GENERAL BIOLOGY II
 Recessive gene - gene or factor that is
TOPIC 1: GENETICS (PATTERNS OF
INHERITANCE)
GENETICS
GENETICS - is a field of study that deals with
heredity and variation.
HEREDITY - is the transmission of genes from one
generation to the next.
GENES - DNA molecules that determine the traits of
organisms.
VARIATION - is the difference among individuals in
a species or differences among species in
population.
THREE GENERAL AREAS OF GENETICS
1. CLASSICAL OR MENDELIAN GENETICS - discuss
the basic laws of inheritance, first published by
Gregor Mendel in 1866 to explain statistical results
he obtained from experimenting with garden peas.
2. MOLECULAR GENETICS - is the branch that
deals with the formation, structure, and function of
macromolecules essential to life and their role in
cell replication and transmission of genetic
information.
3. EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS - is a branch that
aims to account for evolution in terms of changes
in gene and genotype frequencies within population
and the process that convert the variation with
populations into more or less permanent variation
between species.
CONCEPTS OF MENDELIAN GENETICS
Mendel’s Model System
Model system - is an organism that makes it easy
for a researcher to investigate a particular scientific
question, such as how traits are inherited. By
studying a model system, researchers can learn
general principles that apply to other, harder-to-
study organisms or biological systems, such as
humans.
KEY TERMS:
Genes - DNA molecules or information carried by
each individual organism which determines their
visible trait.
 Dominant gene - gene or factor that masks
another gene. The resulting trait is called a
dominant trait. Dominant gene is written
with a capital letter.
masked by the dominant gene. As it is
masked, it is not expressed as a visible trait.
However, if an individual carries both
recessive genes, then the recessive trait will
be expressed. Recessive gene is written
with a small letter.
Alleles - genes that are found in the same loci
(place) of homologous chromosomes.
Homozygous genes - genes that are
morphologically alike (e.g. BB for black, bb for
brown).
Heterozygous genes - genes that are
morphologically different (eg. Bb determines tall
trait, one allele for Black (B) and another for brown
(b).
Genotype - the genetic makeup or genetic
composition for a particular trait.
Phenotype - the appearance or characteristic of an
organism, the trait that is expressed as determined
by the genotype (eg, the tall trait is the phenotype
determined by TT or Tt).
Genome - the totality of all genotypes for all the
traits of an organism.
Gene pool - the sum total of all genotypes of all
individuals in a given population.
Filial generation - the offspring of a genetically
specified mating: first filial generation (symbol F1),
the offspring of parents of contrasting genotypes,
second filial generation (F2), the offspring of two
F1, individuals, third filial generation (F3,), fourth
filial generation (F4), etc.,the offspring in
succeeding generations of continued inbreeding of
F1 descendants.
Monohybrid - the study of inheritance of one
characteristic
GENETICS
 Genetics is the study of heredity and
variation.
 GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL was a life-long
learner, teacher, scientist and man of faith.
 FATHER OF GENETICS
 Because of his work, the fundamental
principles of heredity were revealed.
 Genes, carried on chromosomes, are the
basic units of heredity with the ability to be
replicated, expressed, or mutated.
 Not all genes are transmitted from parents
to offspring according to Mendelian
Genetics, but Mendel’s experiments serve as
 an excellent starting point for thinking
about inheritance.

The monk in the garden: Gregor Mendel

Mendel studied the inheritance of seven different

features in peas, including:
1. Flower color
2. Flower Position
3. Plant Height
4. Seed Texture
5. Seed Color
6. Pea Pod Texture
7. Pea Pod Color

Pisum sativum

KEYPOINTS
He found very similar patterns of inheritance for all
seven features he studied:
 One form of a feature, such as tall, always
concealed the other form, such as short, in
the first generation after the cross. Mendel
To do so, he first established pea lines with two called the visible form the dominant trait
different forms of a feature, such as tall vs. short and the hidden form the recessive trait.
height. He grew these lines for generations until  In the second generation, after plants were
they were, then bred them to each other and allowed to self-fertilize the hidden form of
observed how the traits were inherited. the trait reappeared in a minority of the
 plants. Specifically, there were always about
3 plants that showed the dominant trait
(e.g., tall) for every 1 plant that showed the
recessive trait (e.g., short), making a
3:1ratio.
 Mendel also found that the features were
inherited independently: one feature, such
as plant height, did not influence LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
inheritance of other features, such as flower
color or seed shape.  states that the alleles of different genes are
distributed randomly to the gametes and
fertilization occurs at random.
THREE MENDELIAN LAW OF GENETICS

LAW OF SEGREGATION

 States that all the genes for all the traits of

an organism are equally divided and equally
distributed in all resulting gametes after
meiosis.
 In meiosis, these two alleles become
segregated from each other when the
number of chromosomes are reduced from
diploid to haploid.
TOPIC 2: CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
THE CENTRAL DOGMA
TOPIC 3: GENETIC ENGINEERING

CLASSICAL BREEDING

The practice of mating or breeding selected

organisms with desirable traits.

Steps in Classical Breeding

1. Determine which trait are significant enough
to be chosen.
2. Select parents that exemplify these trait.
3. Choose the best offspring from parents to
produce the next generation.
4. Repeat the process.
The modification in genetic engineering may
involve the following:
1. Introduction of new traits into an organism.
2. Enhancement of a present trait by increasing
the expression of the desired gene.
3. Enhancement of a present trait by disrupting
the inhibition of the desired genes’
expression.
 Bt cotton - The cotton plants are resistant to bud
worms and ball worms.
Bt tomato - This was one of the first GM crop to be
produced in a developed country. These offer
delayed ripening, extended shelf life and better
flavor.
Biotech papaya - This papaya plant offers more
protection from the ring spot virus that affects the
papaya plant. All of the genetically modified crops
have better resistance to fight diseases as
compared to traditional crops. Some of them have
a longer life and better taste as

Genetically modified crops produced in Philippines

Biotech corn - Genetically engineered corn is being

produced. It contains a built in insecticidal protein
from a naturally occurring microorganism (Bt) and
it provides protection from corn borers.
GM Potato - These potato plants are modified to
provide protection from potato beetle disease.
Apart from this, they also offer resistance against
leaf roll virus and potato virus Y.
TOPIC 4: EVOLUTION

Binomial Nomenclature
 Apple – Pyrus maleus
 Banana – Musa paradiscium
 Camel – Camelus camelidae
 Carrot – Daucas carota
 Cat – Felis catus
 Deer – Artiodactyl cervidae
 Dog – Cannis familiaris
 Dolphin – Delphinidae delphis
Theory of Inheritance and Acquired Traits
 What does the theory of inheritance of
acquired traits say?
Lamarck is best known for his Theory of
Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics, first
presented in 1801 (Darwin's first book dealing
with natural selection was published in 1859): If
an organism changes during life in order to adapt
to its environment, those changes are passed on
to its offspring.
Theory of use and disuse
 It states that when certain organs become
specially developed as a result of some
environmental need, then that state of
development is hereditary and can be
passed on to progeny.