Solution Manual for Chemical Principles The Quest for

Insight 7th Edition by Atkins Jones and Laverman ISBN

1464183953 9781464183959
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Focus 4: Thermodynamics

1. Hot coffee in a vacuum flask (thermos) is an example of a(n) __________________

(open, closed, isolated) system.
Ans: isolated

2. A closed system can exchange energy with the surroundings. True or false?
Ans: True

3. An isolated system can exchange energy and small particles with the surroundings.
True or false?
Ans: False

4. Work is reported in joules; and 1 joule = ____________

Ans: 1 kgm2s2

5. How much work is done by a person of mass 185 kg who climbs a ladder to the top of
his house, a total of 15.0 m?
A) 2.78 kJ B) 12.3 kJ C) 27.2 kJ D) No work is done. E) 121 kJ
Ans: C

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

6. If an isolated system contained +5 kJ of energy, after 100 years U =

A) The answer is impossible to D) 0 kJ.
determine
B) Slightly less than +5 kJ. E) 5 kJ.
C) +5 kJ.
Ans: C

7. What is the total motional contribution to the molar internal energy of gaseous HCN?
A) 3RT B) 3.5RT C) 2.5RT D) RT E) 1.5RT
Ans: C

8. What is the total motional contribution to the molar internal energy of gaseous BF3?
A) RT B) 3.5RT C) 3RT D) 1.5RT E) 2.5RT
Ans: C

9. What is the total motional contribution to the molar internal energy of gaseous H2O at
25C?
A) 6.19 kJmol1 D) 12.4 kJmol1
B) 7.43 kJmol 1 E) 2.48 kJmol1
C) 3.72 kJmol1
Ans: B

10. A CD player and its battery together do 500 kJ of work. The battery also releases 250
kJ of energy as heat and the CD player releases 50 kJ as heat due to friction from
spinning. What is the change in internal energy of the system, with the system regarded
as the battery and CD player together?
A) +200 kJ B) 700 kJ C) 800 kJ D) 200 kJ E) 750 kJ
Ans: C

11. A CD player and its battery together do 500 kJ of work. The battery also releases 250
kJ of energy as heat, and the CD player releases 50 kJ as heat due to friction from
spinning. What is the change in internal energy of the system, with the system regarded
as the battery alone? Assume that the battery does 500 kJ of work on the CD player,
which then does the same amount of work on the surroundings.
A) +200 kJ B) 800 kJ C) 750 kJ D) 50 kJ E) 700 kJ
Ans: C

12. A CD player and its battery together do 500 kJ of work. The battery also releases 250
kJ of energy as heat and the CD player releases 50 kJ as heat due to friction from
spinning. What is the change in internal energy of the system, with the system regarded
as the CD player alone? Assume that the battery does 500 kJ of work on the CD player,
which then does the same amount of work on the surroundings.
A) –550 kJ B) 50 kJ C) 950 kJ D) 800 kJ E) +450 kJ
Ans: B

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

13. When a gas expands into a vacuum, w = 0. True or false?

Ans: True

14. A system had 150 kJ of work done on it and its internal energy increased by 60 kJ. How
much energy did the system gain or lose as heat?
A) The system lost 90 kJ of energy as heat.
B) The system lost 210 kJ of energy as heat.
C) The system gained 60 kJ of energy as heat.
D) The system gained 90 kJ of energy as heat.
E) The system gained 210 kJ of energy as heat.
Ans: A

15. If 2.00 mol of an ideal gas at 300 K and 3.00 atm expands from 6.00 L to 18.00 L and
has a final pressure of 1.20 atm, isothermally and reversibly, which of the following is
correct?
A) w = 5.48 kJ, q = +5.48 kJ, U = 0
B) w = 3.65 kJ, q = +3.65 kJ, U = 0
C) w = +3.65 kJ, q = +3.65 kJ, U = +7.30 kJ
D) w = 5.48 kJ, q = 5.48 kJ, U = 11.0 kJ
E) w = +5.48 kJ, q = +5.48 kJ, U = +11.0 kJ
Ans: A

16. If 2.00 mol of an ideal gas at 300 K and 3.00 atm expands from 6.00 L to 18.00 L and a
final pressure of 1.20 atm in two steps: (1) the gas is cooled at constant volume until its
pressure has fallen to 1.20 atm, and (2) it is heated and allowed to expand against a
constant pressure of 1.20 atm until its volume reaches 18.00 L, which of the following is
correct?
A) w = 0 for step (1) and w = 1.46 kJ for step (2)
B) w = 4.57 kJ for the overall process
C) w = 6.03 kJ for the overall process
D) w = 4.57 kJ for step (1) and w = 1.46 kJ for step (2)
E) w = 0 for the overall process
Ans: A

17. In a system composed of nitrogen gas in a cylinder fitted with a piston, when 2.00 kJ of
energy is transferred as heat at an external pressure of 2.00 atm, the nitrogen gas
expands from 2.00 to 5.00 L against this constant pressure. What is U for the process?
A) 0.608 kJ B) +1.39 kJ C) +2.61 kJ D) 0 E) 2.61 kJ
Ans: B

18. A battery does 35 kJ of work driving an electric motor and 7 kJ of heat are released.
What is the change in internal energy of the system?
A) 35 kJ B) +42 kJ C) 42 kJ D) 28 kJ E) +28 kJ
Ans: C

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

19. A piece of a newly synthesized material of mass 25.0 g at 80.0C is placed in a

calorimeter containing 100.0 g of water at 20.0C. If the final temperature of the system
is 24.0C, what is the specific heat capacity of this material?
A) 0.30 Jg1(C)1 D) 4.76 Jg1(C)1
B) 7.46 Jg1(C)1 E) 0.84 Jg1(C)1
C) 1.19 Jg1(C)1
Ans: C

20. A piece of a newly synthesized material of mass 12.0 g at 88.0C is placed in a

calorimeter containing 100.0 g of water at 20.0C. If the final temperature of the system
is 24.0C, what is the specific heat capacity of this material?
A) 10.2 Jg1(C)1 D) 9.50 Jg1(C)1
B) 1.58 Jg1(C)1 E) 0.54 Jg1(C)1
C) 2.18 Jg1(C)1
Ans: C

21. A reaction known to release 2.00 kJ of heat takes place in a calorimeter containing
0.200 L of solution and the temperature rose by 4.46C. When 100 mL of nitric acid and
100 mL of sodium hydroxide were mixed in the same calorimeter, the temperature rose
2.01C. What is the heat output for the neutralization reaction?
A) 0.0186 kJ(C)1 D) 17.9 kJ(C)1
B) 0.448 kJ(C)1 E) 0.901 kJ(C)1
C) 0.816 kJ(C)1
Ans: E

22. A reaction known to release 4.00 kJ of heat takes place in a calorimeter containing
0.200 L of solution and the temperature rose by 6.14C. When 200 mL of hydrochloric
acid was added to a small piece of calcium carbonate in the same calorimeter, the
temperature rose by 4.25C. What is the heat output for this reaction?
A) 0.0257 kJ(C)1 D) 2.77 kJ(C)1
B) 0.941 kJ(C) 1 E) 2.12 kJ(C)1
C) 0.651 kJ(C)1
Ans: D

23. Which of the following is not a state function?

A) H B) T C) U D) S E) None; they are all state functions.
Ans: E

24. Calculate the final temperature when 2.50 kJ of energy is transferred as heat to 1.50 mol
N2 at 298 K and 1 atm at constant volume.
A) 80C B) 145C C) 159C D) 120C E) 105C
Ans: E

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

25. Calculate the final temperature when 2.50 kJ of energy is transferred as heat to 1.50 mol
BF3 at 298 K and 1 atm at constant volume.
A) 100C B) 80C C) 67C D) 125C E) 92C
Ans: E

26. Calculate the change in internal energy when 2.50 kJ of energy is transferred as heat to
1.50 mol N2 at 298 K and 1 atm at constant volume.
A) 2.50 kJ B) +2.50 kJ C) +1.00 kJ D) 1.50 kJ E) +1.50 kJ
Ans: B

27. Calculate the change in internal energy when 2.50 kJ of energy is transferred as heat to
1.50 mol BF3 at 298 K and 1 atm at constant volume.
A) +1.00 kJ B) +2.50 kJ C) 1.50 kJ D) 2.50 kJ E) +1.50 kJ
Ans: B

28. Calculate the final temperature when 2.50 kJ of energy is transferred as heat to 1.50 mol
N2 at 298 K and 1 atm at constant pressure.
A) 75C B) 159C C) 80C D) 82C E) 92C
Ans: D

29. Calculate the final temperature when 2.50 kJ of energy is transferred as heat to 1.50 mol
BF3 at 298 K and 1 atm at constant pressure.
A) 82C B) 80C C) 159C D) 75C E) 92C
Ans: D

30. Calculate the change in internal energy when 2.50 kJ of energy is transferred as heat to
1.50 mol N2 at 298 K and 1 atm at constant pressure.
A) +2.14 kJ B) 1.79 kJ C) +2.50 kJ D) 2.50 kJ E) +1.79 kJ
Ans: E

31. Calculate the change in internal energy when 2.50 kJ of energy is transferred as heat to
1.50 mol BF3 at 298 K and 1 atm at constant pressure.
A) +1.56 kJ B) +2.50 kJ C) 1.87 kJ D) 2.50 kJ E) 1.87 kJ
Ans: C

32. Calculate the enthalpy change that occurs when 1.00 kg of acetone condenses at its
boiling point (329.4 K). The standard enthalpy of vaporization of acetone is
29.1 kJmol1.
A) 502 kJ B) 29.1 kJ C) 2.91  104 kJ D) +502 kJ E) +29.1 kJ
Ans: A

33. Calculate the enthalpy change that occurs when 1 lb (454 g) of mercury freezes at its
freezing point (234.3 K). The standard enthalpy of fusion of mercury is 2.29 kJmol1.
A) 2.29 kJ B) 1.04  103 kJ C) +5.18 kJ D) +2.29 kJ E) 5.18 kJ
Ans: E

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

34. Calculate the standard enthalpy of vaporization of liquid bromine if the standard
enthalpy of sublimation of solid bromine is +40.1 kJmol1 and the standard enthalpy of
fusion of solid bromine is +10.6 kJmol1.
A) 50.7 kJmol1 D) +14.8 kJmol1
B) 29.5 kJmol1 E) +29.5 kJmol1
C) +50.7 kJmol 1

Ans: E

35. How much heat is required to vaporize 50.0 g of water if the initial temperature of the
water is 25.0C and the water is heated to its boiling point, where it is converted to
steam? The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J(C)1g1 and the standard enthalpy
of vaporization of water at its boiling point is 40.7 kJmol1.
A) 169 kJ B) 64.2 kJ C) 40.7 kJ D) 193 kJ E) 23.5 kJ
Ans: D

36. When a solution of 1.691 g of silver nitrate is mixed with an excess of sodium chloride
in a calorimeter of heat capacity 216 J(C)1, the temperature rises 3.03C. What is the
reaction enthalpy?
A) 65.7 kJmol1 D) +65.7 kJmol1
B) 0.654 kJmol1 E) +0.654 kJmol1
C) +111 kJmol1
Ans: A

37. The combustion of 1 mole of octane, C8H18(l), to produce carbon dioxide and liquid
water has Hr = 5471 kJmol1 at 298 K. What is the change in internal energy for this
reaction?
A) 5460 kJmol1 D) 5471 kJmol1
B) 5482 kJmol1 E) 5493 kJmol1
C) 5449 kJmol 1

Ans: A

38. The combustion of 1 mole of ethanol, C2H5OH(l), to produce carbon dioxide and
gaseous water has Hr = 1235 kJmol1 at 298 K. What is the change in internal energy
for this reaction?
A) 1237 kJmol1 D) 1247 kJmol1
B) 1240 kJmol1 E) 1223 kJmol1
C) 1230 kJmol1
Ans: B

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

39. The combustion of one mole of octane, C8H18(l), in a bomb calorimeter released 5460 kJ
of heat at 298 K. The products of the reaction are carbon dioxide and liquid water. What
is the enthalpy change for this reaction?
A) +5471 kJmol1 D) 5449 kJmol1
B) 5460 kJmol 1 E) +5460 kJmol1
C) 5471 kJmol1
Ans: C

40. The combustion of 1 mole of ethanol, C2H5OH(l), in a bomb calorimeter released 1240
kJ of heat. The products of the reaction are carbon dioxide and liquid water. What is the
enthalpy change for this reaction?
A) 1245 kJmol1 D) +1240 kJmol1
B) 1235 kJmol1 E) 1240 kJmol1
C) +1235 kJmol 1

Ans: B

41. Given the standard reaction enthalpies below:

N2(g) + O2  2NO(g) H° = +180.5 kJmol1
2NO2(g)  N2(g) + 2O2(g) H° = 66.4 kJmol1
calculate the standard reaction enthalpy for the oxidation of nitric oxide to nitrogen
dioxide, shown below:
2NO(g) + O2(g)  2NO2(g)
A) 114.1 kJmol1 D) 294.6 kJmol1
B) 246.9 kJmol1 E) 246.9 kJmol1
C) 114.1 kJmol1
Ans: C

42. If the standard reaction enthalpy for the reaction

NO2(g)  NO(g) + O(g)
Is needed, calculate it from the standard enthalpy of formation of ozone, +142.7
kJmol1, and from the reactions listed below:
O2(g)  2O(g) H° = +498.4 kJmol1
NO(g) + O3(g)  NO2(g) + O2(g) H° = 200 kJmol1
A) +355 kJmol1 D) +592 kJmol1
B) +555 kJmol 1 E) +306 kJmol1
C) +192 kJmol1
Ans: E

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

43. Calculate the standard reaction enthalpy for the reaction.

N2H4(l) + H2(g)  2NH3(g)
Given: N2H4(l) + O2(g)  N2(g) + 2H2O(g) H° = 543 kJmol1
2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(g) H° = 484 kJmol1
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g) H° = 92.2 kJmol1
A) 935 kJmol 1 D) 59 kJmol1
B) 1119 kJmol1 E) 243 kJmol1
C) 151 kJmol1
Ans: C

44. Calculate the standard reaction enthalpy for the following reaction.
CH4(g) + H2O(g)  CO(g) + 3H2(g)
Given: 2H2(g) + CO(g)  CH3OH(l) H° = 128.3 kJmol1
2CH4(g) + O2(g)  2CH3OH(l) H° = 328.1 kJmol1
2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(g) H° = 483.6 kJmol1
A) +155.5 kJmol1 D) +42.0 kJmol1
B) + 216 kJmol 1 E) +206.1 kJmol1
C) +412.1 kJmol1
Ans: E

45. What mass of propane, C3H8(g), must be burned to supply 2580 kJ of heat? The
standard enthalpy of combustion of propane at 298 K is 2220 kJmol1.
A) 25.6 g B) 51.2 g C) 102 g D) 75.9 g E) 37.9 g
Ans: B

46. What mass of ethanol, C2H5OH(l), must be burned to supply 500 kJ of heat? The
standard enthalpy of combustion of ethanol at 298 K is 1368 kJmol1.
A) 126 g B) 2.74 g C) 16.8 g D) 10.9 g E) 29.7 g
Ans: C

47. Calculate the standard enthalpy of combustion of ethanol at 298 K from standard
enthalpy of formation data.
A) 957.0 kJmol1 D) 1922 kJmol1
B) 1367 kJmol1 E) 401.7 kJmol1
C) 687.5 kJmol1
Ans: B

48. Calculate the standard enthalpy of combustion of butane, C4H10(g), at 298 K from
standard enthalpy of formation data.
Ans: 2877.04 kJmol1

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

49. If the standard enthalpy of combustion of ethanol, C2H5OH(l), at 298 K is 1368

kJmol1, what is the standard enthalpy of formation of ethanol? The standard enthalpies
of formation of carbon dioxide and liquid water are 393.51 and 285.83 kJmol1,
respectively.
A) +688.7 kJmol1 D) 276.5 kJmol1
B) 344.3 kJmol 1 E) 688.7 kJmol1
C) +276.5 kJmol1
Ans: D

50. If the standard enthalpy of combustion of octane, C8H18(l), at 298 K is 5471 kJmol1,
calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of octane. The standard enthalpies of
formation of carbon dioxide and liquid water are 393.51 and 285.83 kJmol1,
respectively.
Ans: 249 kJmol1

51. The standard enthalpy of formation of ammonium perchlorate at 298 K is 295.31

kJmol1. Write the equation that corresponds to this value.
Ans: ½N2(g) + ½Cl2(g) + 2O2(g) + 2H2(g)  NH4ClO4(s)

52. Match the values with the correct enthalpy change.

Enthalpy Value
Hf(C(g)) 1300 kJmol1
Hf(C(s), (graphite)) +717 kJmol1
Hc(C2H2(g)) +31 kJmol1
Hf(Br2(g)) 0
Ans:
Hf(C(g)) +717 kJmol1
Hf(C(s), (graphite)) 0
Hc(C2H2(g)) 1300 kJmol1
Hf(Br2(g)) +31 kJmol1

53. What equation corresponds to the standard enthalpy of formation of gaseous hydrogen
atoms, which, at 298 K is +217 kJmol1?
Ans: ½H2(g)  H(g)

54. The lattice enthalpy of calcium bromide is the energy change for the reaction
A) CaBr2(s)  Ca(g) + 2Br(g) D) CaBr2(s)  Ca(g) + Br2(g)
B) CaBr2(s)  Ca (g) + 2Br (g)
2+  E) Ca(g) + 2Br(g)  CaBr2(g)
C) Ca(s) + Br2(l)  CaBr2(s)
Ans: B

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

55. The lattice enthalpy of calcium oxide is the energy change for the reaction
A) CaO(s)  Ca(g) + O(g) D) CaO(s)  Ca2+(g) + O2(g)
B) CaO(s)  Ca(g) + ½O2(g) E) Ca(s) + ½O2(g)  CaO(s)
C) Ca(g) + O(g)  CaO(g)
Ans: D

56. The standard enthalpy of formation of NaCl(s) is 411 kJ/mol. In a Born-Haber cycle
for the formation of NaCl(s), which enthalpy change(s) is/are endothermic?
A) the lattice enthalpy of NaCl(s)
B) the electron affinity of chlorine
C) the reverse of the lattice enthalpy of NaCl(s)
D) All of the enthalpy changes are endothermic except for the standard enthalpy of
formation of NaCl(s).
Ans: A

57. Calculate the lattice enthalpy of silver chloride from the following data.
enthalpy of formation of Ag(g): +284 kJmol1
first ionization energy of Ag(g): +731 kJmol1
enthalpy of formation of Cl(g): +122 kJmol1
electron affinity of Cl(g): +349 (H = 349) kJmol1
enthalpy of formation of AgCl(s): 127 kJmol1
A) 1613 kJmol1 D) 1359 kJmol1
B) 915 kJmol 1 E) 661 kJmol1
C) 1037 kJmol1
Ans: B

58. Calculate the lattice enthalpy of potassium fluoride from the following data.
enthalpy of formation of K(g): +89 kJmol1
first ionization energy of K(g): +418 kJmol1
enthalpy of formation of F(g): +79 kJmol1
electron affinity of F(g): +328 (H = 328) kJmol1
enthalpy of formation of KF(s): 567 kJmol1
A) 1481 kJmol1 D) 497 kJmol1
B) 825 kJmol 1 E) 347 kJmol1
C) 904 kJmol1
Ans: B

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

59. Calculate the lattice enthalpy of calcium oxide from the following data.
enthalpy of formation of Ca(g): +178 kJmol1
first ionization energy of Ca(g): +590 kJmol1
second ionization energy of Ca(g): +1150 kJmol1
enthalpy of formation of O(g): +249 kJmol1
first electron affinity of O(g): +141 (H = 141) kJmol1
second electron affinity of O(g): 844 (H = +844) kJmol1
enthalpy of formation of CaO(s): 635 kJmol1
A) 1817 kJmol1 D) 3754 kJmol1
B) 1391 kJmol1 E) 3505 kJmol1
C) 2235 kJmol1
Ans: E

60. Calculate the lattice enthalpy of potassium chloride given the following enthalpy data.
K(s)  K(g) +89 kJmol1
K(g)  K+(g) + e +418 kJmol1
½Cl2(g)  Cl(g) +122 kJmol1
Cl(g) e  Cl(g) 349 kJmol1
K(s) + ½Cl2(g)  KCl(s) 437 kJmol1
Ans: +717 kJmol 1

61. Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of potassium chloride given the following
enthalpy data.
K(s)  K(g) +89 kJmol1
K(g)  K+(g) + e +418 kJmol1
½Cl2(g)  Cl(g) +122 kJmol1
Cl(g) e  Cl (g)
  349 kJmol1
KCl(s)  K+(g) + Cl(g) +717 kJmol1
Ans: 437 kJmol1

62. The formation of solid calcium chloride from a gas of its ions is an exothermic process.
True or false?
Ans: True

63. The formation of solid calcium oxide from a gas of its ions is an exothermic process and
is equal to the reverse of the lattice enthalpy.
Ans: True

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

64. The standard enthalpy of formation of ammonia gas is 46.11 kJmol1 at 298 K. What
is the standard reaction enthalpy for the Haber process at 500C? The molar heat
capacities of nitrogen, hydrogen, and ammonia are 29.12, 28.82, and 35.06 JK1mol1
respectively.
A) 97.65 kJmol1 D) 92.22 kJmol1
B) 113.81 kJmol 1 E) 103.09 kJmol1
C) 56.91 kJmol1
Ans: B

65. The standard enthalpy of formation of gaseous water is 241.82 kJmol-1 at 298 K.
Estimate this value at 370 K. The molar heat capacities of hydrogen, oxygen, and
gaseous water are 28.82, 29.36, and 33.58 JK1mol1.
A) 241.82 kJmol1 D) 240.39 kJmol1
B) 243.25 kJmol 1 E) 241.10 kJmol1
C) 242.54 kJmol1
Ans: C

66. Calculate the average H-S bond enthalpy in H2S(g) given the standard enthalpies of
formation for H2S(g), H(g), and S(g): 20.1, 218, and 223 kJmol1, respectively.
A) 340 kJmol1 D) 679 kJmol1
B) 231 kJmol 1 E) 461 kJmol1
C) 10.1 kJmol1
Ans: A

67. Calculate the H-Br bond enthalpy given the standard enthalpies of formation for HBr(g),
H(g), and Br(g): 36.2, 218, and 112 kJmol1, respectively.
A) 320 kJmol1 D) 284 kJmol1
B) 366 kJmol 1 E) 196 kJmol1
C) 124 kJmol1
Ans: B

68. Calculate the Br-Br bond enthalpy given the standard enthalpies of formation for Br2(g)
and Br(g), 30.7 and 112 kJmol1, respectively.
A) 193 kJmol1 D) 81 kJmol1
B) 255 kJmol 1 E) 30.7 kJmol1
C) 143 kJmol1
Ans: A

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

69. Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of bicyco[1.1.0]butane (shown below)

given the standard enthalpies of formation of C(g) and H(g), 717 and 218 kJmol–1,
respectively, and the average C-H and C-C bond enthalpies, 412 and 348 kJmol–1,
respectively.
A) +175 kJmol1 D) 36 kJmol1
B) 472 kJmol1 E) 124 kJmol1
C) +312 kJmol1
Ans: D

70. At constant pressure and temperature, which of the following statements is true for the
reaction:
N2O5(s)  2NO2(g) + ½O2(g), Hr = 109.5 kJmol1 at 298 K.
A) H is independent of the physical states of the reactants.
B) H = U
C) w = 0
D) H < U
E) H > U
Ans: E

71. For the reaction CO2(aq)  CO2(g), Hr = 19.4 kJmol1 at 298. At constant
temperature and pressure, which of the following statements is true?
A) w = 0 B) U = 2.48 kJ C) H <  U D) H = U E) H > U
Ans: E

72. The heat flow for the reaction

C2H6(g) + 3.5O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
measured in a bomb calorimeter is 1553.5 kJ/mol at 298 K. At this temperature, U is
A) 1553.5 kJ/mol C) 1547.3 kJ/mol
B) 1552.3 kJ/mol D) 1559.7 kJ/mol
Ans: A

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

73. Give Hr values for each of the following reactions from the information below.
Hf(HCl(g)) = 92.31 kJmol1
H-Cl bond enthalpy = +431 kJmol1
O-H bond enthalpy = +463 kJmol1
Hf(H2O(g)) = 241.8 kJmol1
(a) 2H(g) + O(g)  H2O(g)
(b) H2(g) + Cl2(g)  2HCl(g)
(c) H(g) + Cl(g)  HCl(g)
Ans: (a) 926 kJmol1
(b) 184.62 kJmol1
(c) 431 kJmol1

74. Determine Hf(HCl(g)) from the following data.

H-Cl bond enthalpy = +431 kJmol1
Hf(H(g)) = +217.9 kJmol1
Hf(Cl(g)) = +121.4 kJmol1
A) +92 kJmol1 D) +431 kJmol1
B) 261 kJmol1 E) 92 kJmol1
C) 431 kJmol 1

Ans: E

75. Use the following information to determine the standard enthalpy of formation of
NH3(g).
N-H bond enthalpy = 390 kJmol1
Hf(H(g)) = 217.9 kJmol1
Hf(N(g)) = 472.6 kJmol1
A) 44 kJmol1 D) 83 kJmol1
B) 691 kJmol 1 E) 1170 kJmol1
C) 516 kJmol1
Ans: A

76. An isothermal change is one that occurs at a constant temperature. True or false?
Ans: True

77. Combustion reactions can be exothermic or endothermic. True or false?

Ans: False

78. For any isothermal process, U > 0 for an ideal gas. True or false?
Ans: False

79. The molar heat capacity of a monatomic ideal gas is independent of temperature and
pressure. True or false?
Ans: True

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 Chapter 8: Thermodynamics: The First Law

80. The enthalpy of sublimation of a substance is related to its enthalpy of vaporization and
enthalpy of fusion by the equation, Hsublimation = Hvaporization  Hfusion. True or false?
Ans: True

81. The temperature of a sample increases at its boiling point until all the liquid has been
vaporized. True or false?
Ans: False

82. For most reactions, the value of U is very close to that for H. True or false?
Ans: True

83. For Br2(l), the standard enthalpy of formation is ______________________ (positive/

negative/ zero).
Ans: Zero

84. All bond enthalpies are positive. True or false?

Ans: True

85. In the combustion of coal, C(s), the C=O bonds are stronger than the O=O bond. True or
false?
Ans: True

86. What can an isolated system exchange with the surroundings?

A) Energy only
B) Matter only
C) Energy and matter
D) Neither energy or matter
E) None of the above
Ans: D

87. When nitrogen gas expands from 3.00 to 6.00 L and 2.00 kJ of energy is transferred as
heat to the nitrogen in a cylinder fitted with a piston at an external pressure of 2.00 atm,
against this constant pressure, what is U for the process?
A) 0.608 kJ B) +2.61 kJ C) 2.61 kJ D) 0 E) +1.39 kJ
Ans: E

88. Of the following, which is not a state function?

A) q
B) T
C) U
D) H
E) A and B
Ans: B

Page 83
Another random document with
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approach very near it. It rarely on such occasions takes to wing, but
throws itself into the thicket, and makes off on foot by means of
pretty long leaps.
I have never seen this bird moving on wing to a sufficient distance to
enable me to speak with certainty of its mode of flight, especially as
it is one of our most nocturnal species, seldom beginning to seek for
prey before it is quite dusky. In the morning I have never seen one
abroad at however early an hour I have been on the look-out.
The Long-eared Owl is careless as to the situation in which its young
are to be reared, and generally accommodates itself with an
abandoned nest of some other bird that proves of sufficient size,
whether it be high or low, in the fissure of a rock or on the ground.
Sometimes however it makes a nest itself, and this I found to be the
case in one instance near the Juniatta River in Pennsylvania, where
it was composed of green twigs with the leaflets adhering, and lined
with fresh grass and sheep wool, but without feathers. The eggs are
usually four, nearly equally rounded at both ends, thin-shelled,
smooth, when newly deposited pure white, with a slight blush, which
is no longer observable when they have been for some time sitten
upon, their average length an inch and a half, their greatest breadth
an inch and three-sixteenths. I found eggs of this bird on the 15th of
April, and again on the 25th of June, which induces me to believe
that it rears two broods in the season in the State of Pennsylvania,
as it probably does also to the westward. Wilson relates the
following instance of its indifference as to the place selected for its
eggs. “About six or seven miles below Philadelphia, and not far from
the Delaware, is a low swamp, thickly covered with trees, and
inundated during great part of the year. This place is the resort of
great numbers of the Qua-bird or Night Raven (Ardea Nycticorax),
where they build in large companies. On the 25th of April, while
wading among the dark recesses of this place, observing the habits
of these birds, I discovered a Long-eared Owl, which had taken
possession of one of their nests, and was sitting; on mounting to the
nest, I found it contained four eggs, and breaking one of these, the
young appeared almost ready to leave the shell. There were
numbers of the Qua-birds’ nests on the adjoining trees all around,
and one of them actually on the same tree.”
When encamped in the woods, I have frequently heard the notes of
this bird at night. Its cry is prolonged and plaintive, though consisting
of not more than two or three notes repeated at intervals.
Dr Richardson states that it has been found “as far north as Lat.
60°, and probably exists as high as the forests extend. It is plentiful
in the woods skirting the plains of the Saskatchewan, frequents the
coast of Hudson’s Bay only in the summer, and retires into the
interior in the winter. It resides all the year in the United States, and
perhaps is not a rare bird in any part of North America; but as it
comes seldom abroad in the day, fewer specimens are obtained of it
than of the other Owls. It preys chiefly on quadrupeds of the genus
Arvicola, and in summer destroys many beetles. It lays three or four
roundish white eggs, sometimes on the ground, at other times in the
deserted nests of other birds in low bushes. Mr Hutchins says it
lays in April, and that the young fly in May; and Mr Drummond found
a nest on the ground in the same neighbourhood, containing three
eggs, on the 5th of July, and killed both the birds. On comparing the
above-mentioned eggs with those of the English Long-eared Owl,
the American ones proved to be smaller, measuring only an inch and
a half in length, and 1.27 inches in breadth; while the English ones
measured 1.8 inch in length, and 1 1/4 in breadth. The form and
colour were the same in both.”
The food of this Owl consists of rats, mice, and other small
quadrupeds, as well as birds of various species; its stomach having
been found by me crammed with feathers and other remains of the
latter.
There is a marked difference between the sexes. The males are not
only smaller than the females, but darker; and this has tempted me
to consider the Strix Mexicanus of Mr Swainson and the Prince of
Musignano as merely a large female of our Long-eared Owl.

Strix Otus, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 132.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. i. p 53.—
Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 37.
Long-eared Owl, Strix Otus, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. vi. p. 52, pl. 50, fig. 1.
Strix Otus, Long-eared Owl, Richards. and Swains. Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol.
ii. p. 72.
Long-eared Owl, Nuttall, Manual, vol. i. p. 130.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXXXIII.

Bill short, stout; upper mandible with its dorsal line slightly curved
from the base, towards the end decurved, the ridge broad at the
base, narrowed anteriorly, convex in its whole extent, the sides
sloping at the base, convex towards the tip, the edges soft and
obtuse as far as the nostrils, then sharp and barred to the end, below
the nostrils inflected, afterwards direct, the tip acute, and at its
extremity descending obliquely; the cere of moderate length,
feathered on the sides; the lower mandible straight, its angle
elongated, wide, and rounded, the dorsal line very short and slightly
convex, the back and sides convex, the edges toward the end sharp
and inflected, their outline decurved and with a slight sinus on each
side, the tip obliquely truncate. Nostrils medial, lateral, large, oblique,
oblong, in the fore edge of the cere, with a tough soft membrane
above, and having internally a ridge curved backwards from the
inner edge.
Head very large, flattened anteriorly; neck short; body very slender,
but seeming large on account of the great mass of plumage. Feet of
moderate length, and stout; tarsi feathered, short; toes also short,
and feathered; the third and fourth connected at the base by a short
web; the first shortest, and admitting of much lateral motion, the third
longest, the second and fourth nearly equal. On all the toes are two
terminal scutella. Claws long, curved in the fourth of a circle,
tapering, extremely acute, rounded above, very narrow beneath, the
first and second rounded, the rest flat; that of the fourth toe smallest,
of the first slightly larger, those of the other toes much larger and
nearly equal.
Plumage extremely soft and downy. The facial disks complete, and
composed of circular series of weak, slender, slightly recurved
feathers, having remote barbs; surrounding which is a ruff formed of
several rows of oblong incurved feathers, having the barbs close.
The feathers of the forehead are apparent between the ruffs,
although that part is very narrow; the bill is partially concealed by the
plumage; the feathers are oblong or ovate, and rounded, extremely
soft, and blended, those on the tarsi and toes, small, and somewhat
silky. Wings long and broad; primaries very broad, rounded, the
outer a little incurved towards the end, the first sinuate on the inner
web near the end, the second very slightly so; the second longest,
the third a little shorter, the fourth a little longer than the first; the
outer in its whole length, the second towards the end, and the first
alular feather, with the barbs disunited and recurved at the ends. Tail
rather short, slightly convex, a little rounded, of twelve broad
rounded feathers, having feeble shafts.
Bill brownish-black, cere flesh-coloured; iris orange; claws bluish-
grey, dusky towards the end. The colouring of the plumage is very
intricate, but may be described as buff, mottled and spotted with
brown and greyish-white. The disks are whitish anteriorly, with the
tips black, posteriorly reddish-white; the ruff mottled with red and
black; the upper part of the head, minutely mottled with whitish,
brownish-black, and light red; the tufts light reddish toward the base,
brownish-black in the central part toward the end, the inner edge
white, dotted with dark-brown. The upper parts are buff, variegated
with brown and whitish-grey, minutely mottled or undulatingly barred.
The first row of coverts tipped with white on the outer web; the edge
of the wing, and the outer margin of the first alular feather also white;
the alula and primary coverts greyish-brown barred with darker; the
quills and scapulars pale grey, barred with dark brown, and having
more or less buff towards the base of the outer web, that colour
being conspicuous on the six outer primaries. The tail is barred and
mottled in the same manner, the bars very narrow, ten on the middle
and eight on the outer feathers. The lower parts are in general
similar to the upper, but with more buff, and fewer spots, each
feather with a long dark brown streak and several irregular
transverse bars. The legs and toes are pure buff. The lower surface
of the wing is yellowish-white, a few of the coverts with a brown spot;
the quills banded with brown towards the end. The lower tail-coverts
have a narrow central brown line.
Length to end of tail 14 1/2 inches, to end of claws 14 3/4, to end of
wings 15; extent of wings 38; wing from flexure 11 1/2; tail 6; bill
along the ridge 1 5/12; tarsus 1 8/12; hind toe 7 1/2/12, its claw 8/12;
second toe 1, its claw 9/12; third toe 1 2/12, its claw 10/12; fourth toe
8/12, its claw 7/12. Weight 8 oz.
The Female is considerably larger, and of a lighter colour than the
male, but otherwise similar.
A male sent in spirits from Boston by Dr Brewer:—The roof of the
mouth is flat, with two longitudinal ridges, the sides ascending; the
posterior aperture of the nares oblong, 4 twelfths long, with an
anterior fissure. The tongue is 7 1/2 twelfths long, deeply emarginate
and papillate at the base, flattish above, with a faint median groove,
the sides parallel, the tip narrowed and emarginate. The mouth is
very wide, measuring 1 inch and 1 1/2 twelfth. The œsophagus is
5 1/2 inches long, of nearly uniform diameter throughout, as in all
other Owls, its breadth being 1 inch. The proventricular glandules
form a belt 9 twelfths in diameter. The stomach is large, round, 1
inch 9 twelfths long, 1 inch 7 twelfths broad, its walls thin, its
muscular coat composed of rather coarse fasciculi, but without
distinction into lateral muscles, the tendinous spaces circular, and
about 8 twelfths in diameter; its epithelium soft and rugous. The
duodenum is 3 twelfths in diameter, and curves at the distance of 3
inches from the pylorus. The intestine is 23 inches long, its smallest
diameter only 1 twelfth. The cœca, Fig. 2, are in this individual
unequal, as they very frequently are in Owls; the largest being 2
inches 10 twelfths in length, their greatest diameter 5 1/2 twelfths,
their distance from the anus 3 inches and a quarter. The cloaca is of
an enormous size, ovate, 2 inches long, 1 inch 2 twelfths broad. It
contains a calculous concretion 9 twelfths long, 7 twelfths broad, and
3 twelfths thick.
The trachea, which is 3 inches long, is 3 1/2 twelfths in breadth at the
upper part, 2 1/2 twelfths in the middle, and 3 twelfths at its lower
extremity; its rings about 75 in number, cartilaginous, and
considerably flattened. The lateral muscles are strong, the sterno-
tracheal moderate, and there is a single pair of very slender inferior
laryngeal muscles. Five of the lower rings are elongated, arched,
and slit. The bronchi are rather long, of 12 half rings.
 Fig. 1.

The conch of the ear, Fig. 1, is of enormous size, extending from the
level of the forehead over the eye to the chin, in a semilunar form, of
which the posterior curve is 3 inches, and the distance between the
two extremities in a direct line 1 inch and a half. There is an anterior
semicircular flap in its whole length, 5 twelfths in breadth at the
middle. The aperture or meatus externus is of a rhomboidal form
4 1/2 twelfths in length, 3 1/2 twelfths broad, bounded anteriorly by the
eye, posteriorly by a ligament extended along the edge of the
occipital bone, above by a ligament stretching to the operculum,
below the articulation of the lower jaw. Above the meatus is a deep
depression covered with skin, above which another ligament
stretches across to the operculum.
 Fig. 2.

In another specimen, a female, the œsophagus is 5 1/2 inches long,

its average diameter 11 twelfths. The intestine is 21 inches long,
from 2 1/2 twelfths to 1 twelfth in diameter; the cœca are 2 1/4 inches
in length; their greatest diameter 4 twelfths; the cloaca still larger
than that of the other individuals, being 2 inches long.
 BLACK-THROATED BUNTING.

Emberiza Americana, Gmel.

PLATE CCCLXXXIV. Male and Female.

Although this handsome Bunting may be said to be abundant in our

middle Atlantic districts, it is there much less so than in the vast
prairies of the south-west; and I consider those of the Texas to afford
the localities best adapted to its habits. There, as my companions
and I were returning from the capital of the infant republic, Houston,
we were surprised to see how very numerous the Black-throated
Buntings were in every open piece of ground covered by tufts of tall
grass. They are also abundant on the open lands of Missouri and
Illinois: but rarer in Ohio, and scarce in Kentucky. They are rarely
observed to pass over South Carolina, but in Pennsylvania they are
plentiful, and there breed in every field covered with grass or grain. I
have also met with them in Massachusetts, but beyond this they are
not seen to the eastward.
At the approach of the period of their removal from our Middle States
southward, the Black-throated Buntings congregate in particular
localities, as if to consult regarding their future proceedings. At this
season I once went from Philadelphia in search of them,
accompanied by my friend Edward Harris, and my son John
Woodhouse. Having reached Salem in New Jersey, we rambled
some time in the neighbourhood, and found an elevated piece of
ground, closely covered with high rank weeds, among which a great
number of these birds had assembled. It being late in July, the males
were moulting, or had already acquired their new plumage; the
young, although full grown, had not yet assumed their second
clothing, in which the sexes are distinguished; and the females were
generally ragged. The birds were at first quite gentle, but after we
had fired a few times they all flew off to a considerable distance,
from which, however, they soon returned. On our continuing to
harass them, however, they rose high in the air, and flew out of our
sight in a southward direction. They had then undoubtedly begun
migrating. These birds are very partial to particular localities. Sandy
soil, unmixed with clay or earth, is not favourable to them; and it is
probably for this reason that none are found in any purely sandy part
of the State of New Jersey.
The Black-throated Buntings reach our Middle States about the 10th
or 15th of May, and at once betake themselves to the dry meadow
lands and grain fields, where they soon after begin to breed. The
males are often observed perched on the top branches of the shade
trees found in those places, and engaged in delighting their mates
with their simple ditty, which, according to my learned friend Mr
Nuttall, resembles ’tic ’tic-tshĕ tshĕ tshĕ tshe, and tship tship,
tschĕ tschĕ tschĕ tschip. To my ears the notes of our Black-throated
Bunting so much resemble those of the Corn Bunting of Europe,
Emberiza Miliaria, that I have often been reminded of the one by
hearing the song of the other. These unmusical notes are almost
continuously uttered from sunrise to sunset, and all this while the
female is snugly seated on her eggs, and listening to her beloved.
He often visits her, alighting within a few yards of where she is
concealed, and then cautiously proceeding toward the spot on foot,
through the grass. When the bird leaves the nest, it creeps along to
some distance, and then flies off low over the ground.
About the first of June the nest is formed. It is constructed of fine
grass neatly woven in a circular form, and is partly imbedded in the
soil, and sheltered or concealed by a tuft of herbage. The eggs,
usually five, are six and a half eighths in length, four and three-
fourths in breadth, of a sullied white, generally sprinkled with faint
touches of different tints of umber. In Pennsylvania, it seldom rears
more than one brood in the season; but in the Texas, I have reason
to believe that it raises two.
The flight of this bird, when it has settled in a place, is usually of
short extent. The male, while passing to and fro from the nest,
exhibits a quivering motion of the wings. The female seldom shews
this, unless when her property is in danger from intruders. While
travelling, which they always do by day, they pass high over the
trees, in flocks of thirty or forty, which suddenly alight at the
approach of night, and throw themselves into the most thickly-leaved
trees, where they repose until dawn. I have surprised them in such
situations both in Kentucky and in Louisiana, and on shooting into
the place to which they had betaken themselves, although I could
not see them, have procured several at one discharge; which proved
in one instance to be males, and in the other females, thus shewing
that the sexes travel separately. On such occasions, the survivors
would sally forth, make a few rapid evolutions, and alight on the
same tree.
In spring, I have found them, on two or three occasions, near
Natchez, in the State of Mississippi, in meadows, in company with
Bob-o-links, Emberiza Oryzivora. On the ground they leap or hop,
but never walk. Their flesh is good, especially that of the young
birds.

Emberiza Americana, Gmel. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 872.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. i.
p. 411.
Black-throated Bunting, Emberiza Americana, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. i.
p. 54, pl. 3, fig. 2, male.
 Fringilla Americana, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p.
107.
Black-throated Bunting, Nuttall, Manual, vol. i. p. 461.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXXXIV. Fig. 1.

Bill of moderate length, stout, conical, compressed toward the end;
upper mandible with the dorsal line slightly declinate and convex, the
ridge indistinct, the sides convex, the edges a little inflected,
ascending to beneath the nostrils, then descending, with a slight
notch close to the narrow tip: lower mandible with the angle short
and wide, the dorsal line ascending and very slightly convex, the
ridge broad at the base, the sides convex, the edges ascending at
the base, then straight and involute to the end, the tip narrow.
Nostrils basal, roundish in the fore part of the very short and wide
nasal depression.
Head large, ovate; neck very short; body rather stout. Feet of
moderate length, rather strong; tarsus of ordinary length,
compressed, with seven anterior scutella, thin-edged behind; toes
rather large; the hind one strong and longer than the lateral, which
are equal, the third much longer, and united to the fourth at the base.
Claws long, arched, much compressed, acute.
Plumage soft and blended, but firm. Wings of moderate length,
acute; the first quill longest, the second slightly shorter, the other
primaries graduated; secondaries slightly emarginate. Tail of
moderate length, emarginate, of twelve rather narrow, obliquely
pointed feathers.
Bill light blue; iris hazel; feet light brownish-red, claws of the same
colour. The upper part of the head, the cheeks and the hind neck are
ash-grey, the feathers on the head with a central blackish streak;
loral space, a band over the eye, and a shorter one beneath it, bright
yellow. The fore part of the back greyish-brown, with longitudinal
streaks of brownish-black; the hind parts brownish-grey. The smaller
wing-coverts are bright chestnut, the quills and large coverts
blackish-brown, the primaries narrowly, the secondaries and their
coverts broadly edged with pale greyish-brown. The tail is dark
greyish-brown, the feathers faintly margined with paler. The fore
neck is light yellow, the throat at first white, then with a large patch of
black; the breast, sides, abdomen, legs and lower tail-coverts white,
the breast tinged with yellow, the sides with grey; the lower wing-
coverts yellow.
Length to end of tail 6 1/2 inches, to end of wings 5, to end of claws
6 1/4; extent of wings 10 3/8; wing from flexure 3 3/8; tail 2 1/2; bill
along the ridge 7/12, along the edge of lower mandible 8/12; tarsus
10 1/2/ ; hind toe 4
1/
/12, its claw 5
2
1/
/12,; middle toe 8/12, its claw
2
12
4 1/2/ .
12

Adult Female. Plate CCCLXXXIV. Fig. 2.

The Female has the upper parts coloured as in the male, but paler;
the lower parts are also similar, but in place of the black patch on the
throat, there are only two dusky lines from the base of the lower
mandible, and some faint streaks on the lower part of the neck and
the sides.
Length to end of tail 6, to end of wings 4, to end of claws 5 7/8; extent
of wings 9; wing from flexure 3; tail 2 5/12; bill along the ridge 6 1/2/12;
1/2 1/2
tarsus 10 /12; hind toe 4 /12, its claw 5/12; middle toe 3/12, its claw
3 1/2/ .
12

In an adult male, the roof of the mouth has anteriorly three

longitudinal ridges, and two lateral grooves; the palate descends
obliquely, and at its anterior part has a distinct prominence of a
softish texture; from which there passes backwards and outwards, a
large soft ridge on each side of the nasal aperture; which is linear
and papillate. The tongue is 5 1/2 twelfths long, narrow, deep,
trigonal, deeply emarginate and papillate at the base, soft for half its
length, convex and hard towards the end, which terminates with
bristly points. The œsophagus, a b c d, is 2 1/2 inches long, dilated
along the greater part of the neck into a kind of crop, b, 5 twelfths in
diameter, lying on the right side along with the trachea. The
proventriculus, c d, is not much enlarged. The stomach, e f, is a
strong gizzard, of a broad elliptical form, 7 1/2 twelfths in length, 6 1/2
twelfths in breadth. Its contents are small hard seeds, a few remains
of insects, and some particles of sand. The epithelium is very tough,
longitudinally rugous, and of a dark reddish-brown colour. The
intestine, f g h, is 8 1/2 inches long, its greatest diameter 2 twelfths.
The rectum, j k l, is 9 twelfths long; the cœca, j, extremely small,
being 1 1/2 twelfth long and 1/2 twelfth in diameter.

The trachea, which is 1 inch 10 twelfths long, is rather wide,

flattened, of uniform diameter, measuring 1 3/4 inch across, the rings
about 55, and ossified. The contractor muscles are of moderate
strength; the sterno-tracheal slender; and there are four pairs of
inferior laryngeal. The bronchi have about 15 half rings.
In its habits, this bird closely resembles the Common or Corn
Bunting of Europe, its flight and notes being almost the same. Like it,
our bird alights on walls, fences, detached rocks, or eminences of
any kind, where it is often seen even in the immediate
neighbourhood of our cities. Indeed, I have found it in full song
perched on the trees that ornament the squares of Washington city.
In the form of its bill it also agrees with the Buntings, although that
organ is proportionally longer and less attenuated toward the end. If,
on the principle of minute division, it is not admitted into the genus
Emberiza, it must at least occupy a place in its immediate proximity.
The plants represented are the Phalaris arundinacea and
Antirrhinum Linaria, both common in many parts of the United
States, as well as in Europe; the former growing in wet meadows
and by the sides of rivers, the latter in fields and waste places, a
troublesome weed, very difficult to be extirpated.
 BANK SWALLOW OR SAND MARTIN.

Hirundo riparia, Linn.

PLATE CCCLXXXV. Male, Female, and Young.

Imagine, Reader, how delighted I was when, in East Florida, in the

winter of 1831, I found thousands of Bank Swallows gaily skimming
over the waters, and along the shores of the rivers and inlets. So
numerous indeed were they that I felt inclined to think that the
greater part of those which are in summer dispersed over the United
States, and the regions still farther north, must have congregated to
form those vast swarms. The first time I saw them was before
sunrise, when I stood by the side of Lieutenant Percy of our Navy,
on the deck of the United States’ schooner the Spark, then at anchor
opposite St Augustine. The weather though warm, was thick and
drizzly, so that we could not see to a great distance; but as probably
some hundreds of thousands passed close to the vessel, in long and
rather close flocks, I was well enabled to assure myself that the birds
were of this species. On my expressing my surprise and delight at
beholding so vast a concourse, Lieutenant Percy assured me, that
he had seen them on all the streams which he had visited south of
where we then were. The weather cleared up in a few hours, the sun
shone brightly, and the little creatures were seen all around, dipping
into the water to wash themselves, gambolling close over its surface,
and busily engaged in procuring insects, which in that country are
always abundant. In the course of the same season I also observed
a good number of our Green-backed and Barn Swallows, but few
compared with what is seen about New Orleans.
We can thus account for the early appearance of the Bank Swallows
in our Middle Districts. That species always arrives there sooner than
the rest, sometimes preceding them by a fortnight, and keeping
equally in advance as far northward as its range extends. The
Green-backed Swallow, Hirundo bicolor, follows closely after it; then
the Purple Martin, Hirundo purpurea; after which are seen the Barn
Swallow, Hirundo rustica, and lastly, on our eastern Atlantic coasts,
the American Swift, Cypselus Americanus. It is probable that these
species extend their autumnal migrations southward in a degree
proportionate to the lateness of their appearance in Spring. I have
likewise observed the arrival of the Bank Swallows on the waters of
the Serpentine River and those of the Regent’s Park, in London, to
be in the same proportion earlier than that of the other species which
visit England in spring, and have thought that, as with us, the first
mentioned species retires to a less distance in winter than the rest.
The Bank Swallow has been observed on both sides of North
America, and in all intermediate places suited to its habits. This is
easily accounted for, when we reflect how easy it is for these birds to
follow our great water-courses to their very sources. Even the ponds
and lakes of our vast forests are at times visited by them; but no
person seems to have been aware of the existence of two species of
Bank Swallows in our country, which, however, I shall presently shew
to be the case.
Wherever, throughout the United States, sand-banks or artificial
excavations occur, there is found the Bank Swallow during the
breeding season, in greater or smaller numbers, according to the
advantages presented by the different localities, not only along the
shores of our rivers and lakes, but also on the coasts of the Atlantic,
and not unfrequently in inland situations, at some distance from any
water. High banks, composed of softish sandy earth, on the shores
of rivers, lakes, or other waters, suit them best, and in such
situations their colonies are far more numerous than elsewhere. The
banks of the Ohio, and some parts of those of the Mississippi, called
“Bluffs” have appeared to me to be more resorted to by this species
in our western and southern districts, although I have met with
considerable numbers in every State of the Union.
In Louisiana this species begins to breed early in March, and
generally rears two, sometimes three broods in a season. In our
Middle Districts it commences about a month later, or about the
period at which it lays in Kentucky, and there produces two broods.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, it rarely begins to breed before the
beginning of June, and lays only once. Dr Richardson states, that
he saw “thousands of these Swallows near the mouth of the
Mackenzie, in the sixty-eighth parallel, on the 4th of July,” and from
the state of the weather at that period supposed that they had
arrived there at least a fortnight prior to that date, but no specimens
were brought to England, and the description given in the Fauna
Boreali-Americana is a mere transcript of that which in itself is quite
imperfect. Indeed, there is not in any work with which I am
acquainted an account of the Sand Swallow, sufficiently minute and
accurate to characterize in an adequate manner that very common
species.
The sociability and gentleness of these birds, the lightness and
vigour with which they perform their various evolutions, the low and
unobtrusive twittering of their voice, in short, all their actions and
economy, are delightful to contemplate. Their flight is exceedingly
graceful, light, yet firm, and capable of great continuance. They
seem indeed as if created for the purpose of spending their time on
wing, for they alight less often to rest when full grown than any other
of our species, when not sitting on their eggs, and are seen abroad
searching for food later in the dusk, retiring for the night as late, I
think, as our Swift, Cypselus Americanus. As they procure their food
more commonly than the other species along the margins or over the
surface of pools, lakes, rivers, or even the sea, their flight is
generally performed at a small elevation, which is the case with
others only when the wind blows smartly, or the atmosphere is damp
and chill. The movements of their wings are those common to the
family of Swallows, which flap these members less frequently than
perhaps any other small land birds. The wings act on the hinge
formed by the carpal joint, opening and closing like the blades of
scissors. Their sailings, though frequent, are not extensive, and their
tail appears to be of great service to them, as you observe that on
the least deviation from a straight course, it becomes suddenly more
or less closed or inclined upward, downward, or sideways; and when
you see some hundreds of pairs about their breeding places,
passing, repassing, and crossing each other in various ways, you
almost wonder that they never come into collision with each other.
The slightest movement in any direction seems sufficient to enable
them to overtake and secure their prey; and they less frequently than
any other species follow an insect upward to any great distance. Like
all other Swallows, they drink and bathe on wing.
Their migrations are performed by day, although perhaps continued
by night, and their movements are more desultory and rather slower
than those of other Swallows. It is rare to observe them in great
flocks at that time, their associations not being apparently formed
until they reach the countries in which they spend the winter months.
Their flight, when they are thus travelling, is continued rather low
over the land or the water; and as in America they retire to a less
distance southward than our other Swallows, they are not
unfrequently seen to linger behind the rest. In South Carolina,
indeed, I have seen some in November.
In summer and autumn they roost in the holes excavated for their
nests; but in winter, at least in the Floridas, they always repose at
night among the tall grass of the salt marshes, making choice of
situations sheltered by the winds and not liable to be overflowed. At
this time they keep together in large bodies while searching for food.
I have several times accidentally crossed their roosting places, which
I at once recognised by the quantity of their dung attached to the
blades, and lying on the ground, and from which I infer that they rest
clinging to the plants.
At the first appearance of spring they leave their winter quarters in
pairs, or singly, or in very small flocks; but they follow each other so
closely in this manner as to form an almost continued line of march. I
had the pleasure of observing this to be the case with the Barn
Swallow also, whilst I was proceeding toward the Texas, when that
species was advancing in a contrary direction.
Although small, the Sand Swallow is a rather hardy bird: for I
observed that the transient cold weather that at times occurs in the
Florida at night, seldom forces them to remove farther south. On one
occasion, however, when the ice was about the thickness of a dollar,
many were found dead along the shores, as well as floating on the
water, whilst the rest appeared in great perturbation, wending their
way in a hurried manner toward the warmer parts of the country, and
taking advantage of every spot that afforded them more warmth,
such as the borders of woods, and high banks of streams. I am,
however, of opinion that the inclemency of the weather at times
proves to be the greatest evil these birds have to encounter,
especially when in early spring they are moving northward, and
occasionally meet with a sudden change from temperate to cold.
Even in the places selected for their summer residence, great
numbers die in their holes, and many have been found there in a
state bordering on torpidity.
Their food, which consists of small insects, principally of the
hymenopterous kind, even during winter in the Floridas, is procured
on wing. They very seldom approach walls or the trunks of trees to
seize them, but frequently snatch them from the tops of grasses or