Impression Management and Self Presentation (Goffman)
clues that are given off are.
Impression management refers to the goal-directed
conscious or unconscious attempt to influence the
perceptions of other people about a person, object, or
event by regulating and controlling information in social
interaction.
Generally, people undertake impression management to
achieve goals that require they have a desired public
image. This activity is called self-presentation.
In sociology and social psychology, self-presentation is
the conscious or unconscious process through which
people try to control the impressions other people form of
them.
The goal is for one to present themselves the way in
which they would like to be thought of by the individual
or group they are interacting with. This form of
management generally applies to the first impression.
Erving Goffman popularized the concept of perception
management in his book, The Presentation of Self in
Everyday Life, where he argues that impression
management not only influences how one is treated by
other people but is an essential part of social interaction.
Impression Management in Sociology
Impression management, also known as self-presentation,
refers to the ways that people use to attempt to control
how they are perceived by others (Goffman, 1959).
By conveying particular impressions about their abilities,
attitudes, motives, status, emotional reactions, and other
characteristics, people can influence others to respond to
them in desirable ways.
Impression management is a common way for people to
influence one another in order to obtain various goals.
Social Interaction
Goffman viewed impression management not only as a
means of influencing how one is treated by other people
but also as an essential part of social interaction.
He communicates this view through the conceit of
theatre. Actors give different performances in front of
different audiences, and the actors and the audience
cooperate in negotiating and maintaining the definition of
a situation.
To Goffman, the self was not a fixed thing which resides
within individuals, but a social process. For social
interactions to go smoothly, every interactant needs to
project a public identity that guides others’ behaviors
(Goffman, 1959, 1963; Leary, 2001; Tseelon, 1992).
Goffman defines that when people enter the presence
of others that we communicate information by verbal
intentional methods and by non-verbal unintentional
methods.
Goffman is mostly interested in the non-verbal clues
given off which are less easily manipulated. When
these clues are manipulated the receiver generally still
has the upper hand in determining how realistic the
People use these clues to determine how to treat a
person and if the intentional verbal responses given
off are actually honest. It is also known that most
people give off clues which help to represent them
in a positive light, which tends to be compensated
for by the receiver.
Impression Management Techniques
Suppressing emotions: Maintaining self control
(which we will identify with such practices as
speaking briefly and modestly).
Conforming to Situational Norms: The performer
follows agreed-upon rules for behavior in the
organization.
Flattering Others: The performer compliments the
perceiver. This tactic works best when flattery is not
extreme and when it involves a dimension important
to the perceiver.
Being Consistent: The performer’s beliefs and
behaviors are consistent. There is agreement
between the performer’s verbal and nonverbal
behaviors.
Impression Motivation
There are three main factors that affect how much
people are motivated to impression-manage in a
situation (Leary and Kowalski, 1990):
1. How much people believe their public images are
relevant to them attaining their desired goals. When
people believe that their public image is relevant to
them achieving their goals, they are generally more
motivated to control how others perceive them
(Leary, 2001). Conversely, when the impressions of
other people have few implications on one’s
outcomes, that person’s motivation to impression-
manage will be lower.
This is why people are more likely to impression
manage in their interactions with powerful, high-
status people than those who are less powerful and
have lower status (Leary, 2001).
2. How valuable the goals are: people are also more
likely to impress and manage the more valuable the
goals for which their public impressions are relevant
(Leary, 2001).
3. How much of a discrepancy there is between how
they want to be perceived and how they believe
others perceive them. People are more highly
motivated to impression-manage when there is a
difference between how they want to be perceived
and how they believe others perceive them.
For example, public scandal and embarrassing events
that convey undesirable impressions can cause people
to make self-presentational efforts to repair what they
see as their damaged reputations (Leary, 2001).
Impression Construction
In particular, Leary and Kowalski (1990) name five
sets of factors that are especially important in
impression construction (Leary, 2001).
Two of these factors include how people’s
relationships with themselves (self-concept and desired
identity), and three involve how people relate to others
(role constraints, target value, and current or potential
social image) (Leary and Kowalski, 1990).
Self-concept
The impressions that people try to create are
influenced not only by social context but also one’s
own self-concept.
People usually want others to see them as “how they
really are” (Leary, 2001), but this is in tension with the
fact that people must deliberately manage their
impressions in order to be viewed accurately by others
(Goffman, 1959).
People’s self-concepts can also constrain the images
they try to convey.
People often believe that it is unethical to present
impressions of themselves different from how they
really are and generally doubt that they would
successfully be able to sustain a public image
inconsistent with their actual characteristics (Leary,
2001).
This risk of failure in portraying a deceptive image and
the accompanying social sanctions deter people from
presenting impressions discrepant from how they see
themselves (Gergen, 1968; Jones and Pittman, 1982;
Schlenker, 1980).
People can differ in how congruent their self-
presentations are with their self-perceptions.
People who are high in public self-consciousness have
less congruency between their private and public
selves than those lower in public self-consciousness
(Tunnell, 1984; Leary and Kowalski, 1990).
Desired identity
People’s desired and undesired selves - how they wish
to be and not be on an internal level - also influence
the images that they try to project.
Schlenker (1985) defines a desirable identity image as
what a person “would like to be and thinks he or she
really can be, at least at his or her best.”
People have a tendency to manage their impressions so
that their images coincide with their desired selves and
stay away from images that coincide with their
undesired selves (Ogilivie, 1987; Schlenker, 1985;
Leary, 2001).
This happens by people publicly claiming attributes
consistent with their desired identity and openly
rejecting identities that they do not want to be
associated with.
For example, someone who abhors bigots may take
every step possible to not appear bigoted and
Gergen and Taylor (1969) showed that high-status
navel cadets did not conform to low-status navel
cadets because they did not want to see themselves
as conformists (Leary and Kowalski, 1990).
Target value
People tailor their self-presentations to the values of
the individuals whose perceptions they are
concerned with.
This may lead to people sometimes fabricating
identities that they think others will value.
However, more commonly, people selectively
present truthful aspects of themselves that they
believe coincide with the values of the person they
are targeting the impression to and withhold
information that they think others will value
negatively (Leary, 2001).
Role constraints
The content of people’s self-presentations is
affected by the roles that they take on and the norms
of their social context.
In general, people want to convey impressions
consistent with their roles and norms.
Many roles even carry self-presentational
requirements around the kinds of impressions that
the people who hold the roles should and should not
convey (Leary, 2001).
Current or potential social image
People’s public image choices are also influenced
by how they think they are perceived by others. As
in impression motivation, self-presentational
behaviors can often be aimed at dispelling undesired
impressions that others hold about an individual.
When people believe that others have or are likely
to develop an undesirable impression of them, they
will typically try to refute that negative impression
by showing that they are different from how others
believe them to be.
When they are not able to refute this negative
impression, they may project desirable impressions
in other aspects of their identity (Leary, 2001).
Interpersonal relationships
A strong bond between two or more people refers to
interpersonal relationship. Attraction between individuals
brings them close to each other and eventually results in a
strong interpersonal relationship.
Forms of Interpersonal relationship
An interpersonal relationship can develop between any of
the following:
 Individuals working together in the same
organization.
 People working in the same team.
 Relationship between a man and a woman (Love,
Marriage).
 Relationship with immediate family members and
relatives.
 Relationship of a child with his parents.
 Relationship between friends.
Relationship can also develop in a group (Relationship of
students with their teacher, relationship of a religious
guru with his disciples and so on)
Must have in an Interpersonal Relationship
Individuals in an interpersonal relationship must share
common goals and objectives. They should have more or
less similar interests and think on the same lines. It is
always better if individuals come from similar
backgrounds.
Individuals in an interpersonal relationship must respect
each other’s views and opinions. A sense of trust is
important.
Individuals must be attached to each other for a healthy
interpersonal relationship.
Transparency plays a pivotal role in interpersonal
relationship. It is important for an individual to be honest
and transparent.
Robert Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
The amount of love in any relationship is directly
proportional to these three components:
Passion: Passion refers to the physical and sexual
attraction between two individuals. Individuals must feel
physically attracted to each other for the charm to stay in
relationship for a much longer period of time.
Intimacy: The amount of closeness between two
individuals in a relationship refers to intimacy. Partners
must gel with each other and a strong bond between them
is essential.
Commitment: The decision of two individuals to stay
together forever is called commitment. Commitment is
nothing but two people deciding to be with each other
life-long either by staying together or by entering the
wedlock.
Relationship between friends
Friends must be honest to each other.
Stand by your friends at times of need.
Avoid leg pulling, criticism and making fun of your
friends.
Try not to mix friendship with love as it creates
problems and misunderstandings.
Interpersonal relationship between children and their
parents, brother and sister, immediate family members
or relatives revolve around trust, commitment and
care.
Stages in Interpersonal Relationships
Interpersonal relationship refers to a strong association
between individuals sharing common interests and
goals.
A sense of trust, loyalty and commitment is essential
in a relationship. Individuals need to trust and respect
their partners to avoid misunderstandings and conflicts
in relationship.
Stages in an interpersonal relationship
It takes time for a relationship to grow and pass the
test of time.
There are two possibilities in a relationship:
Possibility - 1: Two people might start a relationship
as mere strangers. They get to know each other slowly
and become emotionally and mentally attached to their
partners gradually. Such relationships often lead to
lasting commitments where individuals decide to be
with each other until death separates them.
Possibility - 2: Two people might start off well but
soon face problems. Troubles in relationship start
when people have different opinions, views and fail to
reach to a mutually acceptable solution. In such cases
individuals decide to move on from a relationship for a
fresh start.
George Levinger’s ABCDE Model of Relationships
First Stage – Acquaintance
Acquaintance refers to knowing each other. To start
relationship individuals need to know each other well.
Two individuals might meet at some place and
instantly hit it off. People feel attracted to each other
and decide to enter into a relationship.
Common friends, social gatherings, same
organizations also help people meet, break the ice, get
acquainted with each other and start a relationship.
Second Stage – The Build up Stage
This is the stage when the relationship actually grows.
Individuals are no longer strangers and start trusting
each other.
Individuals must be compatible with each other for the
relationship to continue for a longer period of time.
Individuals with similar interests and backgrounds
tend to gel with each other more as compared to
individuals from diverse backgrounds and different
objectives.
The build up stage in a relationship is often
characterized by two individuals coming close, being
passionate and feeling for each other.
Third Stage – Continuation Stage
This is the stage when relationship blossoms into lasting
commitments. It is when people after knowing each other
well decide to be in each other’s company and tie the
knot.
Trust and transparency is essential for the charm to stay
in relationship forever.
Fourth Stage – Deterioration
Not all relationships pass through this stage. Lack of
compatibility, trust, love and care often lead to
misunderstandings and serious troubles in relationship.
Individuals sometimes find it extremely difficult to adjust
with each other and eventually decide to bring their
relationship to an end.
Compromise is an integral part of every
relationship.Individuals failing to compromise with each
other find it difficult to take the relationship to the next
level.
Fifth Stage – The Termination Stage
The fifth and the last stage is the end of a relationship.
Relationship terminates due to any of the following
reasons
Death of any one partner
Divorce
Separation
Online communities
Communities are all around us. We’re part of many
communities, whether they’re communities made up of
family, friends, or shared interests. Online communities
take similar principles from in-person communities and
make them virtual.
WHAT IS AN ONLINE COMMUNITY?
You’re probably part of an online community or two,
whether it’s a Facebook or LinkedIn group around a
common interest or shared value. You might think of a
sub-Reddit around a certain topic as a community.
However, sometimes the concepts behind what an online
community is can feel a bit abstract.
At its root, an online community or internet community is
a group of people with a shared interest or purpose who
use the internet to communicate with each other. Online
communities have their own set of guidelines and needs,
like online community engagement, moderation, and
management.
The Benefits Of Establishing An Online Community
Unlike 20 years ago, where resources were not as
accessible and well-developed, an online community
establishment in this day and age allows people to
navigate through challenging decisions, analyze what is
the best platform and best tool, and/or simply analyze
how to integrate A with B. It allows for ease of access to
a limitless world to connect and exchange knowledge
with like-minded people.
It is not uncommon for people to grab their phone and do
a quick Google or YouTube search to seek answers to
their questions about professional services. The
internet has become the source, but there is such a
plethora of information available and the formats it
takes in the ways to access it.
Having an online community eliminates the need of
spending hours doing a Google search on a topic that
has more than likely been addressed in a community
thread. Or better yet, you can receive the answer
directly from a member of a particular community. An
online community brings people together and provides
users with a quick and easy way to navigate and find a
resolution to a problem.
Communities come with a support system. This
support may come in the form of an employee
providing guidance and feedback or from other users.
Either way, one can get the help they are looking for.
Today, a lot of people have unanswered questions they
run across. In business application models such as this,
online communities aim to give users a one-stop-shop
for answers for day-to-day challenges with subject-
matter experts who provide trusted resources.
An online ecosystem provides a platform where people
are able to exchange information, giving everyone who
participates a voice. Participation from the members is
what will help foster and grow the organization, and
encouraging participation among the community will
help the organization strengthen its reputation and
credibility.
Barriers
Despite the number of benefits online communities
have to offer, there are still barriers that prevent some
organizations from diving into the online community
trend.
1. Some corporations carefully monitor their
employees' internet access, which hinders employees
from accessing online communities. However, many
of these policies are likely changing as more and more
companies adapt to the "new normal" and have
allowed their employees to work and communicate
remotely.
2. Constraining employees with firewalls and
limiting corporate network access will only result in
employees using their own laptops and a cellular
signal to participate in an online community. These
employees will still be a part of the community but
with rather difficult restrictions from their corporate
environment. Limiting employee access only limits the
possibilities and opportunities for growth.
3. Another factor is the fear of compromising privacy
and security by engaging in online communities. Like
most online websites, security is very important.
Whatever you are doing today, whether it is being
involved in a community or checking your savings
account online, security is everything.

Online communities are more important than ever given
the Covid-19 epidemic, which has forced companies to
switch to a work-from-home culture. Attending
conferences and networking events is no longer feasible,
so creating an online community serves as a perfect
alternative. As the world of organizations continues to
shift, more companies will adapt to a WFH policy and
require the establishment of a community where members
can collaborate, network and continue to learn from each
other.
Online Deception
Nature often favors deception as a mechanism for gaining
a strategic advantage in all kinds of biological
relationships; for example, viceroy butterflies deceive
birds by looking like monarch butterflies (which have a
bitter taste), ensuring their survival as long as there are
not too many in a particular area. Similarly, humans have
long used deception against fellow humans. In warfare,
Chinese military strategist and philosopher Sun
Tzu famously said, "All warfare is based on deception."
In most social media platforms, communication is
generally text-based and asynchronous, giving deceivers
an advantage for altering content an inexpensive way to
deceive others. Zahavi identified the difference between
assessment signals that are reliable and difficult to fake
and conventional signals that are easier to fake; for
example, in the real world, if older people want to pass as
younger, they might dress differently or dye their hair to
produce conventional signals. However, it would be
much more difficult to fake a driver's license or other
authentic documentation. But social media provide an
environment in which assessment signals are neither
required nor the norm, making deception easy; for
instance, gender switching online may require only a
name change.
Hiding Behind Screens: Deception by Social Media
Influencers
The rising influence of social media has regrettably
pushed people to live on the web, hiding behind the
screens. Eating out for a photo, traveling for a photo,
squandering money for a photo — and it has become
this dystopian society of deceit.
Studies have shown that people who frequently and/or
intensely use social media tend to have a lower self-
esteem or depressive symptoms, especially when seeing
images of people “living the life.”
And while some people use social media as an outlet for a
cause or to raise awareness, many others use it to
showcase an unrealistic and deceiving scenario. Is the
person we see on the screen the same person they say
they are behind the screen?
When ‘likability’ suddenly became important
Using social media as an outlet to express yourself is
acceptable. But when you allow social media to take over
your life and become the definition of who you are as
a person, it can be a bit concerning.
You are more likely to paint a false picture or narrative
of a life you want others to think you have. You begin
to form excuses and so-called ‘sacrifices’ of spending
more money on aesthetics, paying more than what
you’re receiving, to go above and beyond — but for
what cause?
Most social media influencers try to make their
lifestyle the goal for others. They have normalized
certain things — wasting money and food, giving in to
unsustainable consumption, and mindlessly
encouraging status and ego gratification.
Let’s take, for instance, a scenario where you’re out
for lunch with a friend who deeply cares about his/her
social presence. You’re starving. The food comes, and
you just want to dig in. But your friend is taking a
while, finding the best lighting and searching for the
best angle. Minutes have passed, and they finally tell
you to touch your food. Yet, their eyes are still glued
to their device figuring out the best way to make the
photo look aesthetically pleasing (so much for
catching up).
When influencers create content that showcases a
luxurious and glamorous lifestyle, it can be menacing
for others. They are called ‘influencers’ for a reason. It
has proliferated, and it can be dangerous.
Encouraging people that they, too, can travel the world
and see places does not really take into account that
the only wealth some people have is to dream as they
struggle to pay their next rent.
Inflating the truth
What even are ‘influencers’? A recent study from
Olapic defines an influencer as someone with over
10,000 followers, whom brands engage with to help
promote their products, services or messages, who
shares information about products they love and who
is an expert in their field — in this case, social media.
The study also reveals a central theme: authenticity.
What makes a consumer trust an influencer? Do
influencers use social media for profit? Do they
promote things in dishonest ways? Are they sincere
about their virtual engagements and interactions? How
can they guarantee that the product their promoting is
what they say it is?
This is a no-brainer: on social media, people portray
themselves in a way that they aren’t genuinely
portrayed in real life. They deceive followers into
thinking that this is the perfect life — a must-have or
a life goal.
It is safe to assume that what you see on screen is not
the same person behind the screen. People hide behind
filters and presets to come up with the best quality and
versions of themselves — sometimes, far from the truth.