General Biology 2
the Augustinian monastery of Saint Thomas and became
Lesson 1.1: Mendelian Laws of Inheritance
An Overview of Genetics
Genetics - is the subdiscipline of biology that focuses on
heredity and genetic variation. In biology, heredity,
which is also called inheritance or biological
inheritance.
Inheritance or Biological Inheritance - refers to the
transmission or passing down of traits from the
generation of parents to their offspring.
Genetic Variation - refers to the degree of difference in
the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA among individuals of
a population.
As you can observe, genetics is centralized on the study
of genes or segments of DNA, how they are inherited,
and how different they are among the members of a
species. Ultimately, the biological diversity that we
observe in nature is attributed to how genes have been
passed on and modified through time.
Examples of Fields under Genetics:
Molecular Genetics - Molecular genetics deals with the
study of DNA and gene expression and regulation.
Cytogenetics - Cytogenetics deals with the study of
chromosomes and their behavior during meiosis.
Population Genetics - Population genetics focuses on
how the forces of evolution influence the frequencies of
genes at the population level.
Transmission Genetics - Transmission genetics deals
with the different patterns of inheritance.
Transmission genetics will be the focus of this chapter.
This field, being the oldest, is also closely associated
with classical genetics or Mendelian genetics.
Transmission genetics aims to make predictions about
the outcomes of genetic crosses and matings, as well as
the possibilities of parents having children with traits
that run in their families.
Gregor Mendel and His Pea Plant Hybridization
Experiments
Brief Background of Gregor Mendel
Today, we recognize Gregor Johann Mendel as the
father of modern genetics. Born in 1822 in Moravia
located in the Czech Republic today (but was part of
Austria when Mendel was born), he grew up on a farm.
He worked with his father to improve the plants in their
orchard by grafting trees, a technique wherein two
vegetative structures from two plants are joined together.
Later on, he took the path to the priesthood as he entered
a monk. He was finally ordained in 1847. Thereafter, he
decided to work as an educator. However, due to the
poor quality of his answers, he failed his exams in
physics and natural history. Thus, he enrolled at the
University of Vienna to expand his knowledge in these
areas. Finally, in 1856, he began his hybridization
studies involving pea plants. His eight-year work on
experimental crosses was later recognized as a path-
breaking achievement in the field of biology.
Pea Plant as Mendel’s Model Organism
Mendel’s experiments were actually borne out of his
interest for ornamental flowers. He even performed
separate experiments involving honeybees. His study on
garden peas or Pisum sativum brought him the greatest
success in the field of genetics.
Mendel chose Pisum sativum for various reasons, which
are the following:
● First, it exhibits more vigorous growth
(approximately 70 to 80 days harvest period) compared
to other plants.
● Second, these plants are easy to cross-fertilize. The
flowers of peas contain both male and female organs,
particularly, the stamens and pistil. Obtaining pollen
grains from the anthers from one plant and delivering
them to the stigma of another plant will allow
fertilization. If this is done between plants with different
traits, then hybridization is performed. The offspring of
the mating, consequently, are referred to as hybrids.
● Lastly, pea plants are also capable of self-fertilization
through self-pollination. A modified petal of the pea
flower is capable of covering the reproductive structures.
This allows peas to naturally self-pollinate.
The mechanism of self-pollination was particularly
important for Mendel because all of his crosses begin
with true-breeding plants or strains. If plants breed true
for a particular trait, then many generations of mating
will never produce new traits.
Mendel’s Challenges and the Rediscovery of His Work
Gregor Mendel made an outstanding achievement when
he was able to determine the basic patterns of
inheritance. One primary reason for this is that, during
his time, people had no idea that genes are found in
the DNA.
Predating today’s knowledge on heredity were different
theories to explain inheritance, but have all since been
debunked:
 One theory was pangenesis. This attempted
explanation was proposed by Hippocrates in 400
 B.C.E. According to him, “seeds” are produced in
different organs of the body.
 Later on, the invention of the microscope allowed
people to observe sperm cells. This made them
propose that sperm cells may bear a homunculus
or “little man” which will eventually develop in
the womb of the mother.
 Lastly, another long-held explanation was the
blending theory of inheritance, which states that
both parents will equally contribute to the genetic
traits of their offspring.
In 1866, Mendel was able to publish the fruits of his
work through the paper entitled The Experiments on
Plant Hybridization. However, his work was ignored
even until he died in 1884. It was only in 1900 that his
paper was separately rediscovered by Hugo de Vries
of Holland, Carl Correns of Germany, and Erich
von Tschermak of Austria.
Review of Genetic Terminologies
Genes - refer to the basic unit of heredity.
Mendel termed these genes as “unit factors” that
control the expression of biological characteristics.
Characteristic - is any heritable feature of an
organism, which is under the control of a particular
gene.
Different genes control flower color, hair color, and
skin color, which are examples of characteristics.
Locus - definite position that a gene occupies in a
chromosome.
Alleles - a gene for a particular characteristic usually
has different alternative forms.
Our chromosomes, similar to most organisms, occur in
pairs called homologous chromosomes. The members
of each pair originate from each of our parents.
Thus, for animals and most plants, two genes control
the expression of a particular characteristic. For us,
humans, we inherit each of these genes from our
mother and father.
Homozygous - identical alleles
Heterozygous - different alleles
Genotype - combinations of alleles that an individual
possesses at a certain locus, which can be homozygous
or heterozygous.
Phenotype - the actual manifestation of a genotype
into observable traits.
n the pea plant hybridization of Gregor Mendel, seven
characteristics were used, and each of these
characteristics exists in two alternative forms. These
heritable traits include plant height, flower color, the
position of flower or inflorescence, the color of seeds,
the shape or texture of seeds, the color of pods, and the
shape of pods.
Law of Segregation
Mendel’s Monohybrid Cross
The basic cross he performed was the monohybrid
cross. In this cross, only one characteristic is
involved. However, the parents should have different
or contrasting phenotypes.
The initial individuals that are mated comprise the P
generation or the parental generation. Particularly,
the P generation consists of tall and dwarf parents.
Note that P generations in all of Mendel’s crosses
consist of true-breeding or homozygous individuals.
These parents, when cross-pollinated, will give rise to
the F1 generation or first filial generation, the
offspring of P generation. The F1 generation consists
of only tall peas. Further, if F1 generation is mated
among each other, the F2 generation or second filial
generation is obtained. In other words, the offspring
of the F1 generation is the F2 generation. In the above
cross, 3/4 or 75% of the F2 are tall, while 1/4 or 25%
are dwarf. Note that Mendel observed the same ratio
for the other six characteristics.
Interpretations of the Monohybrid Cross
Two major observations can be made from the
monohybrid cross of Mendel. First, the F1 consists of
only one phenotype, which is tall. Second, the dwarf
phenotype reappeared in the F2 generation. This
implies that the tall trait is dominant over the
recessive dwarf trait. This is best explained by the
Principle of Dominance. This states that when an
individual is heterozygous, the dominant allele tends
to mask the expression of the recessive allele. Also,
this explains that the recessive phenotype is always
true-breeding, whereas an individual with the
dominant phenotype may either be homozygous or
heterozygous.
Another major implication of the 3:1 ratio of the
monohybrid cross is that the genes segregate.
According to the Law of Segregation, the two alleles
of an individual segregate (or separate) from each
other during gamete formation. This process occurs at
random. This means that only one copy of the gene is
present in each gamete or sex cell.
Using Punnet Squares
To apply your knowledge of the principle of
dominance and law of segregation in analyzing other
crosses, we can use the Punnett Square. This method,
which was devised by Reginald Punnett, is a basic
technique that can be used to represent the
segregation of gametes in the parents and the
fertilization to produce the possible offspring.
Law of Independent Assortment
Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross
In Mendel’s dihybrid cross, the same pattern applies as
in the monohybrid cross. However, this time, two
characteristics or two pairs of contrasting traits are
involved. This cross will yield that characteristic F2
phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1.
Interpretations of the Dihybrid Cross
The F2 generation of the dihybrid cross of Mendel has
a characteristic phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1. This result
is best explained by Mendel’s Law of Independent
Assortment. According to this law, the alleles from
different genes are sorted into the gametes
independently of each other. This also implies that
genes are inherited independently of each other.
Laws of Inheritance and Gametogenesis
During segregation, the members of an allele pair
separate as the members of homologous
chromosomes separate. Ultimately, each of these two
alleles is distributed randomly to each gamete.
During independent assortment, at least two pairs of
alleles must be involved. If genes R and Y are said to
be independently assorting, they must be found on
different chromosomes. This also implies that the
segregation of allele pair R and r is independent of the
segregation of the allele pair Y and y.
Lesson 1.2: Using Laws of Inheritance to
Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes
Using a Testcross to Determine Genotypes
Complete Dominance - a mode of inheritance where
one allele completely masks the expression of the other
allele.
If the genotype of an individual is heterozygous, the
dominant allele will completely mask the expression
of the recessive allele. If the individual has the
recessive phenotype, its genotype will always be
homozygous or true-breeding. By contrast, an
individual with the dominant trait may either be
homozygous or heterozygous.
Testcross - is a simple technique wherein the
individual with the dominant phenotype is crossed
with or mated with a recessive individual.
The results of the cross will help you determine
parental genotype, particularly the one with the
dominant trait.
 Case 1: If only one phenotype appears in F1,
which is the dominant trait, the genotype must be
homozygous. This result is due to the fact that the
first parent will only contribute the dominant allele
to all offspring.
 Case 2: Two phenotypes appear in the offspring
- both dominant and recessive individuals are
present. The presence of a recessive offspring in
the progeny is an indication that both parents must
have contributed recessive alleles.
Both the laws of segregation and independent
assortment are fundamental to the analysis of matings
in both plants and animals. These laws are used to
determine the genotypes and phenotypes of both
parents and offspring in crosses by using the Punnett
square, forked-line method, and probability
method.
Punnet Square
In this method, the alleles of both parents must be
first determined. Thereafter, these alleles are fused to
determine the possible genotypes in the offspring.
Then, the principle of dominance is applied to
determine the corresponding phenotypes of each
genotype. This straightforward method is applicable
when one or two genes are involved in the cross.
Some Punnett squares do not necessarily have to
assume the shape of a square. There are cases when
the parents of a cross will not produce the same
number of allelic combinations.
 It was discussed that the round seed is dominant
over the wrinkled seed, while the yellow seed is
dominant over the green seed.
 If a testcross is to be done, this means that the
other parent must be recessive for both traits,
i.e., it should have wrinkled and green seeds.
 If we assign gene A for seed shape (then, A for
round and a for wrinkled seeds) and gene B for
seed color (then, B for yellow and b for green
seeds), we can generate the cross AaBb × aabb.
o The first parent can produce gametes AB, Ab,
aB, and ab.
 o The second parent only produces the gamete
ab.
The Six Different Monohybrid Combinations
The next two techniques (forked-line method and
probability method), where the laws of inheritance are
applied, will require the use of Punnett squares for
every gene pair of a cross. Solving genetic crosses
requires mastery of the six possible parental
combinations in a monohybrid cross.
The six possible parental combinations in a
monohybrid cross is described below. In each cross,
since no specific trait is assigned, the dominant
phenotype can be represented with A__, while the
recessive phenotype with aa. However, note that for
other problems, there is a need to specify the traits or
phenotypes of the offspring.
Fork-Line Method
The forked-line method is also a technique that can
be used to determine the genotypic and phenotypic
ratios of a genetic cross involving two or more genes.
This method does not require the identification and
enumeration of the alleles of each parent and
combining them in square-like units. Rather, each of
the monohybrid crosses in the problem is analyzed
for their outcomes. This method can also separately
identify the genotypic ratio from the phenotypic ratio.
In Punnett squares, one should first identify all
genotypes to determine the phenotypes of a cross. By
contrast, the fork-line method can also be used to
determine the phenotypic ratio of a cross without
identifying its genotypic ratio.
Probability Method
Another method to solve genetic problems is the
probability method, which is considered easier and
more convenient than both the Punnett square and the
fork-line method. There will be cases, for example,
when you are provided with a cross, and you will be
asked to just provide the probability of obtaining a
type of offspring instead of the entire genotypic and
phenotypic ratios. This is when the probability
method comes in handy. Imagine if you are given the
cross AaBbCcDdEe × AaBbCcDdEe, and you are just
asked to determine the probability of getting
AABbccDdEe genotype in the progeny. Punnett square
and forked-line methods are considered unideal for
cases like this.
Probability - refers to the mathematical measurement
of likelihood or chance.
The highest probability value is 1 (or 100%), which
means that an event is guaranteed to occur. If an event
has a 0 probability, it is guaranteed to not happen.
Product Rule of Probability
According to the product rule of probability, the
chance of two or more independent events to occur
together is equal to the product of their individual
probabilities. For example, you are given a turn to roll
two dice simultaneously, and you want to determine
the likelihood of getting two and four. To get the
probability, you must multiply their probabilities, i.e.,
(probability of obtaining 2) × (probability of obtaining
four) = (1/4) × (1/4) = 1/16.
Sum Rule of Probability
Some genetic problems involve cases wherein two or
more events do not occur simultaneously, but we have
to determine the likelihood of either of them occurring.
In cases like this, the sum rule of probability must be
applied. According to this rule, the probability of
either of two mutually exclusive events occurring is
equal to the sum of their individual probabilities.
For example, you are given one turn or attempt to roll
a die, and you want to determine the chance of landing
with two or four. The probability would be equal to the
sum of their individual probabilities, i.e., (chance of
getting a two) + (chance of getting a four) = 1/6 + 1/6
= 2/6 or 1/3 or 33.33%. These two events are
mutually exclusive because either of them can happen,
but not at the same time.
Lesson 1.3: Pedigree Analysis
Using Pedigrees
Why Do We Perform Pedigree Analysis?
Pedigree Analysis - a useful approach to study the
inheritance of traits in humans.
Pedigree - is a graphical representation of how a trait
is inherited among the members of a family.
This is the first effective method introduced to
determine the mode of inheritance of a trait. Given
the periodic occurrence of a genetic characteristic in a
family, we can also, especially if it is a genetic
disorder.
Challenges in studying the inheritance of traits in
humans involve problems in the collection of
information. Usually, one can construct an accurate
pedigree of a family from a survey or interview if the
interviewee is knowledgeable about the number of
children, sex, and the occurrence of the trait among his
or her relatives. Otherwise, false data can lead to
wrong interpretation of a pedigree.
Pedigree Analysis in Genetic Counseling
Genetic Counseling - is a procedure performed in
health institutions wherein advice is given to a family
afflicted with or at risk of getting a genetic condition.
Genetic Counselor - usually elaborates on the
genetic, psychological, and other implications of the
condition so that the family may adapt as needed.
Constructing Pedigrees
Symbols and notations are used to construct a
pedigree. These symbols set the standard in all genetic
tests or analyses, and they are as follows.
 Sex - use squares for male individuals and circles
for females.
 Traits - a shaded square or circle denotes that an
individual is affected by the condition. Otherwise,
the individual does not possess the condition and is
represented by an unshaded shape.
 Status - a slash is used to denote that an individual
is deceased.
 Proband - sometimes, pedigrees specify the
individual being studied or observed. Usually, a
proband is a member of the family who first
sought the attention of a genetic counselor. A
proband is represented by an arrow.
 Carrier - a half-shade is used to represent that an
individual is a carrier for a genetic condition.
Specifically, the carrier individual is said to be
heterozygous for the condition. Take note that
the status of being a carrier is not always shown
in a pedigree.
 Unknown Sex - sometimes, the family being
interviewed prior to genetic counseling may be
certain about the number of children of a relative,
but not sure about their sexes. In such cases, a
diamond symbol is used.
 Mating - mating between a couple is denoted by a
horizontal line connecting them.
 Offspring - the children of matings are
represented by a vertical line that connects to the
parents.
 Consanguinity - mating between genetically
related individuals, or a consanguineous mating,
is represented by a double horizontal line.
 Twinning - twins can be denoted by branching
from a common point. Connecting the members of
a twin represents a monozygotic or identical
 condition. Otherwise, they are considered
dizygotic or fraternal.
 Labels - roman numerals are used to denote
generations. In each generation, individuals are
numbered consecutively from left to right.
Analyzing Pedigrees
The traits that will be analyzed in this lesson, similar to
the characteristics observed by Mendel in garden peas,
are autosomal. The genes for these traits are found in
the autosomes, the set of chromosomes that do not
differ between males and females. Other traits are said
to be sex-linked because the genes that code them are
found on the sex chromosomes. These traits will be
discussed further in the next chapter of this unit.
Autosomal Dominant Traits
Compared with recessive traits, dominant traits are
relatively easier to identify because individuals who
possess the dominant allele express or manifest the
corresponding phenotype.
Examples of autosomal dominant traits include
achondroplasia, a form of dwarfism. Due to a
dominant mutation in a gene that codes for the normal
development of bones, an affected individual ends up
having short stature.
Autosomal Recessive Traits
In an actual analysis of pedigrees during genetic health
consultations, identifying autosomal recessive traits are
relatively more challenging. The difficulty in
detecting them lies on the premise that an affected
child usually has two unaffected parents. In such
cases, both parents must be carriers of the recessive
allele. Furthermore, recessive traits that are rare in
populations usually appear when members of a couple
are genetically related to each other; hence, a
consanguineous mating.
Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive genetic
condition that results from the mutation of a gene that
codes for the synthesis of chloride ion channels in
cell membranes. These channels are important to
create freely flowing mucus. Thus, one of its most
serious consequences is the continuous build-up of
mucus in respiratory and digestive organs.
Another autosomal recessive condition in humans is
the sickle cell disease. This disease resulted from the
mutation of the hemoglobin gene. Also, these
abnormal blood cells can become stuck in blood
vessels, which may lead to other complications.
Lesson 1.4: Sex Linkage and Recombination
Recombination
Homologous Chromosomes - ones that have the same
genes even if they have different alleles.
During gamete formation, cells undergo a process
called meiosis. Similar to mitosis, meiosis involves the
duplication of the genetic material prior to the actual
division. However, the resulting daughter cells after
meiotic division obtain one copy of each chromosome
instead of two. Furthermore, it is during this division
that homologous recombination occurs.
Metaphase Plate - steps involve the alignment of the
pairs of homologs in an area.
Recombination - refers to new allele combinations
that can be inherited by the offspring.
Sex Linkage
Recall that humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
The 1st to 22nd pairs are called the autosomes, and the
23rd pair consists of the sex chromosomes.
Sex-linked Genes - genes located on the sex
chromosomes.
Sex-Linked Traits
Genes that are located in either sex chromosomes are
known as sex-linked genes. When a trait is controlled
by a gene in the X chromosome, it is called an X-
linked trait. If the trait is controlled by a gene in Y
chromosome, it is called a Y-linked trait.
X-Linked Traits
X-linked traits are more common in males than in
females. This is because males have only one X
chromosome. Therefore, if a trait is linked to their
single X chromosome, they will already exhibit it in
their phenotype. In females, X-linked traits are less
common, since females have two X chromosomes. It
means that before a female expresses the X-linked
trait, the allele for the trait should be found in both X
chromosomes. If only one of the chromosomes is
affected, the female is said to be a carrier of the trait
but does not express it in her phenotype.
Color Blindness and Hemophilia Are X-Linked Traits
Color Blindness - is the inability to distinguish certain
colors.
Monochromatism - people who can only see objects
in the shades of gray.
Dichromatism - people who cannot distinguish one of
the primary colors of light: red, blue, and green.
Anomalous Trichromatism - people who still see
colors but find it difficult to distinguish shades of a
certain color.
The Ishihara chart is used as a test for color
blindness. It is named after its inventor, a Japanese
ophthalmologist named Shinobu Ishihara. Each chart
is composed of colored dots and a number or object.
The patient must be able to identify the number, or
image, that is supposed to be visible in the chart.
Hemophilia - is a rare inherited bleeding disorder.
People with this condition bleed longer after an injury
compared with a normal person. A healthy person will
clot properly after a hemorrhage occurs, but a
hemophilic person will continue to bleed since he/she
does not have sufficient blood-clotting proteins.
Hemophilia is sometimes termed as the “royal
disease” because the royal families of England,
Germany, Russia, and Spain in the 19th and 20th
centuries were affected by this condition. Queen
Victoria of England, who ruled from 1837 to 1901,
was a carrier of hemophilia.
Y-Linked Traits
Y-linked traits are only seen in males since only males
have a Y chromosome. Therefore, if the father
possesses the Y-linked trait, all the male offspring will
acquire the trait. The female offspring will never
acquire and express the trait.
Hypertrichosis Pinnae Auris Trait - is characterized
by having hairy ears.
Inheritance of Sex-Linked Traits
In Mendelian inheritance, the heterozygous genotype
expresses the dominant trait. On the other hand, the
heterozygous genotype of X-linked traits in females
will result in a carrier female. The female will only
express the phenotype if both of the X chromosomes
have the gene for the X-linked trait. In males, once
their X chromosome has the allele for an X-linked
trait, they will already express that trait. This is
because males only have one X chromosome.
READING &
WRITING
Lesson 1: Definition and Purposes of a
Discourse
Definition of Discourse
 comes from the word discursus.
o in medieval Latin - “argument”
o in late Latin - “conversation”
 formal and often lengthy discussion of a topic,
where concepts and insights are arranged in an
organized and logical manner.
 often associated with speech but may also be a
written text.
 the way that language is used to convey meanings
or to propel action or provoke a specific response.
Examples of Discourse
Critique
 states a writer’s opinion about the good and the
bad parts of another piece of writing or a work of
art.
 uses formal language.
 contains ideas that are arranged in an organized
and logical manner.
Diary
 a daily record of someone’s personal experiences
and thoughts.
 gives readers a sense of the writer’s character or
values.
Purposes of a Discourse
To Persuade
 tries to convince the readers that the proposed
claim or solution is better than any other proposal.
 tries to convince the readers to believe in or do
something.
To Inform
 provides a descriptive and comprehensive
discussion on the topic.
 points out what one should know about a topic or
subject.
To Entertain
 aims to amuse its readers.
 provides a source of entertainment for its readers.
Analyzing a Discourse
 Consider several factors that may have influenced
the writer to make certain claims.
 Those factors explain the author’s biases,
philosophy, and educational and professional
backgrounds, among others.
Culture
 The beliefs, customs, attitudes, language, and other
things that define culture may influence the
author’s perspective on several issues.
 Knowing about the author’s culture may help the
reader understand his or her biases.
Social Environment
 The author’s physical surroundings and social
relationships, as well as the culture of the time
may have influenced his or her writing.
 For instance, during the early decades of the 20th
century, most writers produced works that were
classified as “modern” because of a distinct
feature: stream of consciousness.
Experiences
 Personal accounts or firsthand experience of
events, though subjective, establish credibility and
reliability of information presented in any
discourse.
D.R.R.R
What is Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)?
Disaster Risk Reduction
 “Actions taken to reduce the risk of disasters and
the adverse impacts of natural hazards, through
systematic efforts to analyze and manage the
causes of disasters, including through avoidance of
hazards, reduced social and economic vulnerability
to hazards, and improved preparedness for adverse
events’’ - UN International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction (ISDR)
 The conceptual framework of elements considered
with the possibilities to minimize vulnerabilities
and disaster risks throughout a society, to avoid
(prevention) or to limit (mitigation and
preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards,
within the broad context of sustainable
development. - United Nations Office for
Disaster Risk Reduction
Steps for Implementing DRR Strategy
1. Ensure that DRR is a national and local priority with
strong institutional basis for implementation.
2. Identify, assess, and monitor disaster risks — and
enhance early warning.
3. Use knowledge, innovation, and education to build a
culture of safety and resilience at all levels.
4. Reduce the underlying risk factors.
5. Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective at all
levels. - (Hyoga Framework of Action, adopted in
UNWCDR, Hyoga, Japan in 2005)
Components of Disaster Risk Reduction
 Mitigation - Measures to be taken before and after
an event.
 Preparedness - Measures to be taken before and
after an event.
 Response - Measures to be taken during and
immediately after an event.
 Recovery - Post disaster measures.
Mitigation
Mitigation - is the effort to reduce loss of life and
property by lessening the impact of disasters.
Mitigation includes recognizing that disasters will
occur; attempts are made to reduce the harmful effects
of a disaster, and to limit their impact on human
suffering and economic assets.
Types of Mitigation
Primary Mitigation - refers to increasing the
resistance to the hazard and reducing vulnerability.
Secondary Mitigation - refers to reducing the effects
of the hazard (preparedness).
Various Approaches / Strategies of Disaster Mitigation
 Risk Identification
The first step in disaster mitigation is to identify areas
that are at risk to hazard. Once the priority zones have
been identified, comprehensive and integrated risk
reduction programs should be initiated.
 Land-Use Planning
Land-use planning includes the mapping of disaster
prone area which should contain number of livestock
per unit area, crop density, population density, road
network, location of shelter etc.
 Structural and Non-Structural
Mitigation measures may involve construction (e.g.
dykes and flood protection walls, and also ecosystem-
based approaches to flood and erosion control, such as
planting mangrove forests) and non-material measures
(e.g. land-use restrictions in flood risk areas).
 Disaster Relief and Rehabilitation
Supply emergency humanitarian aid to victims for
survival and relocate the peoples whose residence have
been destroyed very badly, inappropriate for living.
 Disaster Management Training and Education
Trained up group of personnel need to be formed in
local, national and regional context to mitigate and
reduce disaster risk and damages.
 Role of Media in Disaster Risk Reduction
Media is the effective means to circulate the news and
bulletins about hazard warning and mitigation
processes.
 Institutional Capacity Building
Several institutional bodies are engaged with disaster
mitigation processes such as local community,
organization, local and national government, NGOs,
international organization etc. Ability and capacity of
those institutions should be as high as they are capable
to mitigate the disaster.
Disaster Preparedness
Preparedness - refers the measures that ensure the
organized mobilization of personnel, funds, equipment,
and supplies within a safe environment for effective
relief.
Preparedness Includes:
1. Forecasting and Warning for Different Hazards.
2. Emergency Preparedness.
 Organized personnel for monitoring, alert and
evacuation
 Medical team
 Search and rescue team
 Availability of food reserve
 Emergency monetary fund and seed reserve
 Distribution of disaster supplies and equipment
3. Education, Training and Public Awareness.
Weather Forecast and Early Warning Forecast
 Forecast
Weather forecasting is the application of science and
technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a
given location.
 Tools
Various types of tools like Barometer, Radiosonde,
Satellite (Geostationary and Polar Orbit), Radar, and
other equipments.
 Early Warning System
Early warning is a major clement of disaster risk
reduction. It prevents loss of life and reduces the
economic and material impact of disasters, early
warning systems can be used to detect a wide range of
events, such as vehicular collisions, missile launches,
disease outbreaks, and so forth.
Task Related to Early Warning
 Communication
 Indigenous Knowledge
 Media
 Instruction
Types of Early Weather and Forecasting: Based on
Duration
 Short Range: 48 - 72 Hours (e.g. Cyclone,
Hurricane, Bombing, Flood etc.)
 Medium Range: 3 Days to 3 Weeks (e.g. Cold and
Heat Wave, Floods etc.)
 Long Range: Over a Season (El-Nino, La-Nino
etc.)
Types of Early Weather and Forecasting: Based on
Purposes
 Aviation
 Shipping
 Local
 Agriculture Base
Response
Disaster Response - is the implementing phase of the
disaster preparedness step.
To be ready for response with capability to provide
rapid and efficient medical, rescue and emergency
supplies, and equipment to those in need, following
steps of task should be implemented:
 Mobilization
 Assessment
 Requirement Analysis
 Rescue and Evacuation
 Emergency Assistance (e.g. medical care,
shelter, distribution of food, water and supplies)
Recovery
Disaster Recovery (DR) - involves a set of policies
and procedures to enable the recovery or continuation
of vital technology infrastructure and systems
following a natural or human-induced disaster.
Recovery consists of:
 Rehabilitation
 Reconstruction (During reconstruction it is
absolutely necessary to consider mitigation
 measures including relocation, land use zoning
etc.)
 Rebuilding of house and public buildings.
 Financing for rebuilding
 Repair of roads, bridge, water system etc
 Psychological Counseling
 Long-term Assistance to Rebuild the
Community
Practical research 1
Unit 1: Nature of Research, Lesson 1: Research
and Its Importance
Defining Research
Research - is “the systematic study of materials and
sources in order to establish facts and reach new
conclusions” (Oxford English Dictionary, as cited in
O’Leary 2004).
Research begins with a question.
 Everyday life experiences.
 Individual Curiosities.
 Random Observations.
You do research when you gather information to
seek answers to your question.
Types of Research
Basic Research
Purpose: To gain broader understanding of a
particular problem or phenomenon.
Outcome: New ideas, concepts, and/or theories that
broaden understanding but may not be applicable in
real life.
Applied Research
Purpose: To find solutions to actual problems.
Outcome: New ideas and concepts that have direct
real-life application.
 Basic research is mostly theoretical and is not
directly applicable to real-life problems and
concerns.
 Applied research has obvious and immediate
applications.
 Basic research and applied research are related to
each other.
Doing Research is Important Because…
 It helps us understand the world better.
 It allows us to find answers to problems.
 It enables us to evaluate our answers to different
problems.
Unit 2: Introduction to Qualitative Research,
Lesson 1: Overview of Qualitative Research
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
It is important for researchers to understand the nature
of qualitative research and consider its characteristics
in constructing research design, data collection, and
data analysis.
 Natural Inquiry
Qualitative research is a form of natural inquiry
because it focuses on studying its subject in a natural
setting.
 It is like documenting people in real-life.
 Utilize Inductive Analysis
Inductive analysis - is a qualitative approach that
allows primary research findings to be derived from
the most dominant and significant themes being
observed in society.
 Utilize Holistic Approach
Holistic approach - focuses on the the entirety of the
system. It assumes that the whole system is better
compared to the the sum of its parts.
 Requires Personal Immersion
The researcher is required to become part of the
observed group in order to acquire more in-depth data
for the research.
 Objective
The results of the research must not be affected by the
perception or personal experiences of the researcher.
 Empathic Neutrality
The researcher must be keen in observing neutrality
in compiling findings from the study.
 Flexible Research Design
Researchers may continue to conduct research on new
objectives or questions that emerged during the
research process.
 Qualitative Data
Qualitative data - refers to the detailed documentation
and description of certain events or phenomenon being
observed.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Research
Strengths

Weaknesses
Qualitative research is a highly effective approach in
answering ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions of things.
Statistics & probability
Lesson 1: Random Variables
Random Experiment - an experiment that can be
repeated numerous times under the same conditions.
Its result must be independent of one another.
Example:
Tossing a coin is a random experiment.
Outcome - the result of a random experiment.
Example:
A possible outcome of tossing a coin is a head or a tail.
Sample Space - the set of possible outcomes of a
random experiment; denoted by a capital letter, usually
S.
Example:
The sample space of tossing a coin is S= { H , T }.
Random Variable - a function that associates a
numerical value to every outcome of a random
experiment; denoted by a capital letter, usually X . The
domain is the sample space and the range is some set
of real numbers.
Example:
Say that X represents the number of heads that appear
in tossing a coin. The possible values of the random
variable X are 0 and 1.
Lesson 2: Discrete and Continuous Random
Variables
Discrete Random Variable - a random variable with a
finite number of possible values or an infinite number
of values that can be counted.
Example:
The number of phones produced by a company is a
discrete random variable since it can be counted as 0,
1, 2, 3, and so on. It has an infinite number of values
that can be counted.
Continuous Random Variable - a random variable
that can assume an infinite number of values that can
take decimal or fractional values.
Example:
The height of a student is a continuous random
variable since its possible values can be represented by
decimal numbers such as 100. 3 kg and 57. 12 kg. The
number of its possible values is not countable, and
there can be an infinite number of values.