herwi hmi
t gr
ati
on,i
.e.
changi
ngmi gr
ationpatternsaspeopleeasil
ymovear oundtheworldduetot he
advancementoftechnologyandtransportat
ion,thi
sfundament
allychangedt hehumanli
fe
andgavewayt oglobal
ization(
ascit
edi nLule,2014:662)
.

I
nhi sarti
cle,Global
izat
ionandMedia:Cr
eati
ngt
heGl
obalVi
ll
age,Lul
e(2014)
for
wardst heideasthat:
(1) Global
izati
oncoul dnotoccurwi
thoutmedia;

(2) Gl
obal i
zati
onandmediahavepr oceededtoge
therthr
ought i
meandsuppor ted
t
hesecl ai
msbyout l
iningt
hedevel
opmentofmedi at hr
oughoutti
me.Theessenceoft hese
i
deasi ssimpl
ifiedinthestat
ementthat"
medi ahavemadegl obal
izationpossi
ble"

Media has played significant roles i

n shapi
ng the global pr
ocesses of
economics, poli
tics, and cul ture-t
he thr
ee aspect
s that make up t he
multi
dimensi
onali
tyofglobaliz
ati
on.

GLOBALI
ZATI
ON AND MEDI
A

 Gl
obali
zation-asetofmul
ti
pl e,uneven,andsometi
mesoverlappi
nghist
ori
cal
pr
ocesses,i
ncl
udi
ngeconomics,poli
tics,andcul
tur
e,thathavecombi
nedwi t
hthe

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evoluti
onofmedi
atechnol
ogyt
ocreatet
hecondi
ti
onsunderwhi
cht
hegl
obei
tsel
f
cannow beunderst
oodasanimaginedcommunit
y
Thi
sdefini
ti
onentai
lst
hat

1. Gl
obal
izat
ioni
nvol
vesmul
tipl
epr
ocesses-
economi
c,pol
it
ical
,andcul
tur
al.

2. Devel
opment
sinmedi
atechnol ecr
ogyar uci
alt
ogl
obal
izat
ion.

3. Wecanunder
standt
hatgl
obei
t fasani
sel magi
nedcommuni
ty.

 Media-pluralf
ormedi
um;ameansofconveyi
ngsome
thi
ng,suchaschannelof
communicat
ion.
-(
Lul
e,2014

EVOLUTI
ON OFMEDI
A AND GLOBALI
ZATI
ON

 Lule(2014)outl
inedfivemajormediaperiodst
hroughouthi
stor
ythroughwhichhe
descr
ibedthepr ocessofhow t
hemediaofeacht
imeshapedand/orcontri
but
edto
theglobal
izat
ionofourwor l
d(p.664)
.

 Oralcommuni cati
on,scri
pt,pr
int,electr
onic,anddigital-al
lar
enuanced
medium thatplayedkeyrol
esinpushingforwardtheeconomic,pol
it
ical
,andcul
tur
al
pr
ocessesofglobali
zat
ion.

 Gl
obali
zat
ioncouldnotoccurwit
houtmedi
a,andgl
obal
izat
ionandmedi
ahave
pr
oceededtoge
therthr
ought i
me.

EVOLUTI
ON OFMEDI
A AND GLOBALI
ZATI
ON

ORALCOMMUNI
CATI
ON

 Thehumanspeechi
stheol
destandmos
tendur
ingmedi
um.

 How languagef
acil
it
atedgl
obal
izat
ion?
1. Languageal
lowedhumanstocooperat
e.

2. Shari
ngi nf
or mat
ionaboutnecessi
tiessuchaslandandwatersour
ceaswellas
knowledgeont hecl
imateandweat herhelpedhumanstot
ravelandadaptt
otheir
envi
ronment s.

3. Sharingofi
nformati
onaboutt
ool
sandweaponsledt
othespr
eadof
technol
ogyl
anguagewasthemosti
mpor
tanttool
.

4. Ashumanbeingssett
led,l
anguagel
edtomar
ket
s,t
radeofgoodsandser
vices,and
event
ual
lyi
ntoint
ernati
onaltr
aderout
es.

SCRI
PT

 Scri
pt,astheveryfir
stwri
ti
ng,all
owedhumanst ocommunicat
eandshare
knowledgeandideasovermuchlargerspaceandacr
ossmuchlongert
imes.
 Scri
ptssuchast
healphabe
tlearnedbypeoplear
oundt
hewor
ldi
scent
ralt
othe
evol
uti
onofhumanki
ndandi tscivi
li
zat
ions.
 Scriptsall
owedfort hewr i
ttenandper manentcodi
ficat
ionofeconomic,cul
tural
,
rel
igious,andpolit
icalpractice.Thesecodesspr
eadoutoverlargedi
stancesand
handeddownt hrought i
me.

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PRI
NTI
NG PRESS

 The'i
nfor
mat i
onr evol
uti
ontr
ansf
ormedmarkets,busi
nesses,nat
ions,school
s,
chur
ches,governments,andarmi
esamongothers.
 Withtheadventofthepr i
nt i
ngpress,readi
ngmat er
ialsuddenl
ywascheaplymade
andeasil
ycircul
ated.Mil
lionsofbooks,pamphl
ets,andflyerwer
eproduced,
repr
oduced,andcircul
ated.
 Theprint
ingpr
essencour hel
agedt iter
acyoft
hepubl
icandt
hegr
owt
hof
school
s.
 Theexplosi
veflow ofeconomi
c,cul
tur
al,andpol
it
icali
deasar
oundt
hewor
ld
connect
edandchangedpeopl eandcultures.

Twoconsequencesproducedt
hrought
hedevel
opmentandpr
act
iceofpr
int
ing
press(
Eisenst
ein,1979)
:

1. Pr
int
ingpr
esspr
eser
vedandst
andar
diz
edknowl
edge
.

2. Pri
ntencouragedthechal
lengeofpoli
ti
calandr
eli
giousaut
hor
itybecauseofi
ts
abi
lit
ytocir
culatecompet
ingviews.

ELECTRONI
C MEDI
A

 El
ect
roni
cmedi
aincl
udet
het
elegr
aph,t
elephone,r
adi
o,fil
m,andt
elevi
sion.

 Thesemedi ahel pedi

nshapi ngglobali
zati
ont hroughthefol
lowi
ng:
1. Corporati
onsandbusi nesseswereablet oexchangeinformationaboutmarke
ts
andpr i
ces,andnewspaper scouldreportinformati
oninst
antaneousl
ythr
ought he
tel
egr
aph,t el
ephone,andcellphone.

2. Art
ist
susedfil
mtocapt
urepower
fulnar
rat
ivest
hatr
esonat
edwi
thi
nandacr
oss
cul
tures.

3. Tel
evi
sional
lowedpeopl
etoview pi
ctur
esandst
ori
esf
rom acr
osst
hegl
obe-
the
worl
dwasbr oughti
ntothehomes.

DI
GITALMEDI
A

 Thecomput erhasf acil

it
atedglobaliz
ationthrought hef ol
lowi
ng:
1. Intheareaofeconomi cs,comput ersall
ow globaltradingtohappen24hour saday.
Comput ersal l
ow f
ort heaccessofeconomi cinformationaswe l
l.Moreover
,computers
andt heint
er netal
low thes tr
eaml i
neoft asks,research,andindust
rialorcorpor
ate
aspecttoagl obalmar ketpl
ace.

2. Inpoli
ti
cs,t
hecomputerandint
erne
tallow ci
tiz
enst
oaccesstoi
nfor
mat i
onfr
om
aroundthewor
ld,eveni
nfor
mationthatgover
nmentswouldli
ketoconceal
.

3. Withtheaccesstoinf
ormat
ionfrom aroundthegl
obe,theinter
netal
lowspeopl
eto
adoptnew pract
icesi
nmusic,spor
ts,educat
ion,r
eli
gion,art
sandotherareasof
cult
ures.

4. Soci
alnet
wor
kingsi
tesconnectpeopl
ear
oundt
hewor
ldi
navi
rtualcommuni
ty.

Gl
obal
izat
ionvi
savi
sMedi
aandCul
tur
e

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 Global
izat
ion-aprocesst hroughwhichevents,deci
sions,andac
tivi
ti
esi
nonepartof
theworldcanhaveasi gnificantconsequencesforindivi
dual
sandcommunit
iesi
n
dist
antpartsoft
hewor ld
 Cr
eat
esf
rat
erni
zat
ion(
associ
ati
on)ofcul
tur
esdespi
tegeogr
aphi
calconst
rai
nts.

 Global
izat
ionentai
lst
hespr
eadofcultur
eandi deas
 Therearealotofmediai
nwhichspreadofcul
tureandi
deasar
epossi
ble
 Ex:Impor t
ati
onoff orei
gnfil
ms,andot hermedi
ali
keTVpr ogr
ams,books,
travel
ogue,vlogs→ theseexampl
esofmedi atar
get
slar
geraudienceandmakes
thespr eadofcult
ur eandideaseasi
ly.

Medi
aandt
heDi
ffusi
onofCul
tur
e

1. Fastpacedi
mpor
tandexpor
tofpr
oduct
sandser
vices

2. Pr
eval
enceofsoci
almedi
a

exampl e:Wor
ldWideWeb-wi
dear
rayofi
nfor
mat
ioni
smadeavai
labl
eatt
he
palm ofourhands

GLOBALI
ZATION ALLOWED THE PENETRATI
ON OFONE CULTURE I
NTO
ANOTHERCULTURE CULTURALEXCHANGE BECOMESBY PRODUCT

Medi
aandi
tsFunct
ion

 Marshal
lMcLuhan:how mediaasaf
orm oft
echnol
ogyr
eshapesoci
eti
es.I
tcoul
dbe
posi
ti
veandnegat
iveExamples:

1. chi
ldr
enwat
chi
ngt
elevi
sionunat
tendedcoul
dhaveaneffecti
nthei
rbehavi
or

2. Drawingpeopl
eawayf rom meaningfulact
ivi
ti
essi
ncet
heat
tent
ionar
eint
he
usageofmedia(TV,socialmedi
a,etc)

3. Al
lowseasycommuni
cat
ionandmul
ti
taski
ng

 Beingact
iveuser
sofmedia,i
tisourdutyt
oinvest
igat
et heeffect
sofconsumer
ist
at
titudet
oourcultur
ali
denti
ty,i
deol
ogyandvaluesystem

 Powergeome
try-somegr
oupsar
emor
ein-
commandt
hanot
her
s

Cul
tur
alI
mper
ial
ism

 Theimposit
ionbyoneusual
lypoli
ti
call
yoreconomical
lydominantcommuni
tyof
var
iousaspect
sofit
sowncultur
eont oanot
her,nondominantcommunit
y

 Cult
urali
mperi
ali
sm meanst
hatonecult
urewhi
chismoredomi
nantcoul
dasser
tit
s
cul
tureandpr
acti
cesfr
om aweaker
,nondomi
nantcul
tur
e
 Becauseoft
hedifferentformsofmassmedi
a,st
eadyi
nfluxofi
deas(
usual
ly
wester
ninnatur
e)i screated.
 ThisWest
erniz
edor ient
ati
onofcul
tur
alpowerhaveaneffectt
opeopl
e'svi
ew and
consumer
istatt
itude.

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 lOMoARcPSD|35478070

 Theexampleofthi
scultur
ali
mper i
ali
sm i
sawester
ni z
edstandar
dofbeauty,
whatproduct
sshouldbepossessed(l
uxurybr
andslikeLouisVui
tton,Ni
ke)
,
technol
ogi
esli
keApple.

 Wearebombardedandaffect
edbymedi
amessagescar
ryi
ngwest
ernideol
ogyt
oa
poi
ntthatsomewoul
dthinkt hei
rownt
hought
sandevencul
turear
ei nf
eri
or(
weaker
)

 Butrat
ionalpeopl
ewhodoesnotwanttoloset
hei rowncult
urali
dent
itywoul
dresi
st
thedominanceofa"super
ior
"cul
tur
ethroughdiffer
entcopi
ngmechanism.Oneof
whi sCONTRA-
chi FLOWS.

CONTRA-
FLOWS:Al
ter
nat
ivet
oCul
tur
alI
mper
ial
ism?

 Dedicat
edt owardsopposi
ngt heblindacceptanceofforei
gncultures
Example:Kor eanwave,speci
fical
lyBTSgr ouphast akentheglobalmusi ci
ndustryby
storm.Suddenl y
,theKoreanpopul arcult
ur e(
music.fashion,f
ood,etc)emergedand
founditsel
fmaki ngasceneint heglobalarena.

Theusualtrendwast hepat
ronizati
on(pagtangkil
ik)towester
nmedi a(Ameri
can,
European,e
t c)butwit
htheriseofpopularculturefrom t
heeas t(
likeSouthKorea)
,
thi
sshowst hatnati
onscanchallenget
hedomi nant(Wester
n)mai nstream medi
a.

CULTURALHYBRI
DIZATI
ON:Al
ter
nat
ivet
oCul
tur
alI
mper
ial
ism?

 Cult
uralhybr
idi
tyorhybri
dizati
on:changi
ngsomeoft
heaspect
sofmai
nst
ream
cul
turetomatchtheneedsoflocal
ity
.

HOW?

1. Mixi
ngprevi
ousl
yseparatedcul
turalsyst
ems.Ex:mi
xinge
lit
ecul
tur
eandpopul
ar
cul
ture(
operaandpopularmusic)

2. De-
ter
rit
ori
ali
zingofcul
tur
alpr
ocessesf
rom t
hei
ror
igi
nalenvi
ronmentt
onew se
tti
ng

3. I
mpur
ecul
tur
algenr
est
hatar
efor
medoutoft
hemi
xtur
eofsever
alcul
tur
aldomai
ns.

MEDI
A andECONOMI
C,POLI
TICALAND CULTURALGLOBALI
ZATI
ON

 Bycr eatingtheconditionsforgl
obalcapi
tal
ism andbypromot
ingtheconcept
ual
foundationofthewor l
d'seconomyprov
esthatmediahavemadeeconomi
c
globali
zat i
onpossi
ble.
 Themedi afost erstheconditionsforcapi
tali
sm andconsumerism bypacking
tel
evi
sionchannel sandr adiostat
ionswithadvertisementsofpr oducts.E.
g.when
youwat c
htel evisi
on,youar ebombar dedwithadver
t i
sement
sthattrytopersuadeyou
tobuythepr oduc tspresent
ed.Somet i
mes,theti
meal l
ott
edforadverti
sementsisl
onger
thantheact
ualshow youar ewat c
hing.

 Accordingt oMcChesney( 2010)

,t hegl
obalmedi asystem i
sbe
tterunderstoodasone
thatadvancescor porat
eandcommer ciali
nt erest
sandvalues.Mor eover,t
he
commer cialmediasystem isgearedtowardspromot ngconsumer
i i
sm abovepol i
ti
cal
parti
cipationorsocioeconomicchange.

 ForAdornoandHor khei
mer(2008),themindl
essenter
tainmentconsumeristmedia
candist
ractaudi encesfrom cr
iti
calthi
nki
ng,sappi
ngt i
me,andener gyf
rom soci
al
andpoli
ticalact
ion..
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 Anot
heraspectofmediaandeconomicgl
obal
izat
ioni
sthedi
sastrousinfluenceon
newsthatcr esapassi
eat veapol
iti
calpopul
aceand"massproducti
onofi gnorance"
.
Medi
aandPol i
ticalGlobal
izat
ion

 Inther ealm ofpolit

ics,i
ndi
vidualjour nali
stsar
esubj ectt
obr utalandint
ense
inti
midat i
onofact orswhoarecont endingforpower.Journali
stsarecensor
edand
therearenumer ouscaseswher ejournalist
sarekill
edforreporti
ngaboutcorrupt
ion,
syndicates,andpol i
tici
ansatroci
ti
es-theydiewithoutjusti
ce.

 Theglobalvi
lagecanbeawarzonewher
l enumer
ousf
orcescompe
tef
orweal
thand
power
,wi t
hinandacrossbor
der
s.

 Economic,pol
itical
,andper sonalpr
essur
esshapet
henewsaroundthegl
obe,as
governmentshavet hecoerci
vepowertoshapeandmani
pulat
et henewsand
infor
mat i
ont hatcircul
ate.

 Wit hthemani pul

ati
onofnews,di gi
talmediaisdeemedt ohavethepot
entialt o
invigorateandt r
ansform polit
icalli
fethrought heoppor
tunityf
oral
ter
nat ive
voiceswi t
hinandacrossborderstobeacknowl edged.Butthi
stoocanbesi l
enced.
E.g.governmentscanusesocialmediaplat
formssuc hasFacebookt
ospyuponort r
ack
downpr ot
est
ersandopposit
ions.

Medi
aandCul
tur
alGl
obal
izat
ion

 Throughmediapl
atf
ormssuchasnewspapers,magazi
nes,movies,radi
o,andthe
i
nternet
,themedi
apr oduceanddi aycul
spl t
ur alpr
oductsthatrangefrom popsongs
tofil
ms.
 Themedi
aalsogener
atenumerousandongoinginter
act
ionsamongcul
tur
es-
the
commi
ngli
ngofmedia,cul
tur
e,andglobal
izat
ion.

ForJanNeder veenPiet
erse(2008)
,therear
ethr
eeout
comeswhenwet
alkabout
theinfluenceofgl
obali
zati
ononcul t
ure.

1. Cult
ur aldi
fferentiali
sm -cultur
esaredifferent,strong,andr esil
ient;despi
te
gl obali
zat
ion,thesecul t
ureswi l
lendureandcul turaldiversi
tywi l
lbemai ntai
ned.
Thi sview al
sosuggest sthatcultur
esaredesti
nedt oclashasgl obalizat
ioncont i
nues
tobr i
ngthem together.E.g.theWestandIsl
am wi llbelockedinc onfli
ct.

2. Culturalconver gence-gl obali

zationwillbri
ngaboutagr owingsamenessof
cult
ur es.Thisout comesuggestst hatcultur
alhomogenei tywil
loccurthrough
cult
ur alimperiali
sm inwhi chthecul t
ur eof"moredev el
opednati
ons"invadeandt
ake
overthecul t
ur esof"lessdevel
opednat ions".I
.e.aglobalcul
tur
ewhi c
hishi ghl
y
Amer i
c ancult
ur e.

3. Cul
turalhybr i
dity-global i
zat
ionwil
lbri
ngaboutani ncr
easingbl
endingor
mi xtureofcult
ures.Thi s"mixi
ng"wi l
lcr
eatenew cul
tur
alforms,f
rom musictofood
tof ashi
on.ForPieterse,thi
sout comeiscommonanddesi r
able.

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