GREGOR MENDEL AND ELEMENTARY GENETICS

Genetics Application of Genetics

- gen means to become or to grow into 1. Plant, Animal and Microbial
something Improvement
- William Bateson in 1906 - includes selective breeding, producing
- Branch of biology that deals with the high yielding crops, advancement in
principle =s of heredity and variation in meat production through breeding that
all living things supplied the protein needs, and the use
of selecte microbial strains that
Heredity improved the fermentation of foods
- is our genetic heritage and foo products
- Passing of traits from the parents to their - GMO, low and high quality
offspring 2. Medicine
- Can be physical, a disease, or behavioural - genetic diseases and abnormalities
have been identified
Variation - appropriate preventives measures are
- the differences in the genetic makeup or prescribed
physical appearance of different 3. Genetic Counselling
organisms - knowledge of the inheritance of
- Seeks to understand the molecular and certain desirable or undesirable
physical bases of biological diversity and characteristics will help individuals,
the principles that govern their heredity prospective parents, and families to to
from one generation to another understand their genetic history and
adapt to the most effective way of
Branches of Genetics treatment, if necessary
- traits na pedeng maipasa sa mga anak
Studies the structure and 4. Legal Applications
Molecular Genetics function of genes at a molecular
level
- Genetics helped solve problems of
Studies the process by which
disputed parentage in settling child
Developmental Genetics organisms grow and develop support, estate claims or even baby
Studies the structure and mix-up in hospitals. DNA profiles or
Cytogenesis function of the cell
(chromosomes) fingerprints of suspects have been
found to be an accurate tool in
Studies how genetic variation
Evolutionary Genetics leads to evolutionary changes identifying criminals.
Studies the relationship between 5. Recombinant DNA Technology
Biochemical Genetics genes, protein, and metabolism - This involves joining of DNA
Study that examines the role of segments from different biological
Behavioural Genetics genetics in animal (including
human) behaviour sources producing genetically
Studies the allele frequency modified organism (GMO) or
distribution and change under transgenic plants, animals, or
the influence of their four main
Population Genetics evolutionary processes: natural microorganisms.
selection, genetic drift,
mutation, and gene flow - Therapeutic proteins, hormones and
Studies the continuously vaccines are also produced using this
Quantitative Genetics
measured traits (such as height technology
and weight) an their
mechanisms

BIOL5 (Lecture)
Beginning of Genetics
Theory of Pangenesis
- Charles Darwin in 1869
- gemmules, small particles in the body,
were formed everywhere in the man’s
body and such gemmule reflected the
characteristics of the body part from
where it was formed
- Travelled through blood vessels into the
male reproductive organ then transmitted
to the next generation and are responsible
for the transmission of traits from parents
to offspring
example: blood transfusion experiment
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired
Characteristics
- Jean Baptise de Lamarck
- Based on the Pangesesis theory
- Body modifications acquired by use or
disuse could be transmitted to the
offspring because the gemmules formed
reflected such modifications
- Unused - weaker & disappear
- Used- stronger & developed
- change is made by what organisms want
or need
- Focused in two ideas:
1. nature produced successively all the
different forms of life on earth
2. environmentally induced behavioural
changes lead the way in species change
Germplasm Theory
- August Weismann in 1883 (disproved the
Theory of Pangenesis)
- germplasm (genes) or sex cells
perpetuated themselves in reproduction
generation after generation
- somatoplasm or body cells were
produced by germplasm to protect and
reproduce itself
- the germplasm is a continuous stream
from generation to generation, while the
BIOL5 (Lecture)
somatoplasm is formed anew at every
generation
- Panganay gets the full trait from the
parent unlike sa mga sumunod na maunti
na daw yung makukuha
ex: somatic cell nuclear transfer
Gregor Mendel / Johann Gregor Mendel
- first to follow a single trait
- he discovered that hereditary
characteristics were determined by
elementary factors that are transmitted
between generations.
- he believe that gene is inherited from
generation to generation that each
descendant has a physical copy of this
material, and gene provides information
regarding the structure, function, and
other biological properties of the
characteristic it controls.
Mendelian Observation
- he worked with traits that show
discontinuous variation that show one of
two, or very few, easily distinguishable
traits
- A quantitative approach
Why does he choose peas:
1. Garden peas are self-pollinating
2. Garden peas mature within one season,
giving Mendel several generations
within a short period of time
3. Large quantities of garden peas could be
cultivated simultaneously, 

Mendel observed seven characteristics from
his garden peas, each with two contrasting
traits

Mendel concluded that the characteristics
can be classified as dominant and recessive
traits.
Dominant traits
- those that are inherited unchanged in a
hybridization
Recessive traits
- disappear in the offspring of hybridization
but reappear in the offspring of the hybrids
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
- Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri:
stated that the segregation of pair factors
(in Mendel’s observation) is paralleled by
the separation of homologous
chromosomes during meiosis.
- The individual genes are found at
specific locations on chromosomes, and
the behavior of chromosomes during
meiosis can explain why genes are
inherited according to Mendel’s
observation.
Law of Segregation (Test Cross)
- only one of the two gene copies present in
an organism is distributed to each gamete
(egg or sperm cell) that it makes, and the
allocation of the gene copies is random.
BIOL5 (Lecture)
Law of Independent Assortment
(Dihybrid Cross)
- lets us predict how a single feature
associated with a single gene is inherited
- states that the alleles of two (or more)
different genes get sorted into gametes
independently of one another.
- In other words, the allele a gamete
receives for one gene does not influence
the allele received for another gene
- Thomas Hunt Morgan (confirmed the
chromosome Theory of Inheritance
through discovering sex chromosomes on
his study about fruit flies.
Observations that support Chromosome
Theory of Inheritance:
1. That, chromosomes, like Mendel’s
genes, come in matched (homologous)
pairs in an organism.
2. the member of the homologous pair
separates in meiosis, so that each sperm
or egg has just one member (A-Law of
segregation)
3. the members of different chromosome
pairs are sorted into gametes
independently of one another in meiosis
(B-Law of Independent Assortment)
Chromosomes
- comes from the Greek words chroma and
soma which stands for colour and body
- are thread-like structures located inside
the nucleus of the cell. It is made up of
protein (histone) and DNA
- are also used as sex determinants
Protein Histone
- provides support for the structure of
chromosomes by coiling it and keeping it
highly condensed
 Without protein histone, DNA molecules in
a single human cell would stretch up to 6
feet. For sure, they wont fit inside the
nucleus
Humans - 23 pairs of chromosomes
Fruit flies - 4 pairs of chromosomes
Rice plant - 12 pairs of chromosomes
Gods - 39 pairs of chromosomes
Cats - 19 pairs of chromosomes
Centromere
- the constricted region of the chromosome
- helps keep chromosomes properly
aligned during cell division and the
attachment site for the sister chromatids
Telomere
- located at the ends of the chromosomes
- protect the ends of the chromosomes and
sustain chromosome stability
Chromosome’s arms
- regions on either side of the centromere
P arm - short arm
Q arm - long arm
Types of Chromosome According to
Position of Centromere
BIOL5 (Lecture)
1. Telocentric - when centromere occupies
the terminal position, so that the
chromosome has just one arm
2. Acrocentric - when the centromere
occupies a sub-terminal position, one arm is
very long and the other is very short
3. Sub-metacentric - when centromere is
positioned slightly away from the mid-point
so that the two arms are unequal
4. Metacentric - when centromere lies in
the middle of chromosome so that the two
arms are almost equal
DNA Structure
- DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid
- provides the information needed to
construct the proteins necessary so that
the cell can perform all its function
- is composed of repeating nucleotides,
which are made up of a pentose sugar
(ribose or deoxyribose), a nitrogenous
base (purines (G, A) and pyrimidines (C,
T)), and phosphoric acid
- Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and
Maclyn McCarty in 1944 (concluded
that DNA is the genetic material)
- Friedrich Miescher in 1860 (DNA was
identified)
- Erwin Chargaff (showed that there are
four kinds of monomers (nucleotides)
present in DNA molecule, where two
types were always present in equal
amount and the remaining two types
were also present in equal amounts)
- James Watson and Francis Crick
(concluded that DNA is made up of two
strands in the form of a double helix)
Central Dogma
- first used by Francis Crick in 1958 to
summarize the series of events from
DNA to RNA to protein production
- explains the flow of genetic information
in making functional proteins
- Replication, Transcription, and
Translation
Replication
- first step in Central Dogma
- duplication of DNA
- each of the two strands that make up the
double helix serves as a template from
which new strands are copied
Semiconservative replication - new strand
will be complementary to the parental or
“old” strand
Steps:
1. The enzyme helicase unwinds the
parental double helix
Origin of replication - replication process
begins
Replication fork - a Y-shaped structure
after the helicase unwind the parental
double helix
2. Single-stranded binding proteins
stabilize the unwound parental DNA
3. The leading strand is synthesized
continuously in the 5’ to 3’ direction by
DNA polymerase (for DNA)
4. The lagging strand is synthesized
discontinuously (for RNA)
5. After the RNA primer is replaced by
DNA nucleotides, DNA ligase joins the
Okazaki fragments to the growing
strand
BIOL5 (Lecture)
Transcription
- how DNA is transcribed into RNA
- The process requires the DNA double
helix to partially unwind in the region of
mRNA synthesis
Transcription bubble - region of
unwinding
Template Strand - it proceeds from one of
the two DNA strands
- RNA polymerase moves along the
template strand, which is the 3’ to 5’
strand. The RNA polymerase separates
the two strands while complementing
DNA template nucleotides with RNA
nucleotides
1. rRNA (ribosomal RNA) - are
complexed with ribosomal proteins to
form ribosomes
2. mRNA (messenger RNA) - provides
the template that contains the nucleotide
code for the amino acid sequence of a
protein
3. tRNA (transfer RNA) - transfers amino
acids from the cytoplasm to the
ribosomes



Translation
- how RNA is translated into proteins
- the process by which the mature mRNA
molecule is used as a template for
synthesizing protein
Codon - a three-nucleotide sequenc
Genetic code - relationship between a
nucleotide codon and its corresponding
amino acid
 the same characteristic. Rather than both
Homozygous - organisms has two identical
alleles
Heterozygous - contrasting trait
Law of Dominance
This states that in a heterozygote, one trait
will conceal the presence of another trait for
alleles contributing to a phenotype, the
dominant allele will be expressed
exclusively. Recessive will remain latent but
is transmitted to the offspring in the same
manner as the dominant allele.

Genes and Gene Interactions

Gene
- are carried on chromosomes
- unit of heredity occupying a particular
location on the chromosome and passed
on to offspring
Alleles
- gene variants that exist at the same
relative locations on homologous Monohybrid Cross
chromosomes - the fertilization between true breeding
Dominant allele - a hereditary factor that parents that differ by only the
expresses itself when present; expressed characteristic being studied
unit factor; capital leter
Recessive allele - a hereditary factor that is
hidden and expressed only when two
recessive alleles are combined; latent unit
factor; small letter
- Wilhelm Johannsen pointed out
phenotype (appearance of the organism),
genotype (organism’s underlying genetic
make up) Punnett square - a device invented by
The dominant allele is capitalized, and the Reginald Punnett, used for determining
recessive allele is lower case
 probabilities (measures of likelihood)
because it is drawn to predict all possible
outcomes of all possible random
fertilization events and their expected
frequencies


BIOL5 (Lecture)
Test Cross
- way to determine if homogenous or
heterogenous ang parent
- the dominant-expressing organism is
crossed with an organism that is
homozygous recessive for the same
characteristic 


Dihybrid Cross

BIOL5 (Lecture)
 ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Common Characteristic of Animals
Animal
- came form the Latin word animalis,
which means having breath
- Animals are diverse group of organisms
that make up the Kingdom Animalia
- first animals are thought to have evolved
over 550 million years ago
Timbrian Explosion - most of the animals
went extinct
Characteristics common to all animals
1. Multicellular
- animals are composed of many cells that
are fused together
- multicellular bodies of animals consist of
tissues that make up more complex
organs and organ system
Humans : 30-50 trillion cells
Adapted because:
• to obtain the necessary nutrients and other
resources needed by the cells of the body
• to remove the wastes these cells produce
• to coordinate the activities of the cells,
tissues, and organs throughout the body
• to coordinate the many responses of the
individual to its environment
2. Heterotrophic
- Animals obtain their energy by
consuming the bodies of other organisms
- Animals get their energy and required
nutrients through ingestion followed by
digestion and absorption
Biological molecules necessary for animal
function:
Amino acids (proteins)
Lipid molecules
Nucleotides
Simple sugar (carbohydrates)
Food consumed consists of:
Proteins
Fat
Complex carbohydrates
BIOL5 (Lecture)
Animals must convert these
macromolecules into the simple molecules
required for maintaining cellular function.
This conversion is a multistep process
involving :

Digestion - food particles are broken down
to smaller components which are later
absorbed by the body
3. Sexual Reproduction
- animal reproduction is necessary for the
survival of species
- the genetic material of two individuals
combines to produce offspring that are
genetically different from their parents
- Restores the diploid number and
increases genetic variation
4. Development
- the process in which an organism
develops from a single-celled zygote to a
multicellular organism is complex and
well-regulated
Oviparous - na ngingitlog
Viviparous - hindi na ngingitlog
Zygote undergoes rapid cell division to
form blastula in the process termed as
cleavage. During cleavage, the cells divide
without an increase in mass; that is, one
large single-celled zygote divides into
multiple smaller cells. The blastula arranges
themselves in two layers: the inner mass
cells and the outer layer called the
trophoblast. The inner mass cells will go
on to form the embryo and consists of
embryonic stem cells. While the trophoblast
will contribute to the placenta and nourish
the embryo.
Differentiation - the embryonic stem cells
express specific sets of genes which will
determine their ultimate cell type
5. Movement
Motility - the ability of an organism to
move of its own accord by expending
energy and it can be in the form of walking,
slithering, swimming, or flying to propel
themselves through world
Sessility - the biological property of an
organism describing its lack of means of
self- locomotion
- animals can move via external forces such
as water currents to protect themselves and
for sexual and asexual reproduction
Nerve tissue - nagpapagalaw
Muscular tissue - gumagalaw
6. Homeostasis
- the constancy of the body’s internal
environment
Feedback Systems - these equilibrium
conditions are maintained by mechanisms
collectively
Negative Feedback - reverses or negates
the initial change; pinapababa yung input
stimulus
 - produces an anterior (head) end, where
Positive Feedback - maintains the direction
of the stimulus; pinapataas yung input
stimulus
Animals can be divided into two groups:
1. those that maintain a constant body
temperature in the face of differing
environmental temperatures
2. those that have a body temperature that
is the same as their environment and
thus varies with the environment
temperature.
These animals use their circulatory systems
to help maintain body temperature.
Thermoregulation - maintaining
temperature
Endotherm - warm-blooded animals
Ectotherm - cold-blooded animals
Osmoregulation - maintaining water


BIOL5 (Lecture)
Main Animal Division
A. Symmetry
3. Asymmetrical - animals have

no pattern or symmetry; example is a
sponge
4. Radial Symmetry - when any plane cut
along the longitudinal axis through the
organism produces equal halves, but not
a definite left or right side; mostly
found in aquatic animals
5. Bilateral Symmetry - when an animal
can be divided into roughly mirror-
image halves only along one particular
plane through the central axis
Cephalization - the concentration of
sensory and brain structure in the anterior
sensory cells, sensory organs, cluster of
nerve cells, and organs for ingesting food
are concentrated. The other end of a
cephalized animal is designated
posterior and may feature a tail. We also
have the dorsal side that contains the
cranial and spinal cord and the ventral
side that contains the thoracic activity –
one that surrounds the lungs and heart.
Dorsal - back
Ventral - front
Anterior - head
Posterior - tail

B. Germ Layers
1. Ectoderm - gives rise to the nervous
system and the epidermis, which is
located in the outer layer of body wall
2. Mesoderm - gives rise to the muscle
cells and connective tissues in the body
3. Endoderm - gives rise to columnar
cells found in the digestive system and
 many internal organs, gastrodermis,
which is located in the lining of the
guts? cavity

C. Body Cavities
Coelom
- most widespread type of body cavity
- a fluid-filled cavity that is completely
lined with a thin layer of tissue that
develops from mesoderm • Connective Tissues
- Outer wall of the body during - serve mainly to support and bind other
development tissues
Coelomates 3 Categories:
- animals that have coelom 1. Loose connective tissues - also called
- These are the annelids, arthropods, the areolar connective tissue; this
mollusks, echinoderms, and chordates combines with the epithelial tissues to
Pseudocoelomates form the membranes; contain a diffuse
- animals have a body cavity that is not network of protein fibers, surrounds,
completely surrounded by a mesoderm- cushions and supports most organs of
derived tissue the body.
- roundworms 2. Fibrous connective tissues - contains
Acoelomates collagen fibers, which are densely
- animals that do not have body cavity at
 packed in an orderly parallel
all arrangement – a design that contributes
- flatworms and sponges to the flexibility and tremendous
Profostomes - mouth (invertebrates) strength of tendons and ligaments
Deuterostomes - anus (vertebrate) humans
 tendons connect bones to muscles
ligaments connect bones to bones.
Types of Animal Tissue 3. Specialized connective tissues - this
- named according to cell layer and shape includes the cartilage, bone, fat, and
of cells blood.
• Epithelial Tissues Cartilage - covers the ends of bones at
- the body’s gatekeepers, protecting
 joints, provides the supporting framework
regulating the movement of
 for the respiratory passages, support the ears
substances in and out of the body and the nose, and forms shock-absorbing
- bind with connective
 pads between the vertebrae
tissues to form membranes which
 Bone or osseous tissue - has large amount
cover the body and line body cavities
 of two types of matrix material – organic
such as the mouth, the stomach, and
 and inorganic matrix
the bladder Fat cells collectively known as adipose
Types: Number of layers:
 tissue are modified for long-term energy
1. Cuboidal 1. simple storage and serve as insulations to help
2. Columnar 2. stratifies maintain body temperature, and function in
3. Squamous 3. pseudostratified cushioning against damage to body organs
Blood is considered a connective tissue
because it has a matrix

BIOL5 (Lecture)
• Muscle Tissues
- the long, thin cells of muscle tissue
contract (shorten) when stimulated, then
relax passively
3 types that differ by the presence or
absence of striations or bands, the number
and location of nuclei, whether they are
voluntary or involuntary, and their location
within the body:
1. Skeletal muscle - under voluntary, or
conscious control; main function is to
move the skeleton, as occurs when you
walk or turn the pages of a book
2. Cardiac muscle is located only in the
heart; is spontaneously active and
involuntary
3. Smooth muscle lacks the orderly
arrangement of thick and thin filaments;
is embedded in the walls of digestive
tract, the uterus, the bladder, and large
blood vessels; produces slow, sustained
contractions that are mostly involuntary

BIOL5 (Lecture)
Tissues are the building blocks of organs –
discrete structures that perform complex
functions.

BIOL5 (Lecture)