RATIFICATION PAGE

The complete report of genetics practicum entitled "Crossing of Drosophila

melanogaster" is prepared by:
name : Rughaya Salsabila SM
ID : 200107510006
class : ICP of Biology Education
group : 2 (Two)
has been checked and consulted with the Assistant and Assistant Coordinator, it is
declared accepted.

Makassar, 2022
Assistant Coordinator Assistant

Alfian Mubaraq Thiara Adzkia Muthmainnah

ID.1814142033 ID. 1914041002

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

COVER.......................................................................................................................i
RATIFICATION PAGE..........................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENT..........................................................................................iii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION............................................................................1
A. Background.....................................................................................................1
B. Purpose of Practicum........................................................................................2
C. Benefit of Practicum.......................................................................................2
CHAPTER II STUDY OF LITERATURE.........................................................3
A. Monohybrid Cross............................................................................................3
B. Dihybrid Cross................................................................................................4
C. Chi-Square Test..............................................................................................5
CHAPTER III METHOD OF PRACTICUM.....................................................6
A. Date and Place................................................................................................6
B. Tools and Materials........................................................................................6
C. Procedure........................................................................................................6
CHAPTER IV RESULT AND DISCUSSION......................................................7
A. Observation Result.........................................................................................7
B. Discussion.......................................................................................................8
CHAPTER V CLOSING........................................................................................9
A. Conclusion.......................................................................................................9
B. Suggestion......................................................................................................9
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................10
ATTACHMENT.....................................................................................................11

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 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background
Genetics is the branch of science that focuses on understanding how traits are
passed down through families and what drives variation in all living things. The
Greek root term "gen," which means to grow, was used to create the English word
genetics. Bateson first used the term "genetics" to describe the study of heredity and
genetic variations in 1906. Genetics is essentially the study of two opposing aspects
of nature, namely heredity and variation. All living things have this phenomena of
heredity, which causes their children to resemble their parents in various ways. Even
between two children who share the same parents, differences might be detected. The
offspring vary from their parents as well as from one another. As a result, variances
might be described as the obvious distinctions between children of different parents
or between children of the same parents.
After long time, Mendel conducted a new discovery. From this research, the idea
of gene. Mendel referred to them as "factor” began to be understood. Traits are
carried by genes. An allele is a different way that a gene expresses itself in relation to
a trait. Every disomic person possesses a pair of alleles derived from their parents,
each of which is linked to a unique trait. The genotype refers to the state of this allele
pair. An individual's genotype is homozygous if they have the same pair of alleles,
and heterozygous if they have separate pairs of alleles. The observed trait has a
genotype-related relationship. Phenotypes are the characteristics linked to a genotype.
All living things acquire their parents' characteristics. Organisms have traits,
which are their physical qualities. We resemble our parents because we have many of
their characteristics, including height, eye color, nose shape, and hair and skin colors.
The smallest basic unit, both physically and functionally, is the cell. Genes are the
biological components of each that pass traits from one generation to the next. A

1
substance called DNA serves as the chemical building block for genes
(deoxyribunucleic acid). Chromosomes are much bigger structures that are formed by
genes. Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) Studying Mendel's history as a "Father of
Genetics" helps us grasp what he accomplished. Mendel had shown how parents pass
on their heritable traits to children, who continue to be uniquely themselves
generation after generation. The blending idea, which was widely accepted by
scientists at the time, has been altered by Mendel's work.
Mendel utilized the pea plant as the focus of his research in his studies. Mendel
identified a number of characteristics in peas. Mendel employed a variety of factors
in his tests, including as the size, shape, and color of the stems, the placement of the
flowers, their color, and their shape and color. Mendel's concepts of heredity is the
Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Grouping, were derived from his
investigations on the transmission of traits over numerous generations.
B. Purpose of Practicum
Based on the background above, the purposes of this practicum are down below.
1. Studying to make a monohybrid crossing from Drosophila melanogaster and
obsrve the phenotype ratio of its descendant
2. Studying degeneration and blending genes in the crossbreeding process
3. Doing exercise of chi-square test using
C. Benefits of Practicum
The benefits of this practicum are down below.
1. Student able to make a monohybrid crossing from Drosophila melanogaster
and obsrve the phenotype ratio of its descendant
2. Student able to learn degeneration and blending genes in the crossbreeding
process
3. Student able to do exercise of chi-square test using
 CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Monohybrid Cross
The definition of this law, which is often referred to as inheritance law, is alleles
of various genes that distribute independently of one another during gamete
production. In Mendel's experiment, mixing a single characteristic (monohybrid
cross) consistently produced a 3:1 ratio of dominant and recessive phenotypes.
However, he produced F2 generation in the ratio of 9:3:3:1 when he conducted
research on two traits (dihybrid cross). Mendel came to the conclusion that there is no
relationship between features and that distinct traits (such as seed form and color) are
inherited independently of one another (Gautam, 2018).
The following will provide a detailed explanation of Mendel's work with pea
plants. Mendel started with a red-flowered pea plant. The red flower pea plant self-
pollinates, which means that the same red pea flower pistil is used to pollinate the red
pea flower. Wait till the peas start to bear fruit after that. The seeds are removed from
the ripe peas and planted once more. These seeds will grow into a red blooming pea
plant. When the fruit was ready, self-pollination was done, and the seeds were then
extracted and replanted. Because this process was repeated so frequently, it was
certain that the pea plant would always produce only red-flowered pea plants, which
was why it was believed that a pure kind of pea was produced (Astarani, 2018).
Mendel's initial step was to determine which characteristics of the pea are
heritable before he started his studies. Mendel also performed crosses to obtain True-
breeding from each character that had been named. Mendel studied the traits that peas
contained as well as the structure and method of mating in peas. Also referred to as
the segregation law. Homologous chromosomal pairs split from one another during
meiosis and are not paired again. One gamete cell houses one set of chromosomes.

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Gene segregation is the process of freely dividing genes. A single gene from an allele
is therefore present in each gamete cell (Stenseth, et al., 2022).
A huge number of sperm haphazardly combine with the ovum during fertilization
to create a new person. You can learn about Mendel's law 1 from a monohybrid cross
in the following description: Mendel conducted 12 years of experiments. He noticed a
significant difference and crossed (crossed) a particular variety of chickpea. Beans
with round seeds are sometimes crossed with beans with wrinkled seeds, green beans
with red and white blooms are sometimes crossed with green beans, and so on. Each
cross has a symbol to help learners understand it more quickly. The parent plant is
designated as P (short for parental Meaning parent) at the moment of crossing. F1
(short for filial = offspring) refers to the offspring 1 (first offspring) that was
produced. Crosses between F1 siblings are performed in order to produce 2 children
(F2). Mendel did this by growing F1 plants and crossing them with other F1 plants
(Suryo, 2017).
B. Dihybrid Cross
Mendel's second law (law of independent assortation) indicates that two or more
different traits do not influence or depend on other traits, in contrast to Mendel's first
law, which defines the separation of genes in allele pairs of one different trait. In
other words, alleles derived from distinct characteristic genes are unaffected by one
another. For instance, genes that control plant height are unaffected by genes that
control blossom color and vice versa. Mendel made the discovery of this law while
attempting a dihybrid cross is a crossing of two or more distinct characteristics (Mam,
et al., 2020).
Mendel attempted to cross a round, yellow bean at the time with a wrinkled, green
bean. All of the progeny show a yellow round seed phenotype after being crossed
(F1).
Yellow round seeds, green round seeds, yellow wrinkled seeds, and green wrinkled
seeds were the four phenotype variants Mendel obtained when he attempted to cross
F1 buddies. (Hartati & Irawan, 2017).
 5

His renowned experiment involved crossing green pea plants with wrinkled seeds
and pea beans with spherical, yellow seeds. Based on Mendel's earlier studies, set the
genotype for peas with wrinkled seeds and green color with the genotype bbkk and
round and yellow seeds with the genotype BBKK (dominant) (recessive). Each gene
has the ability to segregate on its own and create gametes (sperm and ovum cells)
with partners BK and BK genes. the first offspring of the BbKk genotype, ensuring
that all peas have spherical, yellow seeds. Then Mendel crossed the second
generation among the first (BbKk > BbKk). The F2 offspring will create 16 different
genotypes or combinations, as indicated on the chessboard, with a phenotypic ratio of
9: 3: 3: 1, or 9 round-yellow, 3 round-green, 3 wrinkled-yellow, and 1 wrinkled
green. This is because there are 4 types of gametes in the F1 generation. Two new
phenotypes—round-green and wrinkled-yellow—that were distinct from the parent
phenotype (P) and the phenotype of the F1 offspring arose from the four different
types of phenotypes that were developed. (Suryo, 2017).
C. Chi-Square Test
The chances of meeting male gametes and female gametes are essentially the sole
factors involved in the production of individuals resulting from mating, which can be
observed in the form of phenotypes. A marriage or cross's children cannot be known
with absolute certainty; instead, it can only be guessed based on the opportunities that
exist. As a result, probability theory plays a crucial role in the study of genetics. A
test that can translate deviations from predicted values into the likelihood that an
inequity would develop is required to assess a genetic hypothesis. The sample size
and number of variables in this test must both be taken into consideration
(Arungmityas, 2016).
Suryo (2017) state that the X2 test is the name of this test (Chi Square Test).
Probability has a significant influence in genetics. As an illustration, consider how
genes are transferred from parents or parents to gametes, how spermatozoons fertilize
eggs, and how genes are reorganized in the zygote such that different combinations
might happen. Calculating the expected ratio of cross types of various genotypes is
based on probability theory. We can calculate the likelihood of getting a specific
result from the cross using this theory.

CHAPTER III
METHOD OF PRACTICUM

A. Time and Place

Day/Date : Thursday, 6th October 2022
Time : 09.10-10.50 WITA
Tempat : Microbiology Laboratory, 2nd Floor, Department of Biology

B. Tool and Material

1. Tool
 Genetic propeller 1 Piece
2. Material
 Paper 2 Sheets
 Glue 1 Piece
 Pen 1 Piece

C. Work Procedures

The tool is
simulated by
turning a
cardboard
propeller
Cardboard Color paper is each
assembled like pasted on the
the picture above cardboard propeller
and noted the Record the
genotype on the tip genotypes that
of the propeller often appear
from the results
of the round and
make chi-square
.test
 CHAPTER IV
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
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A. Observation Results
P1 AABB x aabb
G AB x ab
F1 AaBb
P2 AaBb x AaBb
G2 AB, aB, Ab, ab AB, aB, Ab, ab
Phenotype Ratio = 9:3:3:1
Table 4.1 Dyhibrid Cross

Phenotyp
Observed (O) Expected (E) (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E
e
A-B- 52 56,25 18,0625 0,321
A-bb 22 18,75 10,562 0,563
aaB- 21 18,75 5,0625 0,27
aabb 5 6,25 1,5625 0,25
100 100 1,404
∑ Xt=n−1
∑ Xt=4−1
∑ Xt=3 ( 0 ,05 )
∑ Xt=7 ,81
So, ∑ Xn < ∑ Xt the hypothesis is accepted

B. Discussions
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In this practicum, we truly want to prove the mendel law 2 or dihybrid cross. It
has the same concept of the mendel’s experiment which is the Law of Independent
Assortment of Genes is also referred to as Mendel II. According to this rule, every
gene or characteristic couples up on its own with every other gene or trait. Pea plants
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with round, homozygous yellow seeds (BBKK) and plants with green, wrinkled seeds
(BBKK) can be crossed to yield 16 genotype combinations that contain up to 100%
of plants with round, yellow seeds. Additionally, it was discovered that when the F1
plants were crossed, the second offspring (F2) had the following characteristics: 9/16
yellow round, 3/16 wrinkled round, 3/16 yellow wrinkled, and 1/16 green wrinkled,
or the ratio F2 = 9:3:3:1 (Hartati & Irawan, 2017).
By using the genetic propeller, it was found several data to use chi-square test. In
table 4.1 of the dihybrid cross, 100 screenings were performed, the result was 2 =
1.404, which means that the results of hypothesis testing are significant or in
accordance with Mendel's Law because the value of 2 does not exceed the value of
the chi-square test table, which is 7.81. Because of the Mendel’s genotype ratio is
same as this practicum, it proves that the hypothesis is accepted.
In genetics, the chi-square (chi squared) test is frequently used to determine if the
results of an experiment match the ratio we anticipate or not (Rani, 2019). We rarely
find data in an experiment that matches our expectations (theoretically). It is almost
usually an anomaly. When compared to significant deviations, little variations are
generally more acceptable. Additionally, it might be claimed that a deviation is more
normal and generally accepted if it happens frequently rather than infrequently. The
X2 test can be used to find the answer to the issue of how much deviation is
acceptable and how frequently it occurs or what is the probability that it will occur.
The X2 formula is: O (Observed) is the result of observations, while E (Expected) is
the theoretically expected data, and sum of the X 2 values for each category. The
smaller the X2 value, the smaller the difference between the observed data and what is
expected. On the other hand, the larger X2, the bigger the deviation.
 CHAPTER V
CLOSING

A. Conclusion
Based on the result of practicum, it can be concluded down below.
1. The phenotypic ratio of dihybrid crossings was 9:3:3:1 of this practicum
produced by F2
2. The result was 2 = 1.404, which means that the results of hypothesis testing
are significant or in accordance with Mendel's Law because the value of 2
does not exceed the value of the chi-square test table, which is 7.81. Because
of the Mendel’s genotype ratio is same as this practicum, it proves that the
hypothesis is accepted.
B. Suggestions
1. During the practicum, it is expected that all practitioners will pay attention to
the assistant's instructions and follow all work instructions in order to provide
correct and satisfying experimental results.
2. Assistants should constantly accompany practitioners throughout their
practica so that, in the event that they run into problems, the practitioner can
ask the assistant for help right away.
3. In order to make the practicum procedure easier for laboratory assistants, the
supply of practicum materials is enhanced.
 REFERENCES

9
Arungmityas, L. E. 2016. Genetika Mendel: Prinsip Dasar Pemahaman Ilmu
Genetika. UB Press : Malang.
Astarani, D. (2018). Peningkatan Pemahaman Materi Penyimpangan Semu Hukum
Mendel Melalui Alat Bantu Baling-Baling Genetika pada Siswa Kelas XII
IPS 2 SMA 1 Baturetno Tahun Pelajaran 2017/2018. Jurnal JARLITBANG
Pendidikan. Vol. 3 (2)
Gautam, A. (2018). Mendel’s Law. Springer International Publishing AG, part of
Springer Nature.
Hartati dan Irawan, F. 2017. Modul Genetika Berbasis Pendekatan Saintifik.
Makassar: Jurusan Biologi Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan
Alam Universitas Negeri Makassar.
Mam, C., Phen, S., Noda, Y., Funai, H., Iwayama, T., and Kato, J. (2020). Genetics
Materials for Experimental Class of Mendel’s 3 rd Law Using Dihybrid
Crosses of Lettuce Cultivars in High School. International Journal of
Biological Education. 2 (1): 33-39
Rani, M. (2019). Pengembangan Perangkat Pembelajaran Berbasis Problem Posing
Untuk Melatihkan Keterampilan Berpikir Tingkat Tinggi Pada Materi
Pewarisan Sifat Berdasarkan Hukum Mendel. Bioedu. 8 (3): 135-144
Stenseth, N. C., Andersson, L., and Hoekstra, H. E. (2022). Gregor Johann Mendel
and The Development Of Modern Evolutionary Biology. PNAS. 119 (30): 1-
10.
Suryo. 2018. Genetika untuk Strata 1. Gadjah Mada University Press: Yogyakarta
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