CTET 2023 -24

PAPER – 2
IN ENGLISH

SACHIN CHOUDHARY SACHIN ACADEMY

 ACADEMY

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ई-नोट्स Sachin Academy के मालिकाना और कॉपीराइट सामग्री है। सार्वजननक
मंच आदि पर ककसी भी रूप, भौनिक या इिेक्ट्रॉननक मोड में ककसी भी िरह फैिाने से
Sachin Academy के कॉपीराइट का उल्िंघन होगा और भारिीय कॉपीराइट
अधिननयम 1957 के िहि प्राथलमकी और क्षनि के िार्े सदहि िं डात्मक कारव र्ाई की
जाएगी।

कुछ लोगो ने ये नोट्स शेयर ककये थे या इन्हे गलत तरीके से बेचा

था तो उनके खिलाफ कानून काययवाही की जा रही है इसललए आप अपने नोट्स

ककसी से भी शेयर न करे ।
 PLANT PARTS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS AS FOOD

❖ Some plants have two or more edible parts. Seeds of mustard plants give
us oil and the leaves are used as a vegetable.

❖ Banana plant that are used as food

❖ Some plants could be poisonous

❖ A small white structure may have grown out of the seeds. If so, the seeds
have sprouted

❖ Bees collect nectar (sweet juices) from flowers, convert it into honey and
store it in their hive

❖ Flowers and their nectar may be available only for a part of the year.

ANIMALS EAT

❖ Animals which eat only plants or plant products.These are called

herbivores.

❖ There are some animals which eat other animals. These animalsare called
carnivores.
 ❖ Some animals which eat both plants and animals.These are called
omnivores.

DIFFERENT FOOD ITEMS CONTAIN

❖ Each dish is usually made up of one or more ingredients, which we get

from plants or animals. These ingredients contain some components that
are needed by our body. These components are called nutrients. The
major nutrients in our food are named carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
vitamins and minerals

❖ The main carbohydrates found in our food are in the form of starch and
sugars. We can easily test if a food item contains starch.

Starch

❖ A small quantity of a food item or a raw ingredient. Put 2-3 drops of dilute
iodine solution on it if there is any change in the colour of the food item. A
blue-black colour indicates that it contains starch.
Fats

❖ Small quantity of a food item. Wrap it in a piece of paper and crush it the
paper does not tear straighten the paper and observe it carefully. An oily
patch on paper shows that the food item contains fat.

VARIOUS NUTRIENTS FOR OUR BODY

❖ Carbohydrates mainly provide energy to our body.

❖ Foods containing fats and carbohydrates are also called ‘energy giving
foods’.

❖ Proteins are needed for the growth and repair of our body.

❖ Proteins are often called ‘body building foods.

❖ Vitamins help in protecting our body against diseases.

❖ Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and K. There is also a group of

vitamins called Vitamin B-complex.

❖ Vitamin A keeps our skin and eyes healthy. Vitamin C helps body to fight
against many diseases. Vitamin D helps our body to use calcium for bones
and teeth.

❖ Vitamin D in the presence of sunlight.

❖ Rice has more carbohydrates than other nutrients. Thus, we say that rice is
a “carbohydrate rich” source of food.

❖ Our body needs dietary fibres and water. Dietary fibres are also known as
roughage. Roughage is mainly provided by plant products in our foods.

❖ Water helps our body to absorb nutrients from food.

DIET

❖ The diet should also contain a good amount of roughage and

water. Such a diet is called a balanced diet.
 ❖ The skins of many vegetables and fruits contain vitamins and
minerals.

❖ Washing of rice and pulses may remove some vitamins and

minerals present in them.

❖ Fat rich foods and we may end up suffering from a condition called
obesity.

DEFICIENCY DISEASES

❖ Sometimes the food may not contain a particular nutrient. If this

continues over a long period of time, the person may suffer from its
deficiency.

❖ Diseases that occur due to lack of nutrients over a long period are called
deficiency diseases.

❖ If a person does not get enough proteins in his/her food for a long time,
he/she is likely to have stunted growth, swelling of face, discolouration of
hair, skin diseases and diarrhoea.

NUTRITION IN PLANTS

❖ The mode of nutrition in which organisms make food themselves from

simple substances is called autotrophic. And plants are called autotrophs.
 ❖ Animals and most other organisms take in food prepared by plants. They
are called heterotrophs.

FOOD MAKING PROCESS IN PLANTS

❖ Leaves are the food factories of plants. Carbon dioxide from air is taken in
through the tiny pores present on the surface of leaves. These pores are
surrounded by ‘guard cells’. Such pores are called stomata.

❖ Water and minerals are transported to the leaves by the vessels which run
like pipes throughout the root.

❖ The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll. It helps leaves to

capture the energy of the sunlight.

❖ The synthesis of food occurs in the presence of sunlight, it is called

photosynthesis.

❖ The solar energy is captured by the leaves and stored in the plant in the
form of food. Sun is the ultimate source of energy for all living organisms.

❖ In the absence of photosynthesis, life would be impossible on the earth.

❖ During the photosynthesis process oxygen is released. The presence of

starch in leaves indicates the occurrence of photosynthesis. Starch is also
a carbohydrate.

MODES OF NUTRITION IN PLANTS

➢ Humans and animals such plants depend on the food produced by other
plants. They use the heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
 ➢ Cuscuta (Amarbel) plant. It does not have chlorophyll. It takes readymade
food from the plant. Cuscuta is called the parasite.

➢ There are a few plants which can trap insects and digest them.

Pitcher plant

➢ The pitcher-like or jug-like structure is the modified part of leaf. The apex of
the leaf forms a lid which can open and close the mouth of the pitcher.
Inside the pitcher there are hair which are directed downwards. When an
insect lands in the pitcher, the lid closes and the trapped insect gets
entangled into the hair.

➢ The insect is digested by the digestive juices secreted in the pitcher and its
nutrients are absorbed. Such insect-eating plants are called insectivorous
plants.

SAPROTROPHS
➢ Cotton-like threads spread on the piece of bread. These organisms are
called fungi. They have a different mode of nutrition. They absorb the
nutrients from the bread. This mode of nutrition in which organisms take in
nutrients from dead and decaying matter is called saprotrophic nutrition.
Such organisms with saprotrophic mode of nutrition are called saprotrophs.

➢ Fungi also grow on pickles, leather, clothes and other articles.

Fungi growing on bread

➢ Many fungi like yeast and mushrooms are useful, but some fungi cause
diseases in plants, animals including humans. Some fungi are also used as
medicines.

➢ Some organisms live together and share both shelter and nutrients. This
relationship is called symbiosis. For example, certain fungi live inside the
roots of plants.

➢ In organisms called lichens, a chlorophyll-containing partner, which is an

alga, and a fungus live together. The fungus provides shelter, water and
minerals to the alga and, in return, the alga prepares and provides food to
the fungus.
 ➢ Crop plants absorb a lot of nitrogen and the soil becomes deficient in
nitrogen.

➢ Nitrogen gas is available in plenty in the air, plants cannot use it in the
manner they can use carbon dioxide. They need nitrogen in a soluble form.
The bacterium called Rhizobium can take atmospheric nitrogen and
convert it into a usable form. But Rhizobium cannot make its own food.

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

➢ Animal nutrition includes nutrient requirement, mode of intake of food and its
utilisation in the body.

➢ The components of food such as carbohydrates are complex substances.

These complex substances cannot be utilised as such. So they are broken
down into simpler substances. The breakdown of complex components of
food into simpler substances is called digestion.

Starfish

➢ Starfish feeds on animals covered by hard shells of calcium carbonate.

After opening the shell, the starfish pops out its stomach through its mouth
to eat the soft animal inside the shell. The stomach then goes back into the
body and the food is slowly digested.

DIGESTION IN HUMANS

❖ The food passes through a continuous canal which begins at the buccal
cavity and ends at the anus. The canal can be divided into various
 compartments: the buccal cavity, food pipe or oesophagus stomach,
small intestine, large intestine ending in the rectum and the anus. Is it not a
very long path. These parts together form the alimentary canal (digestive
tract).

❖ The inner walls of the stomach and the small intestine, and the various
glands associated with the canal such as salivary glands, the liver and the
pancreas secrete digestive juices.

❖ The digestive tract and the associated glands together constitute the
digestive system.

❖ The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion. Our mouth
has the salivary glands which secrete saliva.

❖ The saliva breaks down the starch into sugars. The tongue is a fleshy
muscular organ attached at the back to the floor of the buccal cavity.

❖ Functions of the tongue for talking. Besides, it mixes saliva with the food
during chewing and helps in swallowing food. We also taste food with our
tongue.

❖ Each tooth is rooted in a separate socket.

❖ Normally bacteria are present in our mouth but they are not harmful to us.
Chocolates, sweets, soft drinks and other sugar products are the major
culprits of tooth decay.

❖ The first set of teeth grows during infancy and they fall off at the age
between six to eight years. These are termed milk teeth. The second set
that replaces them are the permanent teeth. The permanent teeth may last
throughout life or fall off during old age or due to some dental disease.
 ❖ When you eat in a hurry, talk or laugh while eating, you may cough, get
hiccups or a choking sensation. This happens when food particles enter the
windpipe. The windpipe carries air from the nostrils to the lungs. It runs
adjacent to the food pipe. Food particles enter the windpipe, we feel
choked, get hiccups or cough.
Food pipe/oesophagus

➢ The food pipe runs along the neck and the chest. Food is pushed down by
movement of the wall of the food pipe. At times the food is not accepted by
our stomach and is vomited out.
Stomach

➢ The stomach is a thick-walled bag. Its shape is like a flattened J and it is

the widest part of the alimentary canal. It receives food from the food pipe
at one end and opens into the small intestine at the other.

➢ The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and
digestive juices. The mucous protects the lining of the stomach. The acid
kills many bacteria that enter along with the food and makes the medium in
the stomach acidic and helps the digestive juices to act. The digestive
juices break down the proteins into simpler substances.

➢ The working of the stomach was discovered by a strange accident. In 1822,

a man named Alexis St.

Small intestine

➢ The small intestine is highly coiled and is about 7.5metres long. It receives
secretions from the liver and the pancreas. Besides, its wall also secretes
juices. The liver is a reddish brown gland situated in the upper part of the
 abdomen on the right side. It is the largest gland in the body. It secretes
bile juice that is stored in a sac called the gall bladder. The bile plays an
important role in the digestion of fats.

➢ The carbohydrates get broken into simple sugars such as glucose, fats into
fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into amino acids.

Absorption in the small intestine

➢ The digested food can now pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the
intestine. This process is called absorption. The inner walls of the small
intestine have thousands of finger-like outgrowths. These are called villi
(singular villus).

➢ The villi increase the surface area for absorption of the digested food. Each
villus has a network of thin and small blood vessels close to its surface. The
surface of the villi absorbs the digested food materials.

Large intestine

The large intestine is wider and shorter than small intestine. It is about 1.5 metre
in length. Its function is to absorb water and some salts from the undigested food
material. The remaining waste passes into the rectum and remains there as
semi-solid faeces. The faecal matter is removed through the anus from time-to-
time. This is called egestion.

DIGESTION IN GRASS-EATING ANIMALS

➢ Cows, buffaloes and other grass-eating animals chewing continuously even
when they are not eating. Actually, they quickly swallow the grass and
store it in a part of the stomach called rumen. Here the food gets partially
digested and is called cud. But later the cud returns to the mouth in small
 lumps and the animal chews it. This process is called rumination and these
animals are called ruminants.

➢ The grass is rich in cellulose humans, cannot digest cellulose. Animals like
horses, rabbit, etc., have a large sac-like structure called Caecum between
the oesophagus and the small intestine. The cellulose of the food is
digested here by the action of certain bacteria which are not present in
humans.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Blood

➢ Blood is the fluid which flows in blood vessels. It transports substances like
digested food from the small intestine to the other parts of the body. It
carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body. It also transports
waste for removal from the body.

➢ Blood is composed of a fluid, called plasma.

➢ One type of cells are the red blood cells (RBC) which contain a red pigment
called haemoglobin. Haemoglobin binds with oxygen and transports it to all
the parts of the body and ultimately to all the cells.

➢ The presence of haemoglobin makes blood appear red.

➢ The blood also has white blood cells (WBC) which fight against germs that
may enter our body.

➢ The clot is formed because of the presence of another type of cells in the
blood, called platelets.
Blood vessels

➢ Two types of blood vessels, arteries and veins are present in the body.

➢ Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all parts of the body
Since the blood flow is rapid and at a high pressure, the arteries have thick
elastic walls.

➢ The number of beats per minute is called the pulse rate. A resting person,
usually has a pulse rate between 72 and 80 beats per minute.

➢ Veins are the vessels which carry carbon dioxide-rich blood from all parts
of the body back to the heart. The veins have thin walls. There are valves
present in veins which allow blood to flow only towards the heart.

➢ Arteries divide into smaller vessels. On reaching the tissues, they divide
further into extremely thin tubes called capillaries. The capillaries join to
form veins which empty into the heart.

➢ Pulmonary artery carries blood from the heart, so it is called an artery and
not a vein. It carries carbon dioxide-rich blood to the lungs. Pulmonary vein
carries oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the heart.

Heart

❖ The heart is an organ which beats continuously to act as a pump for the
transport of blood, which carries other substances with it.
 Human heart

❖ The heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are called the atria
(singular: atrium) and the two lower chambers are called the ventricles.
The partition between the chambers helps to avoid mixing up of blood rich in
oxygen with the blood rich in carbon dioxide.

Heartbeat

➢ The doctor feels your heartbeats with the help of an instrument called a
stethoscope.

➢ Animals such as sponges and Hydra do not possess any circulatory

system. The water in which they live brings food and oxygen as it enters
their bodies. The water carries away waste materials and carbon dioxide as
it moves out. Thus, these animals do not need a circulatory fluid like the
blood.

Excretory system in humans

 ➢ An adult human being normally passes about 1–1.8 L of urine in 24 hours.
The urine consists of 95% water, 2.5% urea and 2.5% other waste
products.

➢ Sometimes a person’s kidneys may stop working due to infection or injury.

As a result of kidney failure, waste products start accumulating in the
blood. Such persons cannot survive unless their blood is filtered periodically
through an artificial kidney. This process is called dialysis.

Transport of water and minerals in plants

➢ Plants absorb water and minerals by the roots. The roots have root hair.
The root hair increase the surface area of the root for the absorption of
water and mineral nutrients dissolved in water. The root hair is in contact
with the water present between the soil particles.

➢ Plants have pipe-like vessels to transport water and nutrients from the soil.
The vessels are made of special cells, forming the vascular tissue. A
tissue is a group of cells that perform specialised function in an organism.
The vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in the plant is
called the xylem.
 ➢ The xylem forms a continuous network of channels that connects roots to
the leaves through the stem and branches and thus transports water to the
entire plant

➢ Leaves synthesise food. The food has to be transported to all parts of the
plant. This is done by the vascular tissue called the phloem.Thus, xylem
and phloem transport substances in plants.

HERBS, SHRUBS AND TREES

❖ Most plants can be classified into three categories: herbs, shrubs and
trees.

❖ Plants with green and tender stems are called herbs. They are usually
short and may not have many branches.

❖ Some plants develop branches near the base of stem. The stem is hard but
not very thick. Such plants are called shrubs.

❖ Some plants are very tall and have hard and thick stem. The stems have
branches in the upper part, much above the ground. Such plants are called
trees.

❖ Plants with weak stems that cannot stand upright but spread on the ground
are called creepers. While those that take support and climb up are called
climbers.

Stem

Stem helps in upward movement of water. The water and minerals go to leaves
and other plant parts attached to the stem.
Leaf

Lines on the leaf are called veins.

❖ Prominent line in the middle of the leaf. This is called the midrib. The design
made by veins in a leaf is called the leaf venation. If this design is net-like on
both sides of midrib, the venation is reticulate. In the leaves of grass you
might have seen that the veins are parallel to one another. This is parallel
venation

❖ Water comes out of leaves in the form of vapour by a process called

transpiration.

❖ Leaves prepare their food in the presence of sunlight and a green coloured
substance present in them. For this, they also use water and carbon dioxide.
This process is called photosynthesis. Oxygen is given out in this process.
The food prepared by leaves ultimately gets stored in different parts of plant.

Root

❖ The main root is called tap root and the smaller roots are called lateral
roots. Plants with roots do not have a main root. All roots seem similar and
these are called fibrous roots.

❖ Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil and the stem conducts these
to leaves and other parts of the plant. The leaves prepare food. This food
travels through the stem and is stored in different parts of plant. We eat
some of these as roots— like carrot, radish, sweet potato, turnip and
tapioca.
Flower

❖ The prominent parts of the open flower are called sepals.

❖ Stamens present in different flowers two parts of the stamens in your
flower.

❖ The innermost part of flower is called the pistil.

❖ Ovary. It is the lowermost and swollen part of the pistil.

❖ The inner parts of the ovary using a lens some small bead like structures
inside the ovary they are called ovules.

HUMAN BODY AND ITS MOVEMENTS

❖ Elbow, shoulder or neck these places are called joints.

❖ Bones cannot be bent. It is not one long bone from the upper arm to our
wrist. It is different bones joined together.

Ball And Socket Joints

❖ A natural or manufactured joint or coupling, such

as the hip joint, in which a partially spherical
end lies in a socket, allowing multidirectional
movement and rotation.

Pivotal Joint
 ❖ The joint where our neck joins the head is a pivotal joint. It allows us to
bend our head forward and backward and turn the head to our right or left.

❖ A pivotal joint a cylindrical bone rotates in a ring.

Hinge Joints

Open and close a door a few times. Observe

the hinges of the door carefully. They allow
the door to move back and forth.

Fixed Joints
❖ The bones cannot move at these joints. Such joints are called fixed joints.
When you open your mouth wide, you can move your lower jaw away from
your head there is a joint between the upper jaw and the rest of the head
which is a fixed joint.

❖ The human skeleton is composed of around 305 bones at birth. The

number of bones in the skeleton changes with age. It decreases to 206
bones by adulthood after some bones have fused together.

❖ The Xrays show the shapes of the bones in our bodies.

❖ Bend your fingers at every joint. It is made up of several small bones called
carples.
❖ Chest bones they join the chest bone and the
backbone together to form a box. This is
called the rib cage. There are 12 ribs on
each side of chest. Some important internal
parts of our body lie protected inside this
cage.

❖ The backbone. It is made up of many small

bones called vertebrae. The backbone consists of 33 vertebrae. The rib
cage is joined to these bones.

❖ Bones on the back are prominent where the shoulders are they are called
shoulder bones.

❖ This structure is made of pelvic bones. They

enclose the portion of your body below the
stomach.

❖ The skull is made up of many bones joined together. It encloses and

protects a very important part of the body, the brain.

❖ The bones and which can be bent. These are called cartilage.

❖ Upper part of ear has cartilage. Lower part of ear has lobe.

❖ Feel something in the upper parts of the ear that is not as soft as the ear
lobe but, not as hard as a bone this is cartilage. Cartilage is also found in
the joints of the body.

❖ Two muscles work together to move a bone.

❖ A swollen region is the upper arm this is a muscle. The muscle bulged due
to contraction.

❖ When contracted, the muscle becomes shorter, stiffer and thicker. It pulls
the bone. Muscles work in pairs. When one of them contracts, the bone is
pulled in that direction. The other muscle of the pair relaxes. To move the
bone in the opposite direction, the relaxed musle contracts to pull the bone
towards its original position,

EARTHWORM

❖ The body of an earthworm is made up of many rings joined end to end. An

earthworm does not have bones. It has muscles which help to extend and
shorten the body.

❖ Its body secretes a slimy substance to help the movement.

❖ It has a large number of tiny bristles (hair like structures) projecting out.
The bristles are connected with muscles. The bristles help to get a good
grip on the ground.
 ❖ Earthworm makes the soil more useful for plants.

SNAIL

The rounded structure it carries on its back.

This is called the snail and it is the outer
skeleton of the snail, but is not made of
bones. The snail is a single unit and does not
help in moving from place to place. It has to
be dragged along.

COCKROACH

Cockroaches walk and climb as well as fly in the air. They have three pairs of
legs. These help in walking. The body is covered with a hard outer skeleton. This
outer skeleton is made of number of plates joined together and that permits
movement. There are two pairs of wings attached to the body behind head. The
cockroaches have distinct muscles those near the legs move the legs for
walking. The body muscles move the wings when the cockroach flies.
 Birds

❖ Some birds like ducks and swans also swim in water. The birds can fly
because their bodies are well suited for flying. Their bones are hollow and
light. The bones of the hind limbs are typical for walking and perching. The
as fly in the air. They have three pairs of legs. These help in walking. The
body is covered with a hard outer skeleton.

❖ This outer skeleton is made of number bony parts of the forelimbs are
modified as wings. The shoulder bones are strong. The breastbones are
modified to hold muscles of flight which are used to move the wings up and
down.

Fish

❖ The shape of a boat is somewhat like a fish the head and tail of the fish are
smaller than the middle portion of the body the body tapers at both ends.
This body shape is called streamlined. The fish is covered with strong
muscles. During swimming.

❖ Fish also have other fins on their body which mainly help to keep the
balance of the body and to keep direction,

❖ Under water divers wear fin like flippers on their feet, to help them move
easily in water.

Snakes
❖ Snakes have a long backbone. They have many thin muscles.
❖ Muscles also interconnect the backbone, ribs and skin. The snake’s body
curves into many loops. Each loop of the snake gives it a forward push by
pressing against the ground.

❖ The snake moves forward very fast and not in a straightline.

HABITAT AND ADAPTATION

❖ In the sea, plants and animals are surrounded by saline (salty) water. Most
of them use the air dissolved in water.

❖ The body structure of a camel helps it to survive in desert conditions.

Camels have long legs which help to keep their bodies away from the heat
of the sand. They excrete small amount of urine, camels lose very little
water from their bodies they can live for many days without water.

❖ There are so many kinds of fish. All the ones shown here have the
streamlined shape.

❖ Fish have slippery scales on their bodies. These scales protect the fish and
also help in easy movement through water.

❖ Gills present in the fish help them to use oxygen dissolved in water.

❖ The presence of specific features or certain habits, which enable an

organism to live naturally in a place is called adaptation.

❖ The place where organisms live is called habitat. Habitat means a

dwelling place (a home).
 ❖ The plants and animals that live on land are said to live in terrestrial
habitats. Some examples of terrestrial habitats are forests, grasslands,
deserts, coastal and mountain regions. On the other hand, the habitats of
plants and animals that live in water are called aquatic habitats.

❖ When we are on high mountains. After some days, our body adjusts to the
changed conditions on the high mountain. Such small changes that take
place in the body of a single organism over short periods, to overcome
small problems due to changes in the surroundings, are called
acclimatisation. These changes are different from the adaptations that take
place over thousands of years.

❖ The organisms, both plants and animals, living in a habitat are its biotic
components. The non-living things such as rocks, soil, air and water in the
habitat constitute its abiotic components.

❖ When the seed turned into a sprout, it is said to have germinated. This is
the beginning of life of a new plant.

❖ Adaptation is the method by which organisms get well adjusted to the

climate.

❖ Adaptation does not take place in a short time because the abiotic factors
of a region also change very slowly.

SOME TERRESTRIAL HABITATS

Deserts

❖ There are desert animals like rats and snakes, which do not have long legs
that a camel has. To stay away from the intense heat during the day, they
 stay in burrows deep in the sand. These animals come out only during
the night, when it is cooler.

❖ Desert plants lose very little water through transpiration. The leaves in
desert plants are either absent, very small, or they are in the form of spines.

❖ The leaf-like structure in a cactus is, in fact, its stem Photosynthesis in

these plants is usually carried out by the stems.
❖ Most desert plants have roots that go very deep into the soil for Absorbing
water.

Mountain Regions

❖ Animals living in the mountain regions are also adapted to the conditions
there. They have thick skin or fur to protect them from cold. For example,
yaks have long hair to keep them warm.

❖ The mountain goat has strong hooves for running up the rocky slopes of
the mountains.

SOME AQUATIC HABITATS

Oceans

❖ There are some sea animals like squids and octopus, which do not have
this streamlined shape.
❖ There are some sea animals like dolphins and whales that do not have.
Gills. They breathe in air through nostrils or blowholes that are located on
the upper parts of their heads.

ORGANISMS RESPIRATION

❖ Breathing is part of a process called respiration. In respiration, some of

the oxygen of the air we breathe in, is used by the body. We breathe out
carbon dioxide produced in this process. The process of breathing in
animals like cows, buffaloes, dogs or cats is similar to humans.

❖ Some animals may have different mechanisms for the exchange of gases,
which is a part of the respiration process. For example, earthworms
breathe through their skin. Fish, we have learnt, have gills for using oxygen
dissolved in water. The gills absorb oxygen from the air dissolved in
water.

❖ The process of breakdown of food in the cell with the release of energy is
called cellular respiration. Cellular respiration takes place in the cells of all
organisms.

❖ In the cell, the food (glucose) is broken down into carbon dioxide and water
using oxygen. When breakdown of glucose occurs with the use of oxygen it
is called aerobic respiration. Food can also be broken down, without
using oxygen. This is called anaerobic respiration. Breakdown of food
releases energy.

❖ There are some organisms such as yeast that can survive in the absence of
air. They are called anaerobes.

❖ Our muscle cells can also respire anaerobically, but only for a short time,
when there is a temporary deficiency of oxygen. During heavy exercise,
❖ Then anaerobic respiration takes places in the muscle cells to fulfil the
demand of energy:

❖ The partial breakdown of glucose produces lactic acid. The accumulation

of lactic acid causes muscle cramps.

BREATHING

❖ The number of times a person breathes in a minute is termed as the

breathing rate.

❖ On an average, an adult human being at rest breathes in and out 15–18

times in a minute. During heavy exercise, the breathing rate can increase
upto 25 times per minute. While we exercise, not only do we breathe fast,
we also take deep breaths and thus inhale more oxygen.

❖ The air around us has various types of unwanted particles, such as

smoke, dust, pollens, etc. When we inhale, the particles get trapped in the
hair present in our nasal cavity.

❖ The percentage of oxygen and carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air.

• Inhaled air – 21% oxygen, 0.04% carbon dioxide

• Exhaled air - 16.4% oxygen, 4.4% carbon dioxide

Organisms Respond to Stimuli

❖ Changes in our surroundings that makes us respond to them, are called
stimuli.

❖ Some plants like Mimosa, commonly known as ‘touch-me-not’, leaves

close or fold when someone touches them.

Living Organisms and Excretion

❖ Our body produces some wastes in other life processes also. The process
of getting rid of wastes by organisms is known as excretion.

❖ Some plants remove waste products as secretions.

SOIL

➢ Soil is composed of distinct layers. The rotting dead matter in the soil is
called humus. soil is formed by the breaking down of rocks by the action of
wind, water and climate. This process is called weathering.

➢ A vertical section through different layers of the soil is called the soil
profile. Each layer differs in feel (texture), colour, depth and chemical
composition. These layers are referred to as horizons. Soil profile can also
be seen while digging a well or laying the foundation of a building. It can
also be seen at the sides of a road on a hill or at a steep river bank.

➢ The uppermost horizon is generally dark in colour as it is rich in humus and

minerals. The humus makes the soil fertile and provides nutrients to
growing plants. This layer is generally soft, porous and can retain more
water. It is called the topsoil or the A-horizon.
 ➢ The roots of small plants are embedded entirely in the topsoil. The next
layer has a lesser amount of humus but more of minerals. This layer is
generally harder and more compact and is called the B-horizon or the
middle layer.

➢ The third layer is the C-horizon, which is made up of small lumps of rocks
with cracks and crevices. Below this layer is the bedrock, which is hard
and difficult to dig with a spade.

Types of soil

➢ The mixture of rock particles and humus is called the soil.

➢ If soil contains greater proportion of big particles it is called sandy soil. If

the proportion of fine particles is relatively higher, then it is called clayey
soil. If the amount of large and fine particles is about the same, then the soil
is called loamy.

➢ Sand particles are quite large. They cannot fit close together, so there are
large spaces between them. These spaces are filled with air.

➢ Sandy soils tend to be light Clay particles, being much smaller, pack tightly
together, leaving little space for air. clayey soils have less air they are
heavy as they hold more water than the sandy soils.

➢ The best topsoil for growing plants is loam. Loamy soil is a mixture of sand,
clay and another type of soil particle known as silt.

SOIL AND CROPS

 ➢ Soil is affected by wind, rainfall, temperature, light and humidity. These are
some important climatic factors which affect the soil profile and bring
changes in the soil structure.

➢ Clayey and loamy soils are both suitable for growing cereals like wheat,
and gram. Such soils are good at retaining water. For paddy, soils rich in
clay and organic matter and having a good capacity to retain water are
ideal. For lentils (masoor) and other pulses, loamy soils, which drain water
easily, are required. For cotton, sandy loam or loam, which drain water
easily and can hold plenty of air, are more suitable.

➢ Crops such as wheat are grown in the fine clayey soils, because they are
rich in humus and are very fertile.

➢ The removal of land surface by water, wind or ice is known as erosion.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

The production of new individuals from their parents is known as reproduction.

Modes of reproduction

➢ Most plants have roots, stems and leaves. These are called the vegetative
parts of a plant.

➢ Flowers perform the function of reproduction in plants. Flowers are the

reproductive parts. Plants produce their offspring.

Asexual reproduction
 ➢ In asexual reproduction new plants are obtained without production of
seeds.
➢ It is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced from
roots, stems, leaves and buds. Since reproduction is through the
vegetative parts of the plant, it is known as vegetative propagation.

➢ Roots of some plants can also give rise to new plants. Sweet potato and
dahlia are examples.

➢ Plants such as cacti produce new plants when their parts get detached from
the main plant body. Each detached part can grow into a new plant.

➢ Plants produced by vegetative propagation take less time to grow and

bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produced from seeds. The new
plants are exact copies of the parent plant, as they are produced from a
single parent.

➢ plants produced by sexual reproduction have characters of both the parents.

Plants produce seeds as a result of sexual reproduction.

Budding

➢ The tiny organisms like yeast can be seen only under a microscope. These
grow and multiply every few hours if sufficient nutrients are made available
to them. Remember that yeast is a single-celled organism.
 Reproduction in yeast by budding

➢ The small bulb-like projection coming out from the yeast cell is called a bud.
The bud gradually grows and gets detached from the parent cell and forms
a new yeast cell. The new yeast cell grows, matures and produces more
yeast cells.

Fragmentation

Slimy green patches in ponds, or in other stagnant water bodies. These are the
algae. When water and nutrients are available algae grow and multiply rapidly by
fragmentation. An alga breaks up into two or more fragments. These fragments
or pieces grow into new individuals. This process continues and they cover a
large area in a short period of time.

Spore formation

➢ The fungi on a bread piece grow from spores which are present in the air.
the spores in the cotton like mesh on the bread. When spores are released
they keep floating in the air. As they are very light they can cover long
distances.
 ➢ Spores are asexual reproductive bodies. Each spore is covered by a hard
protective coat to withstand unfavourable conditions such as high
temperature and low humidity.

➢ Plants such as moss and ferns also reproduce by means of spores.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
➢ Flowers are the reproductive parts of a plant. Stamens are the male
reproductive part and pistil is the female reproductive part

➢ Flowers which contain either only pistil or only stamens are called
unisexual flowers. Flowers which contain both stamens and pistil are
called bisexual flowers. Corn, papaya and cucumber produce unisexual
flowers, whereas mustard, rose and petunia have bisexual flowers.

➢ Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gametes

➢ Ovary contains one or more ovules. The female gamete or the egg is
formed in an ovule. In sexual reproduction a male and a female gamete
fuse to form a zygote.

Pollination

➢ Pollen grains are light, they can be carried by wind or water.

 ➢ The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called
pollination. If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower or another
flower of the same plant, it is called self-pollination. When the pollen of a
flower lands on the stigma of a flower of a different plant of the same kind, it
is called cross-pollination

Fertilisation

The cell which results after fusion of the

gametes is called a zygote. The process
of fusion of male and female gametes (to
form a zygote) is called fertilisation. The
zygote develops into an embryo.

Fruits and Seed Formation

After fertilisation, the ovary grows into a

fruit and other parts of the flower fall off. The fruit is the ripened ovary. The
seeds develop from the ovules. The seed contains an embryo enclosed in a
protective seed coat.

Seed Dispersal

In nature same kind of plants grow at different places. This happens because
seeds are dispersed to different places.

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Male Reproductive Organs

 ➢ The male reproductive organs include a pair of testes (singular, testis), two
sperm ducts and a penis. The testes produce the male gametes called
sperms. Millions of sperms are produced by the testes.

➢ Sperms are very small in size, each has a head, a middle piece and a tail
each sperm is a single cell with all the usual cell components.

Female Reproductive Organs

➢ The female reproductive organs are a pair of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian
tubes) and the uterus The ovary produces female gametes called ova
(eggs). In human beings, a single matured egg is released into the oviduct
by one of the ovaries every month. Uterus is the part where development of
the baby takes place. Like the sperm, an egg is also a single cell.

Fertilisation

➢ Fertilisation which takes place

inside the female body is called
internal fertilisation. Internal
fertilization occurs in many animals
including humans, cows, dogs and hens. Fertilisation

➢ The fusion of a male and a female gamete takes place outside the body of
the female is called external fertilisation. It is very common in aquatic
animals such as fish, starfish, etc.

Development of Embryo

➢ Fertilisation results in the formation of zygote which begins to develop into

an embryo. The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells. The
cells then begin to form groups that develop into different tissues and
organs of the body. This developing structure is termed an embryo.
 ➢ The embryo continues to develop in the uterus. It gradually develops body
parts such as hands, legs, head, eyes, ears etc. The stage of the embryo in
which all the body parts can be identified is called a foetus. When the
development of the foetus is complete, the mother gives birth to the baby.

Viviparous and Oviparous Animals

➢ The animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals.
Those animals which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.

MIICROORGANIISMS

➢ Several kinds of plants and animals. However, there are other living
organisms around us which we normally cannot see. These are called
microorganisms or microbes.

➢ Microorganisms are classified into four major groups. These groups are
bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some algae.

Spirogyra Algae

Viruses - Are also microscopic but are different from other microorganisms.
They, however, reproduce only inside the cells of the host organism, which may
be a bacterium, plant or animal. Some of the viruses. Common ailments like
cold, influenza (flu) and most coughs are caused by viruses. Serious diseases
like polio and chicken pox are also caused by viruses.
 ➢ Diseases like dysentery and malaria are caused by protozoa whereas
typhoid and tuberculosis (TB) are bacterial diseases.

➢ Microorganisms may be single-celled like bacteria, some algae and

protozoa, or multicellular, such as many algae and fungi. They live in all
types of environment, ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs; and
deserts to marshy lands. They are also found inside the bodies of animals
including humans. Some microorganisms grow on other organisms while
others exist freely.

➢ Microorganisms are used for various purposes. They are used in the
preparation of curd, bread and cake.

➢ Microorganisms have been used for the production of alcohol since ages.

➢ Bacteria are also used in the preparation of medicines. In agriculture they

are used to increase soil fertility by fixing nitrogen.

➢ Curd contains several microorganisms. Of these, the bacterium,

Lactobacillus

➢ Bacteria are also involved in the making of cheese, pickles and many other
food items. Bacteria and yeast are also helpful for fermentation of rice idlis
and dosa batter.

Use Of Microorganisms

➢ Microorganisms are used for the large scale production of alcohol, wine
and acetic acid (vinegar). Yeast is used for commercial production of
alcohol and wine. For this purpose yeast is grown on natural sugars present
in grains like barley, wheat, rice, crushed fruit juices, etc.
 ➢ This is the smell of alcohol as sugar has been converted into alcohol by
yeast. This process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is known as
fermentation.

➢ Louis Pasteur discovered fermentation in 1857.

➢ Some antibiotic tablets, capsules or injections such as of penicillin. The

source of these medicines is microorganisms. These medicines kill or stop
the growth of the disease-causing microorganisms. Such medicines are
called antibiotics

➢ Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin are some of the commonly

known antibiotics which are made from fungi and bacteria.

➢ Vaccines are made on a large scale from microorganisms to protect

humans and other animals from several diseases.

➢ Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for smallpox in 1798.

➢ Polio drops given to children are actually a vaccine.

➢ Some bacteria are able to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere to enrich soil
with nitrogen and increase its fertility. These microbes are commonly called
biological nitrogen fixers.

Harmful Microorganisms
.

➢ Microorganisms can be used to degrade the harmful and smelly substances

and thereby clean up the environment.

➢ Microorganisms are harmful in many ways. Some of the microorganisms

cause diseases in human beings, plants and animals. Such disease-causing
microorganisms are called pathogens. Some microorganisms spoil food,
 ➢ Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to a healthy
person through air, water, food or physical contact are called communicable
diseases. Examples of such diseases include cholera, common cold,
chicken pox and tuberculosis.

➢ There are some insects and animals which act as carriers of disease
causing microbes. Housefly is one such carrier. All mosquitoes breed in
water.

Human Disease Causative Microorganism

Tuberculosis Bacteria

Measles Virus

Chicken Pox Virus

Polio Virus

Cholera Bacteria

Typhoid Bacteria

Hepatitis A Virus

Malaria Protozoa

Disease causing Microorganisms in Animals

➢ Several microorganisms not only cause diseases in humans and plants,
but also in other animals. For example, anthrax is a dangerous human and
 cattle disease caused by a bacterium. Foot and mouth disease of cattle is
caused by a virus

➢ Robert Köch (1876) discovered the bacterium (Bacillus anthracis) which

causes anthrax disease.

Plant Diseases Microorganism

Citrus Bacteria Air

canker

Rust of Fungi Air,

Wheat seeds

Yellow vein Virus Insect

mosaic of bhindi

Food Preservation

➢ Food poisoning could be due to the consumption of food spoilt by some

microorganisms. Microorganisms that grow on our food sometimes
produce toxic substances.
➢ Salts and edible oils are the common chemicals generally used to check the
growth of microorganisms. Therefore they are called preservatives.
Common salt has been used to preserve meat and fish for ages. Meat and
fish are covered with dry salt to check the growth of bacteria. Salting is also
used to preserve amla, raw mangoes, tamarind, etc
➢ Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved by sugar. Sugar reduces the
moisture content which inhibits the growth of bacteria which spoil food.
 ➢ Pasteurised milk can be consumed without boiling as it is free from harmful
microbes. The milk is heated to about 700C for 15 to 30 seconds and then
suddenly chilled and stored.

CELL

➢ Basic structural unit of an organ, which is the cell. Cells may be compared
to bricks cells are assembled to make the body of every organism
➢ The egg of a hen represents a single cell and is big enough to be seen by
the unaided eye.

➢ Human body has trillions of cells which vary in shapes and sizes.

➢ The size of cells in living organisms may be as small as a millionth of a

metre (micrometre or micron) or may be as large as a few centimetres

➢ The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre in bacteria. The largest cell
measuring 170 mm ×130 mm, is the egg of an ostrich.

➢ Each organ is further made up of smaller parts called tissues. A tissue is a

group of similar cells performing a specific function.

Parts of the Cell

Cell Membrane

➢ The basic components of a cell are cell membrane, cytoplasm and

nucleus. The cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed within the cell
membrane, also called the plasma membrane.
 ➢ The plasma membrane is porous and allows the movement of substances
or materials both inward and outward.

➢ The boundary of the onion cell is the cell membrane covered by another
thick covering called the cell wall. The central dense round body in the
centre is called the nucleus. The jelly-like substance between the nucleus
and the cell membrane is called cytoplasm.

Cytoplasm

➢ It is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane and the
nucleus. Various other components, or organelles, of cells are present in the
cytoplasm. These are mitochondria, golgi bodies, ribosomes, etc.
Nucleus

➢ It is generally spherical and located in the centre of the cell. It can be

stained and seen easily with the help of a microscope. Nucleus is
separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane called the nuclear
membrane. This membrane is also porous and allows the movement of
materials between the cytoplasm and the inside of the nucleus.

➢ A smaller spherical body in the nucleus. It is called the nucleolus. In

addition, nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes.
These carry genes and help in inheritance or transfer of characters from the
parents to the offspring. The chromosomes can be seen only when the cell
divides.
➢ Gene is a unit of inheritance in living organisms. It controls the transfer of a
hereditary characteristic from parents to offspring.

➢ The cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane are termed
prokaryotic cells. The organisms with these kinds of cells are called
prokaryotes Examples are bacteria and blue green algae

➢ The cells, like onion cells and cheek cells having well-organised nucleus
with a nuclear membrane are designated as eukaryotic cells. All
organisms other than bacteria and blue green algae are called eukaryotes.

➢ The cells of Tradescantia leaf. They are scattered in the cytoplasm of the
leaf cells. These are called plastids.

➢ Green coloured plastids are called chloroplasts. They provide green colour
to the leaves. You may recall that chlorophyll in the chloroplasts of leaves, is
essential for photosynthesis.

Adolescence and Puberty

➢ When the body undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity, is

called adolescence. Adolescence begins around the age of 11 and lasts
upto 18 or 19 years of age.

➢ Adolescents are also called ‘teenagers’. In girls, adolescence may begin a

year or two earlier than in boys.

➢ The human body undergoes several changes during adolescence. These

changes mark the onset of puberty. The most important change which
marks puberty is that boys and girls become capable of reproduction.
 ➢ The changes which occur at adolescence are controlled by hormones.
Hormones are chemical substances. These are secretions from endocrine
glands, or endocrine system.

➢ Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream to reach a

particular body part called target site.

➢ Menstruation occurs once in about 28 to 30 days. The first menstrual flow

begins at puberty and is termed menarche. At 45 to 50 years of age, the
menstrual cycle stops. Stoppage of menstruation is termed Menopause.

Sex Determined

➢ Inside the fertilised egg or zygote is the instruction for determining the sex
of the baby. This instruction is present in the thread-like structures, called
chromosomes in the fertilised egg.
➢ All human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nuclei of their cells.
Two chromosomes out of these are the sex chromosomes, named X and
Y. A female has two X chromosomes, while a male has one X and one Y.
chromosomes.
 Sex determination in humans

➢ When a sperm containing X chromosome fertilises the egg, the zygote

would have two X chromosomes and develop into a female child. If the
sperm contributes a Y chromosome to the egg (ovum) at fertilisation, the
zygote would develop into a male child.

SOME MEASUREMENTS

Measurement means the comparison of an unknown quantity with some known

quantity. This known fixed quantity is called a unit. The result of a measurement
is expressed in two parts. One part is a number. The other part is the unit of the
measurement.

STANDARD UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS

In 1790, the French created a standard unit of measurement called the metric
system.

All over the world have accepted a set of standard units of measurement is
known as the International System of Units
(SI units). The SI unit of length is a metre.

❖ Each metre (m) is divided into 100 equal divisions, called centimetre (cm).
Each centimetre has ten equal divisions, called millimetre (mm). Thus,
1 m = 100 cm
1 cm = 10 mm

❖ We define a larger unit of length. It is called kilometre (km).

1 km = 1000 m

MEASURING THE LENGTH OF A CURVED LINE

We cannot measure the length of a curved line directly by using a metre scale.
We can use a thread to measure the length of a curved line

TYPES OF MOTION

❖ The objects move along a straight line. This type of motion is called
rectilinear motion.

❖ The motion of a point marked on the blade of an electric fan or the hands
of a clock are examples of circular motion.

❖ In some cases, an object repeats its motion after some time. This type of
motion is called periodic motion.
 ❖ This is a pendulum. Pull the stone to one side with the other hand and let it
go. Now the pendulum is in motion. It is an example of periodic motion.

❖ The ball is rolling on the ground rotating as well as moving forward along
the ground. Thus, the ball undergoes a rectilinear motion as well as
rotational motion.

SPEED

➢ The distance covered by an object in a unit time as the speed of the object

➢ Speed is the total distance covered divided by the total time taken.

➢ Speed =Total distance covered/ Total time taken

➢ If the speed of an object moving along a straight line keeps changing, its
motion is said to be non-uniform.

➢ Object moving along a straight line with a constant speed is said to be in

uniform motion.

Measurment Of Time

➢ The time taken by the pendulum to complete one oscillation is called its
time period.
➢ The time measured by quartz clocks is much more accurate than that by
the clocks available earlier.

Units Of Time And Speed

➢ The basic unit of time is a second. Its symbol is s.

 ➢ The basic unit of speed is m/s.

➢ The symbols of all units are written in singular. For example, we write 50
km and not 50 kms.

➢ Some of these clocks can measure time intervals as small as one millionth
or even one billionth of a second.

➢ One microsecond is one millionth of a second. A nanosecond is one

billionth of a second. Clocks that measure such small time intervals are
used for scientific research.

Measuring Speed
➢ Distance covered = Speed × Time

➢ Time taken = Distance/Speed

➢ Speedometer. It records the speed directly in km/h. There is also another

meter that measures the distance moved by the vehicle. This meter is
known as an odometer.

SHADOWS
Shadows give us some information about shapes of objects. Sometimes,
shadows can also mislead us about the shape of the object. In are a few
shadows that we can create with our hands and make-believe that they are
shadows of different animals.
❖ Objects like the sun that give out or emit light of their own are called
luminous objects.

❖ Never ever look directly at the Sun. That could be extremely harmful for
the eyes.
PINHOLE CAMERA
 ❖ There is an interesting pinhole camera in nature. Sometimes, when we pass
under a tree covered with large number of leaves.
❖ Circular images are, in fact, pinhole images of the Sun.

❖ The gaps between the leaves, act as the pinholes. These gaps are all kinds
of irregular shapes, but, we can see circular images of the Sun.

MIRRORS AND REFLECTIONS

❖ You look into the mirror and see your own face inside the mirror you see is
a reflection of your face in the mirror.

❖ Mirror changes the direction of light that falls on it.

❖ Light travelling along straight lines and getting reflected from a mirror.

❖ Place a lighted candle in front of a plane mirror. The candle, which appears
behind the mirror, is the image of the candle formed by the mirror. The
candle itself is the object.

❖ An image formed by a plane mirror is erect and of the same size as the
object.

Laws Of Reflection

❖ The light ray, which strikes any

surface, is called the incident ray.
The ray that comes back from the surface after reflection is known as the
reflected ray.
 ❖ The incident ray strikes the mirror. This line is known as the normal

❖ The angle between the normal and incident ray is called the angle of
incidence ( i). The angle between the normal and the reflected ray is
known as the angle of reflection ( r)

❖ The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection. This is one
of the laws of reflection.

❖ The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the reflected ray
all lie in the same plane. This is another law of reflection.

❖ Image formed by a mirror the left of the object appears on the right and the
right appears on the left. This is known as lateral inversion.

Regular and Irregular Reflection

❖ When all the parallel rays reflected from a rough or irregular surface are not
parallel, the reflection is known as diffused or irregular reflection.
On the other hand, reflection from a smooth surface like that of a mirror is called
regular reflection.

SPHERICAL MIRRORS

❖ The most common example of a curved mirror is a spherical mirror.

❖ If the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is concave, it is called a
concave mirror. If the reflecting surface is convex, then it is a convex
mirror.

❖ The inner surface of a spoon acts like a concave mirror, while its outer
surface acts like a convex mirror.

❖ The image of an object formed by a plane mirror cannot be obtained on a

screen.

❖ An image formed on a screen is called a real image.

❖ The image formed by a plane mirror could not be obtained on a screen.

Such an image is called a virtual image.

❖ Doctors using concave mirrors for examining eyes, ears, nose and throat.
Concave mirrors are also used by dentists to see an enlarged image of the
teeth. The reflectors of torches, headlights of cars and scooters are concave
in shape.

❖ The mirrors used as side mirrors in automobiles. These are convex

mirrors. Convex mirrors can form images of objects spread over a large
area. So, these help the drivers to see the traffic behind them.

IMAGES FORMED BY LENSES

❖ The magnifying glass is actually a type of a lens. Lenses are widely used
in spectacles, telescopes and microscopes.

❖ Those lenses which feel thicker in the middle than at the edges are convex
lenses. Those which feel thinner in the middle than at the edges are
concave lenses.

❖ The lenses are transparent and light can pass through them.

❖ A convex lens converges (bends inward) the light generally falling on it.
Therefore, it is called a converging lens. On the other hand, a concave lens
diverges (bends outward) the light and is called a diverging lens.

❖ The image formed by a concave lens is always virtual, erect and smaller in
size than the object.

EYE
 ➢ The eye has a roughly spherical
shape. The outer coat of the eye is
white. It is tough so that it can
protect the interior of the eye from
accidents. Its transparent front part
is called cornea. Behind the
cornea, we find a dark muscular
structure called iris. In the iris,
there is a small opening called the
pupil. The size of the pupil is
controlled by the iris. The iris is that part of eye which gives it its distinctive
colour.

➢ The iris controls the amount of light entering into the eye.

➢ The lens focuses light on the back of the eye, on a layer called retina. The
retina contains several nerve cells. Sensations felt by the nerve cells are
then transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve.
➢ There are two kinds of cells.

(i) Cones, which are sensitive to bright light and

(ii) Rods, which are sensitive to dim light.

➢ The most comfortable distance at which one can read with a normal eye is
about 25 cm.

➢ Sometimes, particularly in old age, eyesight becomes foggy. It is due to the

eye lens becoming cloudy. When it happens, persons are said to have
cataract. There is a loss of vision.
➢ Butterflies have large eyes that seem to be made up of thousands of little
eyes. They can see not only in the front and the sides but the back as well.

➢ Louis Braille, himself a visually challenged person, developed a system for

visually challenged persons and published it in 1821

➢ Braille system has 6 dot patterns or Characters

RAINBOW

❖ Many colours are present in a rainbow.

❖ These are — red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

❖ You can see a rainbow only when your back is towards the sun.

❖ A prism splits a beam of sunlight into seven colours.

ELECTRIC CELL

❖ Electricity to the bulb in a torch is provided by the electric cell. Electric

cells are also used in alarm clocks, wristwatches, transistor radios,
cameras and many other devices.

❖ A positive (+) sign and a negative (–) sign marked on the electric cell. The
metal cap is the positive terminal of the electric cell. The metal disc is the
negative terminal. All electric cells have two terminals; a positive terminal
and a negative terminal. An electric cell produces electricity from the
chemicals stored inside it. When the chemicals in the electric cell are used
up, the electric cell stops producing electricity.
❖ The electricity generated by portable generators is equally dangerous. Use
only electric cells for all activities related to electricity.

❖ Never join the two terminals of the electric cell without connecting them
through a switch and a device like a bulb. If you do so, the chemicals in
the electric cell get used up very fast and the cell stops working.

❖ The thin wire that gives off light is called the filament of the bulb. The
filament is fixed to two thicker wires, which also provide support to it,

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

❖ Connected one terminal of the electric cell to the other terminal through
wires passing to and from the electric bulb the two terminals of the electric
cell were connected to two terminals of the bulb. Such an arrangement is an
example of an electric circuit. The electric circuit provides a complete path
for electricity to pass (current to flow) between the two terminals of the
electric cell. The bulb glows only when current flows through the circuit.

Electric circuit

❖ The current passes through the filament of the bulb. This makes the bulb
glow. Sometimes an electric bulb does not glow even if it is connected to
the cell. This may happen if the bulb has fused. Look at a fused bulb
 carefully. Is the filament inside it intact. An electric bulb may fuse due to
many reasons. One reason for a bulb to fuse is a break in its filament.

ELECTRIC SWITCH

A switch is a simple device that either breaks the circuit or completes it. The
switches used in lighting of electric bulbs and other devices.

ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

❖ Some materials allow electric current to pass through them, which is

indicated by the glowing bulb. Materials which allow electric current to
pass through them are conductors of electricity.

❖ Insulators do not allow electric current to pass through them.

❖ Conductors and insulators are equally important for us. Switches, electrical
plugs and sockets are made of conductors. On the other hand, rubber and
plastics are used for covering electrical wires, plug tops, switches and
other parts of electrical appliances,

❖ Your body is a conductor of electricity.

ELECTRIC BATTERY

The positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of the
next cell. Such a combination of two or more cells is called a battery.

HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

➢ The wire gets hot when an electric current passes through it. This is the
heating effect of the electric current.

➢ The amount of heat produced in a wire depends on its material, length and
thickness.

➢ Fluorescent tubes and CFLs contain mercury vapour, toxic in nature.

damaged fluorescent tubes or CFLs need to be disposed off safely.

➢ If a large current passes through a wire, the wire may become so hot that it
may even melt and break.

➢ Wires made from some special materials melt quickly and break when
large electric currents are passed through them. These wires are used for
making electric fuses.

→ Electric fuses

➢ A fuse is thus a safety device which prevents damages to electrical circuits

and possible fires.

➢ Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are increasingly being used in place of

fuses. These are switches which automatically turn off when current in a
circuit exceeds the safe limit. You turn them on and the circuit is once again
complete.

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

When electric current passes through a wire, it behaves like a magnet. This is
the magnetic effect of the electric current. In fact, an electric current can be used
to make magnets.

CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

➢ Some liquids are good conductors of electricity and some are poor
conductors.

➢ Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of acids, bases and salts.

➢ When salt is dissolved in distilled water, we obtain salt solution. This is a

conductor of electricity.

➢ Distilled water is free of salts and is a poor conductor.

➢ The electric current through a conducting solution causes chemical

reactions.

Electroplating

The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material by

means of electricity is called electroplating. It is one of the most common
applications of chemical effects of electric current.

ELECTROMAGNET

➢ The electromagnets can be made very strong and can lift very heavy
loads.
 ➢ The electromagnets are also used to separate magnetic material from the
junk.

➢ Electric bell. It has an electromagnet in it.

MAGNETS

❖ The substances having the property of attracting iron are now known as
magnets.

❖ The process of making magnets from pieces of iron was discovered. These
are known as artificial magnets. Artificial magnets are prepared in
different shapes. For example, bar magnet, horseshoe magnet, cylindrical
or a ball-ended magnet.

MAGNETIC AND NON-MAGNETIC MATERIALS

The materials which get attracted towards a magnet are magnetic for example,
iron, nickel or cobalt. The materials which are not attracted towards a magnet
are non-magnetic.

POLES OF MAGNET

❖ The iron filings are attracted more towards the region close to two ends of a
bar magnet. Poles of a magnet are said to be near these ends.
 Cylindrical bar magnet

❖ The end of the magnet that points

towards North is called its North
seeking end or the North Pole of the
magnet. The other end that points
towards the South is called South
seeking end or the South Pole of the
magnet. All magnets have two poles
whatever their shape may be. Usually, north (N) and south (S) poles are
marked on the magnets.

❖ A device was developed based on this property of

magnets. It is known as the compass.

❖ A magnetised needle is pivoted inside the box,

which can rotate freely the compass also has a dial
with directions marked on it.

ATTRACTION AND REPULSION BETWEEN MAGNETS

❖ Opposite poles of a magnet attract each other.

❖ Similar poles of a magnet repulsion each other.

❖ Magnets loose their properties if they are heated, hammered or dropped

from some height. To keep them safe, bar magnets should be kept in pairs
with their unlike poles on the same side.

❖ Keep magnets away from cassettes, mobiles, television, music system,

compact disks (CDs) and the computer.
 FORCE

❖ The strength of a force is usually expressed by its magnitude.

❖ If the force is applied in the direction opposite to the direction of motion,

then it results in a decrease in the speed of the object.

❖ A change in either the speed of an object, or its direction of motion, or both,

is described as a change in its state of motion. Thus, a force may bring a
change in the state of motion of an object.

❖ The state of motion of an object is described by its speed and the direction
of motion. The state of rest is considered to be the state of zero speed. An
object may be at rest or in motion; both are its states of motion.

Contact Forces
Muscular Force

❖ The force resulting due to the action of muscles is known as the muscular
force.

❖ Animals also make use of muscular force to carry out their physical
activities and other tasks. Animals like bullocks, horses,

❖ Muscular force can be applied only when it is in contact with an object, it is

also called a contact force.

Non-contact Forces
 ❖ A magnet can exert a force on another magnet without being in contact with
it. The force exerted by a magnet is an example of a non-contact force.

❖ The force exerted by a magnet on a piece of iron is also a non-contact

force.

❖ The force exerted by a charged body on another charged or uncharged

body is known as electrostatic force.

❖ The electrostatic force, therefore, is another example of a non-contact

force.

Gravitational Force

❖ Objects or things fall towards the earth because it pulls them. This force is
called the force of gravity. This is an attractive force. The force of gravity
acts on all objects. The force of gravity acts on all of us all the time without
our being aware of it.
❖ Gravity is not a property of the earth alone. In fact, every object in the
universe, whether small or large, exerts a force on every other object. This
force is known as the gravitational force.

PRESSURE

❖ The force acting on a unit area of a surface is called pressure.

❖ Pressure = force / area on which it acts

❖ At this stage we consider only those forces which act perpendicular to the
surface on which the pressure is to be computed.
❖ Air all around us. This envelop of air is known as the atmosphere. The
atmospheric air extends up to many kilometres above the surface of the
earth. The pressure exerted by this air is known as atmospheric pressure.

FRICTION

❖ The force of friction always opposes the applied force. The force of friction
acts between the surface of the book and the surface of the table.

❖ The force of friction always acts on all the moving objects and its direction
is always opposite to the direction of motion. The force of friction arises
due to contact between surfaces, it is also an example of a contact force.

❖ Friction is caused by the irregularities on the two surfaces in contact.

❖ The force of friction is greater if a rough surface is involved.

❖ The friction is caused by the interlocking of irregularities in the two surfaces.

It is obvious that the force of friction will increase if the two surfaces are
pressed harder.

❖ The force required to overcome friction at the instant an object starts moving
from rest is a measure of static friction. On the other hand, the force
required to keep the object moving with the same speed is a measure of
sliding friction.
 ❖ The sliding friction is slightly smaller than the static friction.

❖ We could not write with pen or pencil if there were no friction.

❖ If an object started moving, it would never stop if there were no friction.

❖ The substances which reduce friction are called lubricants.

❖ When one body rolls over the surface of another body, the resistance to its
motion is called rolling friction. Rolling reduces friction. It is always easier
to roll than to slide a body over another.

❖ The rolling friction is smaller than the sliding friction.

❖ The frictional force exerted by fluids is also called drag.

Fluid Friction
The frictional force on an object in a fluid depends on its speed with respect to
the fluid. The frictional force also depends on the shape of the object and the
nature of the fluid.

SOUND
➢ In humans, the sound is produced by the voice box or the larynx.
➢ When the lungs force air through the slit, the vocal cords vibrate, producing
sound.
 Voice box in humans

➢ The vocal cords in men are about 20 mm long. In women these are about
15mm long. Children have very short vocal cords. This is the reason why
the voices of men, women and children are different.

➢ Sound needs a medium to travel. When air has been removed completely
from a vessel, it is said that there is a vacuum in the vessel. The sound
cannot travel through a vacuum.
➢ Sound also travel through strings.

➢ Vibrating objects produce sound and it is carried in all directions in a

medium. The medium could be a gas, a liquid or a solid.

Ears
➢ The shape of the outer part of the
ear is like a funnel. When sound
enters it, it travels down a canal at
the end of which there is a thin
stretched membrane. It is called the
eardrum.

➢ The eardrum is like a stretched

rubber sheet. Sound vibrations make the eardrum vibrate. The eardrum
sends vibrations to the inner ear. From there, the signal goes to the brain.
Frequency of a Vibration

➢ The to and fro motion of an object is known as vibration. This motion is

also called oscillatory motion.
➢ The number of oscillations per second is called the frequency of
oscillation. Frequency is expressed in hertz. Its symbol is Hz. A frequency
of 1 Hz is one oscillation per second

➢ Amplitude and frequency are two important properties of any sound.

Loudness and Pitch

➢ Loudness of sound is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the
vibration producing the sound.

➢ The loudness is expressed in a unit called decibel (dB).

➢ Above 80 dB the noise becomes physically painful

➢ The loudness of sound depends on its amplitude. When the amplitude of
vibration is large, the sound produced is loud. When the amplitude is small,
the sound produced is feeble.

➢ The frequency determines the shrillness or pitch of a sound. If the

frequency of vibration is higher we say that the sound is shrill and has a
higher pitch. Frequency determines the pitch of a sound.

Audible and Inaudible Sounds

➢ The fact is that sounds of frequencies less than about 20 vibrations per
second (20 Hz) cannot be detected by the human ear. Such sounds are
called inaudible.
 ➢ Sounds of frequencies higher than about 20,000 vibrations per second (20
kHz) are also not audible to the human ear the range of audible frequencies
is roughly from 20 to 20,000 Hz.

➢ Some animals can hear sounds of frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz. Dogs
have this ability. The police use high frequency whistles which dogs can
hear but humans cannot.

➢ The ultrasound equipment, familiar to us for investigating and tracking

many medical problems, works at frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.

Harmful of Noise Pollution

➢ Presence of excessive noise in the surroundings may cause many health

related problems. Lack of sleep, hypertension
(High blood pressure), anxiety and many more health disorders may be
caused by noise pollution.

MATERIALS
All objects around us are made of one or more materials.

Properties Of Materials
Appearance
 ❖ Materials that have such lustre are usually metals. Iron, copper, aluminium
and gold are examples of metals. Some metals often lose their shine and
appear dull, because of the action of air and moisture on them.

❖ The lustre, only on their freshly cut surface.

Hardness

❖ Some of them may be hard to compress while others can be easily

compressed.

❖ While some cannot be scratched so easily. Materials which can be

compressed or scratched easily are called soft while some other materials
which are difficult to compress are called hard.

❖ For example, cesium and lead is soft while iron is hard.

Soluble or Insoluble

❖ Some substances have completely disappeared or dissolved in water. We

say that these substances are soluble in water. Other substances do not
mix with water and do not disappear even after we stir for a long time.
These substances are insoluble in water.

❖ Some gases are soluble in water whereas others are not. Water, usually,
has small quantities of some gases dissolved in it.

❖ For example, oxygen gas dissolved in water is very important for the
survival of animals and plants that live in water.

Transparency
❖ Those substances or materials, through which things can be seen, are
called transparent. Glass, water, air and some plastics are examples of
transparent materials.

❖ Some materials through which you are not able to see. These materials are
called opaque.

❖ The materials through which objects can be seen, but not clearly, are
known as translucent.

METALS AND NON-METALS

❖ The property of metals by which they can be beaten into thin sheets is
called malleability. This is a characteristic property of metals.

❖ The property of metal by which it can be drawn into wires is called ductility.

❖ Metals produce ringing sounds, they are said to be sonorous.

❖ Some materials are hard, lustrous, malleable, ductile, sonorous and good
conductors of heat and electricity. The materials which generally possess
these properties are called metals. The examples of metals are iron,
copper, aluminium,

❖ Sulphur are soft and dull in appearance. They break down into a powdery
mass on tapping with a hammer. They are not sonorous and are poor
conductors of heat and electricity. These materials are called non-metals.
❖ The examples of non-metals are sulphur, carbon, oxygen, phosphorus.

❖ Metals like sodium and potassium are soft and can be cut with a knife.
Mercury is the only metal which is found in liquid state at room
temperature. These are exceptions.
 ❖ Copper also get rusted a greenish deposit on the surface of copper.

❖ Sodium metal is very reactive. It reacts vigorously with oxygen and water. A
lot of heat is generated in the reaction. It is, therefore, stored in kerosene.

❖ Non-metals are stored in water. For example phosphorus is a very reactive

non-metal. It catches fire if exposed to air. To prevent the contact of
phosphorus with atmospheric oxygen, it is stored in water.

❖ Zinc is more reactive than copper and iron. A more reactive metal can
replace a less reactive metal

❖ Non-metal used in the purple coloured solution which is applied on wounds

as an antiseptic,

HEAT

Reliable measure of the hotness of an object is its temperature. Temperature is

measured by a device called thermometer.

Measuring Temperature

❖ The thermometer that measures our body temperature is called a clinical

thermometer.

❖ A clinical thermometer consists of a long, narrow, uniform glass tube. It has

a bulb at one end. This bulb contains mercury.

❖ The scale we use is the Celsius scale, indicated by °C.

❖ A clinical thermometer reads temperature from 35°C to 42°C.

 ❖ The normal temperature of human body is 37°C.

❖ The clinical thermometer is designed to measure the temperature of

human body only.

Laboratory Thermometer

❖ Measure the temperature of other objects such thermometer is known as

the laboratory thermometer.

❖ The range of a laboratory thermometer is generally from –10°C to 110°C.

❖ The maximum and minimum temperatures of the previous day, reported in

weather reports, are measured by a thermometer called the m a x i m u m
- m i n i m u m thermometer.

❖ Mercury is a toxic substance and is very difficult to dispose of if a

thermometer breaks. These days, digital thermometers are available which
do not use mercury.

Transfer Of Heat

❖ In all cases heat flows from a hotter object to a colder object.

❖ The process by which heat is transferred from the hotter end to the colder
end of an object is known as conduction. In solids, generally.

❖ The materials which allow heat to pass through them easily are
conductors of heat. For examples, aluminum, iron and copper.
❖ The materials which do not allow heat to pass through them easily are
poor conductors of heat such as plastic and wood. Poor conductors are
known as insulators.

❖ The water and air are poor conductors of heat.

❖ When water is heated, the water near the flame gets hot. Hot water rises
up. The cold water from the sides moves down towards the source of heat.
This water also gets hot and rises and water from the sides moves down.
This process continues till the whole water gets heated. This mode of heat
transfer is known as convection.

❖ The warm air from the land moves towards the sea to complete the cycle.
The air from the sea is called the sea breeze.

❖ At night it is exactly the reverse. The water cools down more slowly than
the land. So, the cool air from the land moves towards the sea. This is
called the land breeze.

❖ From the sun the heat comes to us by another process known as radiation.
The transfer of heat by radiation does not require any medium.

❖ All hot bodies radiate heat. When this heat falls on some object, a part of it
is reflected, a part is absorbed and a part may be transmitted. The
temperature of the object increases due to the absorbed part of the heat.

ACIDS AND BASES

❖ Curd, lemon juice, orange juice and vinegar taste sour. These substances
taste sour because they contain acids. The chemical nature of such
substances is acidic.
 ❖ Substances like these which are bitter in taste and feel soapy on touching
are known as bases. The nature of such substances is said to be basic.

❖ Special type of substances are used to test whether a substance is acidic

or basic. These substances are known as indicators. The indicators
change their colour when added to a solution containing an acidic or a
basic substance.

Name Of Acid Found in

Acetic acid Vinegar

Formic acid Ant’s sting

Citric acid Citrus fruits such

as oranges, lemons, etc

Lactic acid Curd

Oxalic acid Spinach

Ascorbic acid Amla, Citrus fruits

(Vitamin C)

Tartaric acid Tamarind, grapes,

unripe mangoes,

Name Of Base Found in

Calcium hydroxide Lime water

Ammonium hydroxide Window cleaner

Sodium hydroxide/ Soap

Potassium hydroxide

Magnesium hydroxide → Milk of magnesia

LITMUS PAPER

❖ The most commonly used natural indicator is litmus. It is extracted from

lichens.
❖ When added to an acidic solution, it turns red and when added to a basic
solution, it turns blue.

❖ Available as red and blue litmus paper

❖ The solutions which do not change the colour of either red or blue litmus
are known as neutral solutions. These substances are neither acidic nor
basic.

NEUTRALISATION

❖ When an acidic solution is mixed with a basic solution, both the solutions
neutralise the effect of each other.

❖ In neutralisation reaction a new substance is formed. This is called salt.

❖ The reaction between an acid and a base is known as neutralisation. Salt

and water are produced in this process with the evolution of heat.
Acid + Base Salt + Water (Heat is evolved)

INDIGESTION

Our stomach contains hydrochloric acid. It helps us to digest food, But too
much of acid in the stomach causes indigestion. Sometimes indigestion is
painful. To relieve indigestion, we take an antacid such as milk of magnesia,
which contains magnesium hydroxide. It neutralises the effect of excessive acid.

ANT BITE
When an ant bites, it injects the acidic liquid (formic acid) into the
skin. The effect of the acid can be neutralised by rubbing moist baking soda
(sodium hydrogencarbonate) or calamine solution, which contains zinc
carbonate.
SOIL TREATMENT

Excessive use of chemical fertilisers makes the soil acidic. Plants do not grow
well when the soil is either too acidic or too basic. When the soil is too acidic, it
is treated with bases like quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide). If the soil is basic, organic matter (compost) is added to it. Organic
matter releases acids which neutralises the basic nature of the soil.

PHYSICAL CHANGES

Properties such as shape, size, colour and state of a substance are called its
physical properties. A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its
physical properties is called a physical change. A physical change is generally
reversible. In such a change no new substance is formed.

CHEMICAL CHANGE

❖ A change with which you are quite familiar is the rusting of iron. If you
leave a piece of iron in the open for some time, it acquires a film of brownish
substance. This substance is called rust and the process is called rusting.

❖ Rust is not iron. It is different from iron on which it gets deposited.

❖ A change in which one or more new substances are formed is called a

chemical change. A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction.

❖ All new substances are formed as a result of chemical changes. For

example, digestion of food in our body, ripening of fruits, fermentation of
grapes, etc.

Prevent of Rusting

❖ Another way is to deposit a layer of a metal like chromium or zinc on iron.

This process of depositing a layer of zinc on iron is called Galvanisation.
❖ The iron pipes we use in our homes to carry water are galvanised to prevent
rusting.

❖ Stainless steel is made by mixing iron with carbon and metals like
chromium, nickel and manganese. It does not rust.

NATURAL RESOURCES
Inexhaustible Natural Resources

These resources are present in unlimited quantity in nature and are not likely to
be exhausted by human activities. Examples are: sunlight, air

Exhaustible Natural Resources

❖ The amount of these resources in nature is limited. They can be

exhausted by human activities. Examples of these resources are forests,
wildlife, minerals, coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.

❖ Some exhaustible natural resources like coal, petroleum and natural gas.
These were formed from the dead remains of living organisms (fossils). So,
these are all known as fossil fuels.

Coal

❖ Coal is one of the fuels used to cook food. Earlier, it was used in railway
engines to produce steam to run the engine. It is also used in thermal power
plants to produce electricity. Coal is also used as a fuel in various
industries.

❖ Under high pressure and high temperature, dead plants got slowly
converted to coal. As coal contains mainly carbon, the slow process of
conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonisation.

❖ When heated in air, coal burns and produces mainly carbon dioxide gas.
Coke
❖ It is a tough, porous and black substance. It is an almost pure form of
carbon. Coke is used in the manufacture of steel and in the extraction of
many metals.
Coal Tar

❖ It is a black, thick liquid with an unpleasant

smell. It is a mixture of about 200
substances. Products obtained from coal tar
are used as starting materials for
manufacturing various substances used in
everyday life and in industry, like synthetic
dyes, drugs, explosives, perfumes, plastics,
paints, photographic materials, roofing
materials, etc.

❖ These days, bitumen, a petroleum product, is used in place of coal-tar for

metalling the roads.
Coal Gas

❖ Coal gas is obtained during the processing of coal to get coke. It is used as
a fuel in many industries situated near the coal processing plants.

❖ Coal gas was used for street lighting for the first time in London in 1810
and in New York around 1820. Now a days, it is used as a source of heat
rather than light.

Petroleum

❖ Petrol and diesel are obtained from a natural resource called petroleum.

❖ Petroleum was formed from organisms living in the sea. As these

organisms died, their bodies settled at the bottom of the sea and got
covered with layers of sand and clay. Over millions of years, absence of air,
 high temperature and high pressure transformed the dead organisms into
petroleum and natural gas.
❖ Petroleum is a dark oily liquid. It has an unpleasant odour. It is a mixture of
various constituents such as petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, lubricating oil,
paraffin wax, etc. The process of separating the various constituents/
fractions of petroleum is known as refining. It is carried out in a petroleum
refinery.
❖ Petroleum is also called ‘black gold’.

Natural Gas
❖ Natural gas is a very important fossil fuel because it is easy to transport
through pipes.
❖ CNG is used for power generation. It is now being used as a fuel for
transport vehicles because it is less polluting. It is a cleaner fuel.

COMBUSTION
❖ A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off heat
is called combustion. The substance that undergoes combustion is said to
be combustible. It is also called a fuel. The fuel may be solid, liquid or gas.
Sometimes, light is also given off during combustion, either as a flame or as
a glow.

❖ The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire is called its

ignition temperature.

❖ The substances which have very low ignition temperature and can easily
catch fire with a flame are called inflammable substances. Examples of
inflammable substances are petrol, alcohol, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG).

Types of Combustion
 ❖ The gas burns rapidly and produces heat and light. Such combustion is
known as rapid combustion.

❖ The type of combustion in which a material suddenly bursts into flames,

without the application of any apparent cause is called spontaneous
combustion.
Flame

❖ The substances which vapourise during burning, give flames. For example,
kerosene oil and molten wax.

❖ Goldsmiths blow the outermost zone of a flame with a metallic blow-pipe

for melting gold and silver.

Zones of candle flame

Fuel Efficiency

The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel

is called its calorific value. The calorific value of a fuel is expressed in a unit
called kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg).
 FIBRE
❖ The thin strands of thread that we see, are made up of still thinne strands
called fibres.

❖ Fabrics are made up of yarns and yarns are further made up of fibres.

❖ The fibres of some fabrics such as cotton, jute, silk and wool are obtained
from plants and animals. These are called natural fibres.

❖ Wool is obtained from the fleece of sheep or goat.

❖ Silk fibre is drawn from the cocoon of silkworm.

SYNTHETIC FIIBRES
❖ The synthetic fibres are made by human beings. That is why these are
called synthetic or man-made fibres. A synthetic fibre is also a chain of
small units joined together. Each small unit is actually a chemical
substance. Many such small units combine to form a large single unit
called a polymer.
 ❖ Polymers occur in nature also. Cotton, for example, is a polymer called
cellulose. Cellulose is made up of a large number of glucose units.

Types of Synthetic Fibres

Rayon

❖ Fibre having properties similar to that of silk. Such a fibre was obtained by
chemical treatment of wood pulp. This fibre was called rayon or artificial
silk. Rayon is obtained from a natural source, wood pulp, yet it is a man-
made fibre.

❖ Rayon is mixed with cotton to make bed sheets or mixed with wool to make
carpets.
Nylon

➢ Nylon is another man-made fibre it was made without using any natural raw
material (from plant or animal). It was prepared from coal, water and air. It
was the first fully synthetic fibre.

➢ Nylon fibre was strong, elastic and light. It was lustrous and easy to wash.
So, it became very popular for making clothes.

➢ Nylon is also used for making parachutes and ropes for rock climbing. A
nylon thread is actually stronger than a steel wire.

Polyester and Acrylic

➢ Polyester is another synthetic fibre. Fabric made from this fibre does not
get wrinkled easily. It remains crisp and is easy to wash.

➢ Terylene is a popular polyester.

 ➢ PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is a very familiar form of polyester. It is
used for making bottles, utensils, films, wires and many other useful
products.

➢ Polyester (Poly+ester) is actually made up of the repeating units of a

chemical called an ester. Esters are the chemicals which give fruits their
smell.

➢ These are prepared from another type of synthetic fibre called acrylic
clothes made from acrylic are relatively cheap.

➢ All the synthetic fibres are prepared by a number of processes using raw
materials of petroleum origin, called petrochemicals.

Plastics

➢ Plastic is also a polymer like the synthetic fibre. All plastics do not have the
same type of arrangement of units. In some it is linear.

➢ Polythene (Poly+ethene) is an example of a plastic. It is used for making

commonly used polythene bags. Such plastic which gets deformed easily on
heating and can be bent easily are known as thermoplastics. Polythene
and PVC are some of the examples of thermoplastics.

➢ Some plastics which when moulded once, can not be softened by heating.
These are called thermosetting plastics. Two examples are bakelite and
melamine. Bakelite is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. It is used for
making electrical switches, handles of various utensils, etc. Melamine is a
versatile material. It resists fire and can tolerate heat better than other
plastics. It is used for making floor tiles, kitchenware and fabrics which resist
fire.
 ➢ Plastics are poor conductors of heat and electricity. That is why electrical
wires have plastic covering, and handles of screw drivers are made of
plastic.

➢ Teflon is a special plastic on which oil and water do not stick. It is used for
non-stick coating on cook wares.

➢ A material which gets decomposed through natural processes, such as

action by bacteria, is called biodegradable. A material which is not easily
decomposed by natural processes is termed non-biodegradable.
➢ Plastic takes several years to decompose, it is not environment friendly. It
causes environmental pollution.

PLANT FIBRES
Cotton

❖ Cotton plants are usually grown at places having black soil and warm
climate.

❖ The fruits of the cotton plant (cotton bolls) are about the size of a lemon.

❖ Fibres are then separated from the seeds by combing. This process is
called ginning. Ginning was traditionally done by hand. Machines are also
used for ginning.
Jute

❖ Jute fibre is obtained from the stem of the jute plant.

❖ It is cultivated during the rainy season. In India, jute is mainly grown in West
Bengal, Bihar and Assam.
 ANIMAL FIBRES
WOOL

❖ Wool comes from sheep, goat, yak and some other animals. These wool-
yielding animals bear hair on their body.

❖ Hair trap a lot of air. Air is a poor conductor of heat.

❖ Wool commonly available in the market is sheep wool. Yak wool is common
in Tibet and Ladakh. Mohair is obtained from angora goats, found in hilly
regions such as Jammu and Kashmir.

❖ Wool is also obtained from goat hair. The under fur of Kashmiri goat is soft.
It is woven into fine shawls called Pashmina shawls.
❖ The fur (hair) on the body of camels is also used as wool. Llama and
Alpaca, found in South America, also yield wool.

❖ Wool industry is an important means of livelihood for many people in our

country. But sorter’s job is risky as sometimes they get infected by a
bacterium, anthrax, which causes a fatal blood disease called sorter’s
disease. Such risks faced by workers in any industry are called
occupational hazards.

SILK

❖ Silk fibres are also animal fibres. Silkworms spin the ‘silk fibres’. The rearing
of silkworms for obtaining silk is called sericulture.
 ❖ The female silk moth lays eggs, from which hatch larvae which are called
caterpillars or silkworms. They grow in size and when the caterpillar is
ready to enter the next stage of its life history called pupa.

❖ Silk fibres and turns into pupa. This covering is known as cocoon.

❖ Silk fibres are used for weaving silk cloth.

❖ The most common silk moth is the mulberry silk moth. The silk fibre from
the cocoon of this moth is soft, lustrous and elastic and can be dyed in
beautiful colours.

From Cocoon To Silk

❖ For obtaining silk, moths are reared and their cocoons are collected to get
silk threads. A female silk moth lays hundreds of eggs at a time.

❖ The process of taking out threads from the cocoon for use as silk is called
reeling the silk.

SPINNING COTTON YARN

❖ To make fabrics, all these fibres are first converted into yarns.

❖ The process of making yarn from fibres is called spinning.

❖ A simple device used for spinning is a hand spindle, also called takli.
Another hand operated device used for spinning is charkha Use of charkha
was popularised by Mahatma Gandhi as part of the Independence
movement.
Weaving
❖ The process of arranging two sets of yarns together to make a fabric is
called weaving.

❖ Weaving of fabric is done on looms. The looms are either hand operated or
power operated.

Knitting
❖ In knitting, a single yarn is used to make a piece of fabric.

❖ Weaving and knitting are used for making different kinds of fabric. These
fabrics are used for a variety of clothing items.

CLOTHING MATERIAL

❖ People used in ancient times for clothes. It appears that in those times
people used the bark and big leaves of trees or animal skins and furs to
cover themselves.

❖ Even today saree, dhoti, lungi or turban is used as an Un-stitched piece of

fabric.

METHODS OF SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

Handpicking
Remove with your hand the pieces of stone, husks and other broken grains from
grains. This method of handpicking can be used for separating slightly larger
sized impurities like the pieces of dirt, stone, and husk from wheat.
Threshing
The process that is used to separate grain from stalks etc. is threshing. In this
process, the stalks are beaten to free the grain seeds. Sometimes threshing is
done with the help of bullocks. Machines are also used to thresh large quantities
of grain.

Winnowing
The method of separating components of a mixture is called Winnowing.
Winnowing is used to separate heavier and lighter components of a mixture by
wind or by blowing air.

Sieving
Sieving allows the fine flour particles to pass through the holes of the sieve
while the bigger impurities remain on the sieve.

❖ Stones are removed from wheat before grinding.

SEDIMENTATION, DECANTATION AND FILTRATION

❖ When the heavier component in a mixture settles after water is added to it,
the process is called sedimentation. When the water (along with the dust)
is removed, the process is called decantation.

❖ The same principle is used for separating a mixture of two liquids that do
not mix with each other. For example, oil and water.

❖ Strainer all the tea leaves remain in the strainer. This process is called
filtration.
EVAPORATION
 ❖ The process of conversion of water into its vapour is called evaporation.
❖ Sea water contains many salts mixed in it.

❖ Water gets heated by sunlight and slowly turns into water vapour, through
evaporation. In a few days, the water evaporates completely leaving behind
the solid salts. Common salt is then obtained from this mixture of salts by
further purification.
❖ When the steam comes in contact with the metal plate cooled with ice, it
condenses and forms liquid water.
❖ The process of conversion of water vapour into its liquid form is called
condensation.

WATER

❖ Do you know that about two thirds of the Earth is covered with water Most
of this water is in oceans and seas.

❖ The water in the oceans and seas has many salts dissolved in it the water
is saline. So, it is not fit for drinking and other domestic.

Loss of Water by Plants

❖ Wheat plants that give us one kilogram of wheat. He found out that this is
nearly 500 litres, that is, roughly 25 large sized buckets full of water.

❖ Two glasses of water are required to produce each page of a book.

Clouds
 ❖ The cold surface of the glass containing iced water, cools the air around it,
and the water vapour of the air condenses on the surface of the glass. We
noticed this process of condensation.

❖ The process of condensation plays an important role in bringing water

back to the surface of earth.
❖ Tiny drops of water called droplets. It is these tiny droplets that remain
floating in air and appear to us as clouds. It so happens that many droplets
of water come together to form larger sized drops of water. Some drops of
water become so heavy that they begin to fall. These falling water-drops
are. In special conditions, it may also fall as hail or snow. Water in the form
of vapour goes into air by evaporation and transpiration, forms clouds,
and then comes back to the ground as rain, hail or snow.

❖ The rainwater also fills up the lakes and ponds. A part of the rainwater
gets absorbed by the ground and seems to disappear in the soil.

❖ Most of water becomes available to us as ground water.

❖ Water brought back to the surface of the earth by rain, hail or snow, goes
back to oceans.

❖ The circulation of water in this manner is known as the water cycle. This
circulation of water between ocean and land is a continuous process.
This maintains the supply of water on land.

Heavy Rains
Heavy rains may lead to rise in the level of water in rivers, lakes and ponds.
The water may then spread over large areas causing floods. The crop fields,
forests, villages, and cities may get submerged by water. In our country, floods
cause extensive damage to crops, domestic animals, property and human life.
No rains for a longs period
The soil continues to lose water by evaporation and transpiration. Since it is
not being brought back by rain, the soil becomes dry. The level of water in ponds
and wells of the region goes down and some of them may even dry up. The
ground water may also become scarce. It is difficult to get food and fodder.

Rainwater Harvesting
Collect rainwater and store it for later use. Collecting rainwater in this way is
called rainwater harvesting.
AIR

❖ Air has no colour and one can see through it. It is transparent. Our earth is
surrounded by a thin layer of air. This layer extends up to many kilometres
above the surface of the earth and is called atmosphere. As we move
higher in the atmosphere, the air gets rarer.

❖ Mountaineers carry oxygen cylinders with them, while climbing high

mountains.
Air Made Up Of

Air is a mixture of many gases.

Composition of air
Water vapour

When air comes in contact with a cool surface, it condenses and drops of
water appear on the cooled surfaces. The presence of water vapour in air is
important for the water cycle in nature.

Oxygen

Most of the component is used up by the burning candles. However, the other
candle is getting continued supply of air. This component of air, which supports
burning, is known as oxygen.

Nitrogen

The major part of air is nitrogen.which does not support burning candle.
Carbon dioxide

In a closed room, if there is some material that is burning, you may have felt
suffocation. This is due to excess of carbon dioxide that may be
accumulating in the room.

Plants and animals consume oxygen for respiration and produce carbon
dioxide. Plant and animal also consumes oxygen on burning and produces
mainly carbon dioxide and a few other gases.

Dust and smoke

❖ The burning of fuel also produces smoke. Smoke contains a few gases
and fine dust particles and is often harmful.

❖ Dust particles are always present in air.

❖ When we breathe through our nostrils. Fine hair and mucus are present
inside the nose to prevent dust particles from getting into the respiratory
system.

OXYGEN IN THE ATMOSPHERE

❖ It is obvious that animals cannot live without plants. The balance of

oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is maintained through
respiration in plants and animals and by the photosynthesis in plants.
This shows the interdependence of plants and animals.

❖ The wind makes the windmill rotate. The windmill is used to draw water
from tubewells and to run flour mills. Windmills are also used to generate
electricity. Air helps in the movements of sailing yachts, gliders,
parachutes and aeroplanes.

❖ Air also helps in the dispersal of seeds and pollen of flowers of several
plants. Air plays an important role in water cycle.

DEALING WITH GARBAGE

❖ Safai karamcharis collect the garbage in trucks and take it to a low lying
open area, called a landfill. There the part of the garbage that can be
reused is separated out from the one that cannot be used.

❖ The non-useful component is separated out. It is then spread over the

landfill and then covered with a layer of soil. Once the landfill is completely
full, it is usually converted into a park or a play ground. For the next 20
years or so, no building is constructed on it.
 ❖ Some things in the garbage rot. They form manure which is used for the
plants. The rotting and conversion of some materials into manure is called
‘composting’.

VERMICOMPOSTING

❖ Earthworms are called farmer’s friend. Redworms are a type of earthworm

that helps in preparing compost from the kitchen wastes and parts of plants
or animals.This method of preparing compost with the help of redworms is
called vermicomposting.

❖ Redworms do not have teeth. They have a structure called ‘gizzard.

❖ A redworm can eat food equal to its own weight, in a day. Redworms do
not survive in very hot or very cold surroundings.

WEATHER

❖ Humidity, as you might know, is a measure of the moisture in air. The day
to- day condition of the atmosphere at a place with respect to the
temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind speed, etc., is called the weather at
that place. The temperature, humidity, and other factors are called the
elements of the weather.

❖ Rainfall is measured by an instrument called the rain gauge. It is basically

a measuring cylinder with a funnel on top to collect rainwater.
❖ The maximum temperature of the day occurs generally in the afternoon
while the minimum temperature occurs generally in the early morning.

Climate
The average weather pattern taken over a long time, say 25 years, is called the
climate of the place.

CLIMATE AND ADAPTATION

The polar regions

➢ The polar regions present an extreme climate. These regions are covered
with snow and it is very cold for most part of the year. For six months the
sun does not set at the poles while for the other six months the sun does not
rise. In winters, the temperature can be as low as –37°C. Animals living
there have adapted to these severe conditions.

➢ Examples of polar bears and penguins. Polar bears have white fur so that
they are not easily visible in the snowy white background

➢ Another well-known animal living in the polar regions is the penguin. It is

also white and merges well with the white background. It also has a thick
skin and a lot of fat to protect it from cold.

➢ Polar bears, penguins are also good swimmers. Their bodies are
streamlined and their feet have webs, making them good swimmers.

➢ Other animals living in the polar regions are many types of fishes, musk
oxen, reindeers, foxes, seals, whales, and birds.

Tropical Rainforests

➢ The tropical region has generally a hot climate because of its location
around the equator.
➢ These regions get plenty of rainfall. An important feature of this region is
the tropical rainforests.
➢ This region supports wide variety of plants and animals. The major types of
animals living in the rainforests are monkeys, apes, gorillas, tigers,
elephants, leopards, lizards, snakes, birds and insects.

Wind

➢ Moving air is called the wind. Increased wind speed is, indeed,
accompanied by a reduced air pressure.

➢ Air moves from the region where the air pressure is high to the region
where the pressure is low.

➢ Heating the air expands and occupies more space. When the same thing
occupies more space, it becomes lighter. The warm air is, therefore, lighter
than the cold air. That is the reason that the smoke goes up.

➢ Where warm air rises at a place. The air pressure at that place is lowered.

Heating effect at poles and equator

➢ Regions close to the equator get maximum heat from the Sun. The air in
these regions gets warm. The warm air rises,

➢ The winds would have flown in the north-south direction from north to south,
or from south to north. A change in direction is however, caused by the
rotation of the earth.

Heating effect at land and water

➢ In winter, the direction of the wind flow gets reversed; it flows from the land
to the ocean.

➢ The winds from the oceans carry water and bring rain. It is a part of the
water cycle. The monsoon winds carry water and it rains.

➢ The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word ‘mausam’ which means
“season”.

CYCLONE

➢ High-speed winds accompanying a cyclone can damage houses,

telephones and other communication systems, trees, etc., causing
tremendous loss of life and property.

➢ A cyclone is known by different names in different parts of the world. It is

called a ‘hurricane’ in the American continent. In Philippines and Japan it is
called a ‘typhoon.

➢ All storms are low pressure systems. Wind speed plays an important role in
the formation of storms. It is, therefore, important to measure the wind
speed. The instrument that measures the wind speed is called an
anemometer.

TORNADOES
➢ A tornado is a dark funnel shaped cloud that reaches from the sky to the
ground. Most of the tornadoes are weak. A violent tornado can travel at
speeds of about 300 km/h. Tornadoes may form within cyclones.

➢ The diameter of a tornado can be as small as a metre and as large as a

km, or even wider. The funnel of a tornado sucks dust, debris and
 everything near it at the base (due to low pressure) and throws them out
near the top.

➢ Satellites and radars, a Cyclone alert or Cyclone watch is issued 48 hours

in advance.

CROP
When plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is
called a crop. For example, crop of wheat means that all the plants grown in a
field are that of wheat.

Kharif Crops

❖ The crops which are sown in the rainy season are called kharif crops.

❖ Paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut and cotton are kharif crops.

❖ Paddy requires a lot of water. Therefore, it is grown only in the rainy

season.
Rabi Crops

The crops grown in the winter season (October to March) are called rabi crops.
Examples of rabi crops are wheat, gram, pea, mustard and linseed.

Preparation of Soil

➢ Turning and loosening of soil brings the nutrient-rich soil to the top so that
plants can use these nutrients. Thus, turning and loosening of soil is very
important for cultivation of crops.
 ➢ The process of loosening and turning of the soil is called tilling or
ploughing. This is done by using a plough. Ploughs are made of wood or
iron.
Plough

➢ This is being used since ancient times for tilling the soil, adding fertilisers
to the crop, removing the weeds and turning the soil.
Hoe

➢ It is a simple tool which is used for removing weeds and for loosening the
soil. It has a long rod of wood or iron. A strong, broad and bent plate of iron
is fixed to one of its ends and works like a blade. It is pulled by animals.
Cultivator

➢ Nowadays ploughing is done by tractor-driven cultivator. The use of

cultivator saves labour and time.

Sowing
➢ Sowing is an important part of crop production. Before sowing, good
quality, clean and healthy seeds of a good variety are selected. Farmers
prefer to use seeds which give high yield.

Seed Drill

➢ Nowadays the seed drill is used for sowing with the help of tractors. This
sows the seeds uniformly at equal distance and depth. It ensures that seeds
get covered by the soil after sowing. This protects seeds from being eaten
by birds. Sowing by using a seed drill saves time and labour.

Manure and Fertilisers

 ➢ The substances which are added to the soil in the form of nutrients for the
healthy growth of plants are called manure and fertilisers.

➢ Manure is an organic substance obtained from the decomposition of plant

or animal wastes.

➢ Fertilisers are chemicals which are rich in a particular nutrient

➢ Fertilisers are produced in factories. Some examples of fertilisers are urea,

ammonium sulphate, super phosphate, potash, NPK (Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, Potassium).

➢ The use of fertilisers has helped farmers to get better yield of crops such as
wheat, paddy and maize.

➢ Fertiliser is a man-made inorganic salt.

➢ Fertiliser does not provide any humus to the soil.

➢ Fertilisers are very rich plant nutrients like nitrogen. Phosphorus and
potassium
➢ Manure is a natural substance obtained. by the decomposition of cattle
dung and plant residues.

➢ Manure provides a lot of humus to the soil.

➢ Manure is relatively less rich in plant, nutrients.

➢ The supply of water to crops at regular intervals is called irrigation.

Protection from Weeds

 ➢ In a field many other undesirable plants may grow naturally along with the
crop. These undesirable plants are called weeds.

➢ The removal of weeds is called weeding. Some weeds interfere even in

harvesting and may be poisonous for animals and human beings.

➢ Weeds are also controlled by using certain chemicals, called weedicides,

like 2,4-D. These are sprayed in the fields to kill the weeds

➢ Farmers store grains in jute bags or metallic bins. However, large scale
storage of grains is done in silos and granaries to protect them from pests
like rats and insects.

➢ Dried neem leaves are used for storing food grains at home. For storing
large quantities of grains in big godowns,

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife

➢ The increase in temperature on the earth disturbs the water cycle and may
reduce rainfall. This could cause droughts.

➢ Biosphere is that part of the earth in which living organisms exist or which
supports life.

➢ To protect our flora and fauna and their habitats, protected areas called
wildlife sanctuaries

Wildlife Sanctuary - Areas where animals are protected from any

disturbance to them and their habitat.
National Park - Areas reserved for wild life where they can freely use the
habitats and natural resources.

Biosphere Reserve - Large areas of protected land for conservation of wild

life, plant and animal resources and traditional life of the tribals living in the area.

Flora and Fauna

➢ The plants and animals found in a

particular area are termed flora and
fauna respectively of that area.

➢ Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns,

arjun, etc., are the flora and chinkara,
bluebull, barking deer, cheetal, leopard,
wild dog, wolf, etc. are examples of the fauna.

Endemic Species
Endemic species are those species of plants and
animals which are found exclusively in a
particular area. They are not naturally found.
Example – wild mango.

Wildlife Sanctuary

➢ Killing (poaching) or capturing animals in general is strictly prohibited and

punishable by law in all such places. Wildlife Sanctuaries like reserve
forests provide protection and suitable living conditions to wild animals.
 ➢ Satpura National Park is the first Reserve Forest of India.
➢ Animals whose numbers are diminishing to a level that they might face
extinction are known as the endangered animals.
➢ Red Data Book is the source book which keeps a record of all the
endangered animals and plants. Red Data Book is maintained
internationally by an organisation. India also maintains Red Data Book for
plants and animals found in India.

➢ Migratory birds fly to far away areas every year during a particular time
because of climatic changes. Birds who cover long distances to reach
another land are known as migratory birds
➢ Reforestation is restocking of the destroyed forests by planting new trees.

SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA

➢ Such a device can be used to test whether an object is carrying charge or

not. This device is known as electroscope.

➢ The process of transferring of charge from a charged object to the earth is

called Earthing.

➢ Earthing is provided in buildings to protect us from electrical shocks due to

any leakage of electrical current.

➢ Lightning Conductor is a device used to protect buildings from the effect

of lightning.
Earthquake
➢ One natural phenomenon which we are not yet able to predict accurately. It
is an earthquake.

➢ It is caused by a disturbance deep inside the earth’s crust uppermost layer

of the earth called the crust.

Structure of the earth

➢ The outermost layer of the earth is not in one piece. It is fragmented. Each
fragment is called a plate. These plates are in continual motion.

➢ When they brush past one another a plate goes under another due to
collision they cause disturbance in the earth’s crust.

➢ Earthquakes are caused by the movement of plates, the boundaries of the

plates are the weak zones where earthquakes are more likely to occur. The
weak zones are also known as seismic or fault zones.

➢ The power of an earthquake is expressed in terms of a magnitude on a

scale called the Richter scale.

➢ The waves are recorded by an instrument called the Seismograph.

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER

Air Pollution

➢ When air is contaminated by unwanted substances which have a harmful

effect on both the living and the non-living, it is referred to as air pollution

➢ Carbon monoxide is produced from incomplete burning of fuels such as

petrol and diesel. It is a poisonous gas. It reduces the oxygen carrying
capacity of the blood.

➢ Thick fog-like layer in the atmosphere, especially during winters. This is

smog which is made up of smoke and fog.
➢ Other kinds of pollutants are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used in
refrigerators, air conditioners and aerosol sprays. CFCs damage the
ozone layer of the atmosphere.
➢ Ozone layer protects us from harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun

Greenhouse Effect

➢ Other gases like methane, nitrous oxide and water vapour also contribute
towards this effect. Like CO2, they are also called greenhouse gases.
➢ Many countries have reached an agreement to reduce the emission of
greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol is one such agreement.

Water Pollution

➢ Whenever harmful substances such as sewage, toxic chemicals, silt, etc.,

get mixed with water, the water becomes polluted. The substances that
pollute water are called water pollutants.

➢ An ambitious plan to save the river, called the Ganga Action Plan was
launched in 1985. It aimed to reduce the pollution levels in the river.
 ➢ Water which is suitable for drinking is called potable water.

➢ 25% of the world’s population is without safe drinking water.

➢ Chlorination is a commonly used chemical method for purifying water. It is

done by adding chlorine tablets or bleaching powder to the water.

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

➢ The moon is the brightest object in the night sky. The stars, the
planets, the moon and many other objects in the sky are called
celestial objects.
➢ The study of celestial objects and associated phenomena is called
astronomy.

Solar system

The Moon

➢ The various shapes of the bright part of the moon as seen during a month
are called phases of the moon.
 ➢ The time period between one full moon to the next full moon is slightly
longer than 29 days.

➢ The moon revolves around the Earth. The Earth along with the moon,
revolves around the Sun.

➢ The moon completes one rotation on its axis as it completes one revolution
around the Earth.

➢ The moon has no atmosphere. It has no water.

➢ On July 21, 1969 (Indian time) the American astronaut, Neil Armstrong,
landed on the moon for the first time. He was followed by Edwin Aldrin.

The Stars

➢ Stars emit light of their own. The Sun is also a star.

➢ The stars are millions of times farther away than the Sun.

➢ The Sun is nearly 150,000,000 kilometres (150 million km) away from the
Earth.

➢ The next nearest star is Proxima Centauri. It is at a distance of about

40,000,000,000,000 km from the Earth.

➢ Such large distances are expressed in another unit known as light year. It
is the distance travelled by light in one year. Remember that the speed of
light is about 300,000 km per second.
 ➢ The distance of the Sun from the Earth may be said to be about 8 light
minutes. The distance of Alpha Centauri is about 4.3 light years.

➢ The pole star, which is situated in the direction of the earth’s axis. It does
not appear to move.

Constellations

➢ The stars forming a group that has a recognisable shape is called a

constellation.

➢ The stars forming a group that has a recognisable shape is called a

constellation. summer time in the early part of the night is Ursa Major.

➢ It is also known as the Big Dipper, the Great Bear or the Saptarshi.

➢ There are seven prominent stars in this constellation. It appears like a big
ladle or a question mark.

➢ Pole star is not visible from the southern hemisphere. Some of the northern
constellations like Ursa Major may also not be visible from some points in
the southern hemisphere.

➢ Orion is another well-known constellation that can be seen during winter in

the late evenings.
 ➢ Cassiopeia is another prominent constellation in the northern sky. It is
visible during winter in the early part of the night. It looks like a distorted
letter W or M

The Planets

➢ The Sun is the nearest star from us.

➢ The planets look like stars, but they do not have light of their own.

➢ The simplest method of identifying planets from stars is that stars twinkle,
whereas planets do not. Also the planets keep changing their positions
with respect to the stars.

➢ A planet has a definite path in which it revolves around the Sun. This path
is called an orbit. The time taken by a planet to complete one revolution is
called its period of revolution. The period of revolution increases as the
distance of the planet increases from the sun.

➢ Any celestial body revolving around another celestial body is called its
satellite.

➢ The Earth can be said to be a satellite of the Sun,There are many man-
made satellites revolving round the Earth. These are called artificial
satellites.

Mercury

➢ The planet mercury is nearest to the Sun. It is the smallest planet of our
solar system. Because Mercury is very close to the Sun, it is very difficult to
 observe it, as most of the time it is hidden in the glare of the Sun. Mercury
has no satellite of its own.
Venus

➢ Venus is earth’s nearest planetary neighbour. It is the brightest planet in

the night sky.

➢ Sometimes Venus appears in the eastern sky before sunrise. Sometimes it

appears in the western sky just after sunset. Therefore it is often called a
morning or an evening star, although it is not a star.

➢ Venus has no moon or satellite of its own.

The Earth

➢ The Earth is the only planet in the solar system on which life is known to
exist. Some special environmental conditions are responsible for the
existence and continuation of life on the Earth. These include just the right
distance from the Sun, so that it has the right temperature range, the
presence of water and suitable atmosphere and a blanket of ozone.

➢ From space, the Earth appears blue green due to the reflection of light
from water and landmass on its surface.

➢ The axis of rotation of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of its
orbit. The tilt is responsible for the change of seasons on the Earth. The
Earth has only one moon.

Mars
 ➢ The next planet, the first outside the orbit of the Earth is Mars. It appears
slightly reddish and, therefore, it is also called the red planet. Mars has
two small natural satellites.
Jupiter

➢ Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar system. It is so large that about
1300 earths can be placed inside this giant planet. However, the mass of
Jupiter is about 318 times that of our Earth. It rotates very rapidly on its axis.
➢ Jupiter has a large number of satellites.
➢ Jupiter as it appears quite bright in the sky.
Saturn

➢ Beyond Jupiter is Saturn which appears yellowish in colour.

➢ Saturn also has a large number of satellites.
➢ Saturn is that it is the least dense among all the planets. Its density is less
than that of water.
Uranus and Neptune

➢ These are the outermost planets of the solar system. They can be seen
only with the help of large telescopes. Like Venus, Uranus also rotates
from east to west. The most remarkable feature of Uranus is that it has
highly tilted rotational axis

➢ The first four planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are much nearer the
Sun than the other four planets. They are called the inner planets. The
inner planets have very few moons.

➢ The planets outside the orbit of Mars, namely Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune are much farther off than the inner planets. They are called the
 outer planets. They have a ring system around them. The outer planets
have large number of moons.

Some Other Members of the Solar System

Asteroids

➢ There is a large gap in between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This gap is
occupied by a large number of small objects that revolve around the Sun.
These are called asteroids. Asteroids can only be seen through large
telescopes.

Comets

➢ Comets are also members of our solar system. They revolve around the
Sun in highly elliptical orbits.
➢ A Comet appears generally as a bright head with a long tail. The length of
the tail grows in size as it approaches the sun. The tail of a comet is always
directed away from the sun.

➢ Many comets are known to appear periodically. One such comet is

Halley’s comet, which appears after nearly every 76 years. It was last seen
in 1986.

Meteors and Meteorites

➢ At night, when the sky is clear and the moon is not there, sometimes see
bright streaks of light in the sky. These are commonly known as shooting
stars, although they are not stars. They are called meteors.
 ➢ Some meteors are large and so they can reach the Earth before they
evaporate completely. The body that reaches the Earth is called a
meteorite.

Artificial Satellites

➢ Artificial satellites are man-made. They are launched from the Earth. They
revolve around the Earth much closer than earth’s natural satellite, the
moon.
➢ Aryabhata was the first Indian satellite. Some other Indian satellites are
INSAT, IRS, Kalpana-1, EDUSAT.
➢ Artificial satellites have many practical applications. They are used for
forecasting weather, transmitting television and radio signals.
➢ Artificial satellites also used for telecommunication and remote sensing.