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Ch. 2Functions and Graphs
2.1 Basics of Functions and Their Graphs
1Find the Domain and Range of a Relation

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.

Give the domain and range of the relation. 1)

{(1, -7), (7, 1), (3, -1), (3, 4)}
A) domain = {1, 3, 7}; range = {-7, -1, 1, 4} B) domain = {-7, -1, 1, 4}; range = {1, 3, 7}
C) domain = {1, 3, 7, 13}; range = {-7, -1, 1, 4} D) domain = {1, 3, 7, -3}; range = {-7, -1, 1, 4}

2) {(6, 6), (11, -5), (3, 4), (3, -3)}

A) domain = {6, 3, 11}; range = {6, 4, -5, -3} B) domain = {6, 3, 11, -3}; range = {6, 4, -5, -3}
C) domain = {6, 3, 11, 13}; range = {6, 4, -5, -3} D) domain = {6, 4, -5, -3}; range = {6, 3, 11}

3) {(-4, -5), (9, -1), (7, 3), (-3, -3)}

A) domain = {9, -3, -4, 7}; range = {-1, -3, -5, 3}
B) domain = {-1, -3, -5, 3}; range = {9, -3, -4, 7}
C) domain = {9, -3, -4, 7}; range = {-1, 5, -3, -5, 3} D)
domain = {9, -3, -4, 7}; range = {-1, -1, -3, -5, 3}

4) {(-5, 1), (-5, 3), (9, 9), (4, -4), (-1, -1)}
A) domain = {4, -5, -1, 9}; range = {-4, 3, -1, 9, 1}
B) domain = {4, -4, -5, -1, 9}; range = {-4, 3, -1, 9, 1} C)
domain = {4, 14, -5, -1, 9}; range = {-4, 3, -1, 9, 1} D)
domain = {-4, 3, -1, 9, 1}; range = {4, 4, -5, -1, 9}

5) {(41, -3), (5, -2), (5, 0), (9, 2), (21, 4)}
A) domain: {41, 9, 5, 21}; range: {-3, -2, 0, 2, 4} B) domain: {-3, -2, 2, 4}; range: {41, 9, 5, 21}
C) domain: {-3, -2, 0, 2, 4}; range: {41, 9, 5, 21} D) domain: {41, 9, 5, 21}; range: {-3, -2, 2, 4}

6) {(6, -5), (3, 2), (4, 6), (-1, 3), (-4, 9)}
A) domain = {4, -1, 3, 6, -4}; range = {6, 3, 2, -5, 9}
B) domain = {6, 3, 2, -5, 9}; range = {4, -1, 3, 6, -4} C)
domain = {4, 6, -1, 3, 3}; range = {2, 6, -5, -4, 9} D)
domain = {2, 6, -5, -4, 9}; range = {4, 6, -1, 3, 3}

7) {(-2, 6), (-1, 3), (0, 2), (1, 3), (3, 11)}
A) domain: {-2, -1, 0, 1, 3}; range: {6, 3, 2, 11} B) domain: {-2, -1, 1, 3}; range: {6, 3, 2, 11}
C) domain: {6, 3, 2, 11}; range: {-2, -1, 0, 1, 3} D) domain: {6, 3, 2, 11}; range: {-2, -1, 1, 3}

2Determine Whether a Relation is a Function

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.

Determine whether the relation is a function. 1)

{(-1, -6), (2, -5), (4, 9), (8, -5), (10, 3)}
A) Function B) Not a function

2) {(-6, 3), (-1, 3), (1, -1), (1, 1)}

A) Not a function B) Function

Page 1
 3) {(-6, 8), (-6, -5), (2, -8), (6, -8), (9, 6)}
A) Not a function B) Function

4) {(1, -2), (1, -4), (4, -3), (9, -1), (12, 5)}
A) Not a function B) Function

5) {(-5, 4), (-2, 9), (4, 8), (5, 2)}

A) Function B) Not a function

6) {(-9, 2), (-9, 5), (2, 7), (4, -1), (9, 4)}
A) Not a function B) Function

7) {(-7, -1), (-3, -6), (-2, -7), (2, -2)}

A) Function B) Not a function

8) {(-4, -1), (-3, 7), (2, -8), (2, -9)}

A) Not a function B) Function

9) {(-6, 6), (-1, 2), (2, -3), (5, 5)}

A) Function B) Not a function

10) {(-3, -8), (3, 6), (5, -5), (7, -6), (10, 6)}
A) Function B) Not a function

3Determine Whether an Equation Represents a Function

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.

Determine whether the equation defines y as a function of x. 1)

x + y = 49
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

2) 5x + 7y = 8
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

3) x2 + y = 25
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

4) x + y2 = 1
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

5) x2 + y2 = 36
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

6) y2 = 6x
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

7) x = y2
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

8) y = x3
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

Page 2
 9) y = -x - 8
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

10) y = 6x - 2
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

11) x + y3 = 1
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

12) xy + 6y = 1
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

13) |x| - y = 6
A) y is a function of x B) y is not a function of x

4Evaluate a Function

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.

Evaluate the function at the given value of the independent variable and simplify. 1)
f(x) = 2x + 4; f(6)
A) 16 B) 36 C) 8 D) 6

2) f(x) = x2 - 4; f(x + 3)
A) x2 + 6x + 5 B) x2 + 9 C) x2 + 6x + 9 D) x2 - 1

3) f(x) = 3x2 - 4x + 2;f(x - 1) A)

3x2 - 10x + 9 B) -10x2 + 3x + 9 C) 3x2 - 10x + 1 D) 3x2 + 2x + 1

4) g(x) = 3x + 1; g(x + 1)
1
A) 3x + 4 B) 3x + 1 C) 3x - 1 D) x+1
3

5) h(x) = x - 11 ; h(15)
A) 4 B) -26 C) 26 D) -4

6) f(x) = x + 19; f(-3)

A) 4 B) -4 C) 2 D) not a real number

2-3
7) f(x) = x 3 ;f(2)

x - 6x

1 1
A) - 1 B) C) D) - 1
4
8 2

3+8
8) f(x) = x ; f(5)
x2 - 4

A) 19 133 125 11
3 B) C) D)
25 21 7

Page 3
Solve the problem.
9) The function P(x) = 0.65x - 57 models the relationship between the number of pretzels x that a certain
vendor sells and the profit the vendor makes. Find P(1000), the profit the vendor makes from selling 1000
pretzels.
A) $593 B) $650 C) $707 D) $943

10) The total cost in dollars for a certain company to produce x empty jars to be used by a jelly producer is given
by the function C(x) = 0.3x + 27,000. Find C(90,000), the cost of producing 90,000 jars.
A) $54,000 B) $27,000 C) $27.30 D) $90,027

Page 4
5Graph Functions by Plotting Points

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.

Graph the given functions on the same rectangular coordinate system. Describe how the graph of g is related to the graph
of f.
1) f(x) = x, g(x) = x + 1
y
6
5
4
3
2
1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6

A) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 1 unit B) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 1 unit
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

C) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 1 unit D) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 1 unit
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

Page 5
 2) f(x) = x, g(x) = x - 4
y
6
5
4
3
2
1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1
-2

-3
-4

-5
-6

A) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 4 units B) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 4 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

C) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 4 units D) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 4 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

Page 6
 3) f(x) = -4x, g(x) = -4x - 4
y
6
5
4
3
2
1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6

A) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 4 units B) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 4 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

C) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 4 units D) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 4 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

Page 7
 4) f(x) = x2, g(x) = x2 + 1
y
6
5
4
3
2
1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1
-2

-3
-4

-5
-6

A) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 1 unit B) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 1 unit
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

C) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 1 unit D) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 1 unit
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

Page 8
 5) f(x) = 2x2, g(x) = 2x2 - 2
y
6
5
4
3
2
1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1
-2

-3
-4

-5
-6

A) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 2 units B) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 2 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

C) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 2 units D) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 2 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

Page 9
 6) f(x) = x , g(x) = x +
4 y
6
5
4
3
2
1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6

A) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 4 units B) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 4 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

C) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 4 units D) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 4 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

Page 10
 7) f(x) = x , g(x) = x -
4 6
y

5
4
3
2
1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1
-2

-3
-4

-5
-6

A) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 4 units B) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 4 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

C) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 4 units D) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 4 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2

-3 -3
-4 -4

-5 -5
-6 -6

Page 11
 8) f(x) = x3, g(x) = x3 + 3
y
6
5
4
3
2
1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1
-2

-3
-4

-5
-6

A) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 3 units B) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 3 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2

-3 -3
-4 -4

-5 -5
-6 -6

C) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 3 units D) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 3 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

Page 12
 9) f(x) = x, g(x) = x + 3
y
6
5
4
3
2
1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1
-2

-3
-4

-5
-6

A) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 3 units B) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 3 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

C) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 3 units D) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 3 units
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

Page 13
 10) f(x) = x, g(x) = x - 1
y
6
5
4
3
2
1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1
-2

-3
-4

-5
-6

A) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 1 unit B) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 1 unit
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

C) g shifts the graph of f vertically down 1 unit D) g shifts the graph of f vertically up 1 unit
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6

Page 14
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
reaction of Paramecium and many other Protista is always the
same. It swims backward a short distance, turns towards the
aboral surface, and then having thus reversed swims on again in
the new direction, front foremost as before. Apparent "positive
taxies" are often really negative ones; for if the Paramecium be
placed in water containing CO2 it shows the reaction not on
entering the part charged with this acid, but on passing away from
it into purer water, so that it continually tends to turn back into the
acid part, while within it or in the water at a distance not yet
charged it swims about irregularly. It appears due to this that the
individuals become aggregated together, as they excrete this gas
into the water. If a repellent substance diffuse towards the hinder
end of a Paramecium, the response, instead of carrying it away,
brings it into the region of greater concentration, and may thus kill
it.

[32]

"Galvanotaxis and Chemotaxis," Journ. of Physiol. vol. xxvi. 1900-

1901, p. 291.

[33]

Let us take the case of a 1-centimetre cube, growing to the size of

a 2-centimetre cube. The superficial area of the 1 cm. cube
measures 6 square centimetres, and its bulk is 1 cubic centimetre.
The superficial area of the 2-centimetre cube measures 24 square
centimetres, while its volume measures 8 cubic centimetres. Thus
the larger cube has only 3 cm. sq. of surface to every cubic cm. of
volume, instead of 6; in other words, the ratio of surface to volume
has been halved by growth. Three successive bipartitions of the
larger cube will divide it into eight separate 1-centimetre cubes,
each now possessing the original ratio of surface to volume.

[34]

The nucleus is regarded by some as equivalent to a central

nervous organ for the cell; by others, such as G. Mann and
Verworn, as the chief chemical centre of the cell, and notably the
seat of the secretion of the zymases or ferments that play so
important a part in its life-work; for it is found that a Protist
deprived of its nucleus can execute its wonted movements, but
can neither digest nor grow. This conclusion may appear to be
rather sweeping and premature, but we have seen that the
changes of surface tension are the direct antecedents of the
motions of the cytoplasm, we know that such changes are induced
by chemical changes; and thus the nucleus—if it be the central
laboratory to which such changes are ultimately due—would really
in a certain sense be a directive centre.

[35]

The term "resting" is very ill-chosen, for even superficial

observation shows that the relative position and characters of the
internal structures of such a nucleus are constantly changing with
the vital activities and functions of the cell.

[36]

For a detailed study of the nucleus in Protista, see Calkins in Arch.

Protistenk. vol. ii. 1903.

[37]

The "centriole" is a minute granule sometimes recognisable in the

centre of the centrosphere, and undergoing fission in advance. But
centrosomes are often found without a distinction into
centrosphere and centriole, and there is much confusion in the use
of the terms.

[38]

The origin of the centrosomes is a problem not yet certainly

solved, if indeed it be susceptible of any universal solution. They
are certainly absent in many plants; and, on the other hand,
structures which correspond to them often appear in mitotic
divisions of Protista. In some cases the centrosomes are
undoubtedly of nuclear origin, and pass out through the nuclear
wall into the cytoplasm.
[39]

Though the forces at work in the dividing cell are similar in their
effects to such physical forces as magnetism, static electricity, and
even capillarity, and models utilising such physical forces have
been devised to represent the strain-figures of the cell, the cell
forces are distinct from any known physical force. For discussions
of the nature of the forces at work, with bibliographies, see Angel
Gallardo, Interpretatión Dinámica de la División Celular, 1902;
Rhumbler, in Arch. Entw. xvi. 1903, p. 476; Hartog, C.R. cxxxviii.
1904, p. 1525, and "On the Dual Force of the Dividing-cell," pt. i.
Proc. Roy. Soc. 1905 B, lxxvi. p. 548.

[40]

See Th. Boveri, Ergebnisse ueb. d. Konstitution d. chromatischen

Substanz des Zellkerns (1903), for the most recent defence of this
view. He lays, however (p. 2), far more stress on the individuality
of the segments themselves than on the actual chromatin material
they contain.

[41]

The fact that it is by mitotic division that the undifferentiated germ-

cells produce the "differentiated" tissue-cells of the body of the
highest animals, is again irreconcilable with such theories, whose
chief advocates have been A. Weismann and his disciples.

[42]

Temporary plastogamy is a process found in some Foraminifera,

where two organisms unite by their cytoplasms so that there can
be complete blending of these, while the nuclei remain distinct:
they ultimately separate again. In the conjugation of the Infusoria,
the union of the cytoplasms is a temporary plastogamy (see p. 148
f.).

[43]

See Figs. 9, 29, 31, 34, etc., pp. 54, 89, 95, 101.
[44]

One obvious effect of brood-formation is to augment rapidly the

ratio of superficial area to bulk: after only three divisions (p. 23,
note) the ratio is doubled; if the divisions be nine in succession so
as to produce a brood of 512, the ratio is increased eightfold, on
the supposition that the figure is preserved. However, the brood-
mother-cell is usually spherical, while zoospores are mostly
elongated, thus giving an additional increase to the surface, which
we may correlate with that increased activity; so that they
disseminate the species, spreading far and wide, and justifying the
name of "spore" in its primitive sense (from the Greek σπείρω—I
scatter [seed]).

[45]

This condition may be protracted in the segmentation of the egg of

certain Higher Animals, such as Peripatus (Vol. V. p. 20). It is
clearly only a secondary and derived condition.

[46]

The usual antecedent of change in the condition of the egg is

"fertilisation"—its conjugation with the sperm; but this is not
invariable; and a transitory sojourn of certain marine eggs in a
liquid containing other substances than sea-water may induce the
egg on its return to its native habitat to segment and develop. This
has been mistermed "Chemical fertilisation," discovered within the
last six years by Jacques Loeb, and already the subject of an
enormous literature.

[47]

See Hartog in Rep. Brit. Ass. 1896, p. 933, 1900, p. 786.

[48]

Commonly called "fertilisation," or "sexual union," inadequate and

misleading terms.
[49]

For details see Hartog, "Some Problems of Reproduction," Quart.

Journ. Micr. Sci. xxxiii. p. 1, xlvii. p. 583; and Ann. Biol. vol. iv.
(1895) 1897; E. B. Wilson, Yves Delage, and Henneguy
(references on p. 3, note); and for a singularly clear and full
treatment of the processes in Protozoa, Arnold Lang, Lehrb. d.
Vergl. Anat. 2nd ed. Lief. 2, "Protozoa," 1900.

[50]

This phenomenon, which we have termed "exogamy," is common

in Protophyta; it has been clearly demonstrated by Schaudinn in
Foraminifera and the Lobose Rhizopod Trichosphaerium (p. 53 f.
Fig. 9), and by Pringsheim in the Volvocine Pandorina (p. 128 f.
Fig. 45). It is quite independent of the differentiation of binary sex.

[51]

Other modes of syngamy, such as karyogamy and plastogamy, we

shall discuss below, pp. 69, 148; see also p. 30.

[52]

See Gruber in Biol. Centralb. iv. p. 710, v. p. 137 (1884-6), in Ber.

Ges. Freiburg, i. ii. 1886-7; Verworn (reference on p. 16); F. R.
Lillie in Journ. Morph. xii. 1896, p. 239; Nussbaum in Arch. mikr.
Anat. xxvi. 1886, p. 485; Balbiani in Recueil Zool. Suisse, v. 1888,
in Zool. Anz. 1891, pp. 312, 323, in Arch. Microgr. iv. v. 1892-3. For
Higher Organisms especially see T. H. Morgan, Regeneration,
1901.

[53]

Whence the antiseptic powers of such aromatic alcohols as phenol

and thymol, and acids as salicylic acid, etc., and their salts and
esters.

[54]
The portion of the spectrum that is operative in "holophytic"
nutrition is the red or less refrangible half, and notably those rays
in the true red, which are absorbed by the green pigment
chlorophyll, and so give a dark band in the red of its absorption
spectrum. The more refrangible half of the spectrum, so active on
silver salts, that it is usually said to consist of "chemical rays," is
not only inoperative, but has a destructive action on the pigments
themselves, and even on the protoplasm. Chlorophyll is present in
all cases even when more or less modified or masked by the
accompaniment of other pigments.

[55]

Similarly, threads unite the cells of the colonial plant—Flagellate

Volvox, passing through the thick gelatinous cell-wall (pp. 126-127,
Fig. 44).

[56]

Pigments soluble in the ordinary solvents of fats, such as ether,

benzol, chloroform, etc.

[57]

We have ourselves had hard work to persuade intelligent men of

fair general education, even belonging to a learned profession,
that this is not the case.

[58]

Dr. H. Charlton Bastian has recently maintained a contrary thesis

(The Nature and Origin of Living Matter, 1905), but has adduced
no evidence likely to convince any one familiar with the continuous
life-study of the lower organisms.

[59]

The terms "organoid," "organella," have been introduced to

designate a definite portion of a Protist specialised for a definite
function; the term "organ" being reserved for a similarly specialised
group of cells or tissues in a Metazoon or Metaphyte. We do not
consider that this distinction warrants the introduction of new
words into the terminology of general Zoology, however convenient
these may be in an essay on the particular question involved.

[60]

This has been especially the case with the Flagellata, the
Proteomyxa, and the Mycetozoa.

[61]

Lang distinguishes "lobopodia," "filopodia," and "pseudopodia"

according to their form,—blunt, thread-like, or anastomosing. In
some cases the protoplasm shows a gliding motion as a whole
without any distinct pseudopodium, as in Amoeba limax (Fig. 1, p.
5), and a pseudopodium may pass into a thin, active flagellum,
which is, however, glutinous and serves for the capture of prey:
such often occurs in the Lobosa Podostoma and Arcuothrix, which
are possibly two names for one species or at least one genus; and
in many cases a slender pseudopodium may be waved freely.

[62]

See Schewiakoff, "Ueb. d. Geograph. Verbreitung d.

Süsswasserprotozoen," in Mém. Acad. St. Pétersb. ser. 7, xli.
1893, No. 8. His views apply to most minute aquatic organisms—
Animal, Vegetable, or Protistic.

[63]

See E. R. Lankester, art. "Protozoa" in Encycl. Brit. 9th ed. (1885),

reprinted with additions in "Zoological Articles." We cannot accept
his primary division into Corticata and Gymnomyxa, which would
split up the Flagellata and mark off the Gregarines from the other
Sporozoa.

[64]
On this ground I have referred Paramoeba, Greeff, to the
Cryptomonadineae.

[65]

Differences (1) from Foraminifera; (2) from Heliozoa; (3) from

Proteomyxa and Sporozoa; (4) from Myxomycetes; (5) from many
Foraminifera.

[66]

I have not followed the usual classification into Gymnamoebae and

Thecamoebae, according to the absence or presence of a test
(perforated by one or more openings) in the active state, as such a
test occurs in isolated genera of Flagellata and Infusoria, and does
not appear to have any great systematic importance.

[67]

The significance of chromidia in Sarcodina (first noted by

Schaudinn in Foraminifera) was fully recognised and generalised
by R. Hertwig in Arch. Protist. i. 1902, p. 1.

[68]

Stolč in Z. wiss. Zool. lxviii. 1900, p. 625. Lilian Veley, however,

gives reasons for regarding them as of proteid composition, J.
Linn. Soc. (Zool.) xxix. 1905, p. 374 f. They disappear when the
Pelomyxa is starved or supplied with only proteid food.

[69]

This genus contains two sausage-shaped, blueish-green plastids,

possibly symbiotic Cyanophyceous Algae.

[70]

See Lauterborn in Z. wiss. Zool. lix. 1895, pp. 167, 537.

[71]
C. Scheel has seen Amoeba proteus produce a brood of 500-600
young amoebulae, which he reared to full size (in Festschr. f.
Kupffer, 1899).

[72]

Arb. Kais. Gesundheitsamte Berlin, xix. 1903.

[73]

Faune Rhizopodique du Bassin du Léman, 1902. See also Cash,

The British Freshwater Rhizopoda and Heliozoa, vol. i., Ray
Society, 1905.

[74]

Chapman, The Foraminifera, London, 1902; Lister, "Foraminifera"

in Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, pt. i. fasc. 2, 1903.

[75]

Challenger Reports (Zool.), vol. ix. 1884.

[76]

In Lankester's Treat. Zool. pt. i. fasc. 1. For other classifications

see Eimer and Fickert in Z. wiss. Zool. lxv. 1899; Rhumbler in
Lang's Protozoa, 1901; and for a full synopsis of genera and
species, "Systematische Zusammenstellung der recenten
Reticulosae" (pt. i. only), in Arch. Prot. iii. 1903-4, p. 181.

[77]

The type of Dujardin's genus Gromia is G. oviformis = Hyalopus

dujardinii, M. Sch., which is one of the Filosa.

[78]

This convenient name is due to my friend Dr. A. Kemna of

Antwerp.
[79]

The name Foraminifera was used to express the fact that the
chambers communicated by pores, not by a tubular siphon as in
Nautiloidea and Ammonoidea (Vol. III. pp. 393, 396).

[80]

Which probably accounts for the earlier failure of Lister and of

Schaudinn himself to note their conjugation.

[81]

Rhumbler, "Die Doppelschalen v. Orbitolites u. and.

Foraminiferen," in Arch. Protist. i. 1902, p. 193.

[82]

The alleged Archaean genus Eozoon, founded by Carpenter and

Dawson on structures found in the Lower Laurentian serpentines
(ophicalcites), and referred to the close proximity of Nummulites,
has been claimed as of purely mineral structure by the
petrologists; and recent biologists have admitted this claim.

[83]

Possibly composed of the same proteid, "acanthin," that forms

spicules of greater permanence in the Acantharia among the
Radiolaria (p. 75 f. Figs. 24, 25, A).

[84]

Such divisions into functional and abortive sister nuclei are termed
"reducing divisions," and are not infrequent in the formation of
pairing-cells, especially oospheres of Metazoa, where the process
is termed the maturation of the ovum.

[85]

Besides these genera enumerated by Schaudinn, we include

Dimorpha Gruber (Fig. 37 5, p. 112), Mastigophrys Frenzel,
Ciliophrys Cienk., and Actinomonas usually referred to Flagellates.
[86]

K. Brandt, in Arch. Prot. i. 1902, p. 59, regards the presence of

spicules as not even of generic moment, and subdivides the
Collodaria into two families—Collida (solitary), and Sphaerozoea,
colonial, i.e. with numerous central capsules.

[87]

Dreyer adds an additional order—Sphaeropylida, distinguished by

a basal (or a basal and an apical) pylome.

[88]

Verworn has shown that Thalassicolla nucleata can, when the

exoplasm is removed from the central capsule, regenerate it
completely. First a delicate exoplasm gives off numerous fine
radiating pseudopodia, and the jelly is re-formed at their bases,
and carries them farther out from the central capsule. See General
Physiology (Engl. ed. 1899), p. 379.

[89]

The pigment is singularly resistant and insoluble, and shows no

proteid reaction. Borgert states that it appears to be formed in the
oral part of the endoplasm, and to pass through the astropyle into
the ectoplasm, where it accumulates. It is probably a product of
excretion, and may serve, by its retention, indirectly to augment
the surface. See Borgert, "Ueb. die Fortpflanzung der tripyleen
Radiolarien" in Zool. Jahrb. Anat. xiv. 1900, p. 203.

[90]

Dreyer has shown that in many cases it may be explained by

geometrical considerations. V. Häcker has written a most valuable
account of the Biological relations of the skeleton of Radiolaria in
Jen. Zeitschr. xxxix. 1904, p. 297.

[91]

Zool. Jahrb. Anat. xiv. 1900, p. 203.

[92]

Porta has described reproduction by spores and by budding in

Acantharia, Rend. R. Ist. Lomb. xxxiv. 1901 (ex Journ. R. Micr.
Soc. 1903, p. 45). In Thalassophysa and its allies zoospore
reproduction appears to be replaced by a process in which the
central capsule loses its membrane, elongates, becomes
multinuclear, and ultimately breaks up into the nucleate portions,
each annexing an envelope of ectoplasm to become a new
individual (see Arch. Prot. vol. i. 1902).

[93]

Brandt, "Die Koloniebildenden Radiolarien," in Fauna u. Flora des

Golfes v. Neapel, xiii. 1885, gives a full account of the
Zooxanthellae and Diatoms, and notes the parasitism of Hyperia.

[94]

See Köppen in Zool. Anz. xvii. 1894, p. 417. For Sticholonche, see
R. Hertwig in Jena. Zeitsch. xi. 1877, p. 324; and Korotneff in
Zeitsch. wiss. Zool. li. 1891, p. 613. Borgert's paper on
Dictyochidae is in the same volume, p. 629.

[95]

Most of Haeckel's Monera, described as non-nucleate, belong

here. Several have been proved to be nucleate, and to be rightly
placed here; and all require renewed study.

[96]

Even the Acystosporidiae have sickle-germs (blasts) in the insect

host.

[97]

See Zopf, Beitr. Nied. Org. ii. 1892, p. 36, iv. 1894, p. 60, for the
doubtful genus Chlamydomyxa; Hieronymus, abstracted by
Jenkinson, in Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xiii. 1899; Penard, Arch. Protist.
iv. 1904, p. 296.
[98]

The name "aethalium" is now always used in this sense.

[99]

The group was monographed by Schröter in Engler and Prantl's

Pflanzenfamilien, I. Teil, Abt. 1, 1897. See also A. Lister's
Monograph of the Mycetozoa, 1894; Massee, Monog. of the
Myxogastres, 1893; Sir Edward and Agnes Fry, The Mycetozoa,
1899; and Massee MacBride, The North American Slime Moulds,
1899.

[100]

Several monographs of the group have been published recently

dealing with the group from a systematic point of view, including
their relation to their hosts. Wasielewski, "Sporozoenkunde"
(1896); Labbé, "Sporozoa" (in Tierreich, 1899). Doflein's
"Protozoen als Parasiten und Krankheitserreger" (1901) contains
most valuable information of the diseases produced by these and
other Protozoic hosts. Minchin's Monograph in Lankester's
Treatise on Zoology, pt. i. fasc. 2 (1903), is a full account of the
class, and admirable in every way.

[101]

For its reactions see Bütschli, Arch. Protist. vii. 1906, p. 197.

[102]

The cuticle in the allied genus Lankesteria, which is the form we

figure on p. 95, is perforated by a terminal pore, through which the
clear plasma of the sarcocyte may protrude as a pseudopodium.

[103]

This account is taken from Cuénot (in Arch. de Biol. 1900, p. 49),
which confirms Siedlecki's account of the process in the allied
genus Lankesteria in Bull. Acad. Cracow, 1899. Wolters's previous
description, assimilating the processes to those of Actinophrys, is
by these authors explained as the result of imperfect preservation
of his material.

[104]

See p. 120.

[105]

See Caullery and Mesnil, "Rech. sur les Actinomyxidies," Arch.

Bot. vi. 1905, p. 272 f.

[106]

Léger, Arch. Zool. Exp. sér. 3, x. and sér. 4, v. (1902-3); for a full
discussion of the relations of association and conjugation in
Gregarines, see Woodcock in Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. l. 1906, p.
61 f.

[107]

A Lithobius is figured in Vol. V. p. 45.

[108]

The schizont forms of some species, before the invariable

alternation of schizogony and sporogony had been made out
clearly, were regarded as "monogenic" genera, under the names of
Eimeria, A. Schn., and Pfeifferella, Labbé; while those in which the
formation of spores containing sickles had been clearly seen were
termed "digenic." Labbé's monograph, "Die Sporozoen," in the
Tierreich, is unfortunately written from this point of view, which had
already become doubtful, and is now demonstrated to be
erroneous, chiefly by the labours of Schaudinn and Siedlecki.

[109]

A species has been described, however, in the blood of the Indian

Gerbille (Gerbillus indicus), completing the sexual process in the
Louse of its host. A figure of G. aegyptius will be found in Vol. X.
(1902) p. 475.
[110]

There is no difference between a mosquito (little fly) and a gnat,

both names are applied indiscriminately to thin-bodied Diptera of
the group Nemocera which attack man; only the females bite (see
Vol. VI. pp. 466-468).

[111]

Regarded by Schaudinn as a state of the Flagellate Trypanosoma

(p. 119 f.).

[112]

In Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xliv. 1901, p. 429.

[113]

It would seem that resting-cells, i.e. the crescents and

corresponding spheres, of Laverania and Haemamoeba may
linger during months of apparent health in the spleen and red
marrow of the bones; and that these by parthenogenesis produce
sporozoites and determine relapses when, owing to a lowering of
the general health, conditions favourable to new sporulation occur.

[114]

Léger and Duboscq have found that Sarcocystis tenella, a parasite

common in the muscles of the sheep (and rarely found in man),
has a conjugation and sexual process recalling that of
Stylorhynchus, save that the sperms are much smaller than the
ova (C.R. 1902, i. p. 1148).

[115]

The alleged micronucleus of certain forms appears to be merely a

"blepharoplast" (see p. 19); even when of nuclear origin, as in
Trypanosoma, it has no function in reproduction like the
micronucleus of Infusoria (see pp. 115, 120 f.).

[116]
Dimorpha is now referred to Heliozoa (p. 70).

[117]

I.e. resembling the thread-like water Algae.

[118]

Trichocysts (see p. 142) occur in some Chloromonadaceae; and

the Dinoflagellate Polykrikos possesses true nematocysts (see p.
131).

[119]

For a full monograph of this family see H. Lohmann, in Arch. f.

Protistenkunde, vol. i. 1902, p. 89.

[120]

Delage has well explained the action of the single anterior

flagellum which waves in a continuous spiral like a loaded string
whirled round one's head; it thus induces a movement of the water,
beyond its actual range, backwards and outwards, maintained by a
constant influx from behind, which carries the cell onward at the
same time that it necessarily rotates round its axis. If there is a pair
of symmetrically placed flagella they co-operate like the arms of a
swimmer; when the second flagellum is unilateral the motion is
most erratic, as seen in the Bodonidae (and the zoospores of
many Chytridieae, which have most of the characters of the
Flagellates, though habitually removed to the Fungi).

[121]

The colouring matter is chlorophyll or some allied colouring matter.

In the yellow and brown forms the additional pigment is termed
loosely "diatomin," but its identity with that of Diatoms is in no case
proved.

[122]
Notably in the Craspedomonadidae, where transverse division
also occurs. See Raoul Francé, Die Craspedomonadineen (Buda-
Pesth, 1897).

[123]

And also in the "Monads," described by Dallinger and Drysdale,

see above.

[124]

In Cercomonas dujardinii, Polytoma uvella, and Tetramitus

rostratus the gametes resemble the ordinary forms and are
isogamous. In Monas dallingeri and Bodo caudatus conjugation
takes place between one of the ordinary form and size and
another similar but smaller. In Dallingeria drysdali the one has the
ordinary size and form, the other is equal in size, but has only one
flagellum, not three; in Bodo saltans they are unequal, the larger
gamete arising in the ordinary way by longitudinal fission, the
smaller by transverse division. Doubt has been thrown on the
validity of our authors' results by subsequent observers abroad;
but I can find no evidence that these have even attempted to
repeat the English observations under the same severely critical
conditions, and therefore consider the attacks so far unjustified.
Schaudinn has observed conjugation between Trichomonas
individuals which have lost their flagella and become amoeboid;
also in Lamblia intestinalis and in Trypanosoma (Halteridium?)
noctuae (Fig. 39) "Reduction-divisions" (see p. 75, note 1) of the
nuclei take place before fusion, and the nuclear phenomena are
described as "complicated" (Arb. Kais. Gesundheitsamte, xx.
1904, p. 387). Paramoeba eilhardii in its adult state is colourless,
amoeboid, multiciliate. It forms a brood cyst, from which are
liberated flagellate zoospores, with a chromatophore, which
reproduce by longitudinal fission in this state. They may also
conjugate.

[125]

In P.R.S. xxvii. 1878, p. 332.

[126]

In Z. wiss. Zool. lv. 1893, p. 353.

[127]

1. Teil, Abt. 1. a, 1900.

[128]

In the Chlorophyceae, 1. Teil, Abt. 2, 1897.

[129]

1. Teil, Abt. 1. b, 1896.

[130]

Besides the above, Dangeard, in various papers in his periodical

Le Botaniste, has treated of most of the groups, and Raoul Francé
has monographed the Polytomeae in the Jahrb. wiss. Bot. xxvi.
1894, p. 295, and Dill the genus Chlamydomonas, etc., its closest
allies, in op. cit. xxviii. 1895, p. 323.

[131]

For a detailed abstract of our knowledge of Trypanosoma and its

allies up to Feb. 1, 1906, see Woodcock, "The Haemoflagellates,"
in Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. 1. 1906, p. 151.

[132]

Doubts still subsist as to the interpretation of Schaudinn's

observations.

[133]

Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlvi. 1902.

[134]

A Zambezian Tick infects man with a Treponema, producing

relapsing-fever; another species is found in the tropical disease
"framboesia" ("yaws" or "parangi").

[135]

Stated by Geza Entz and Raoul Francé to be due to the spiral

twisting of a plasmic membrane, and to be like a cone formed by
twisting paper, with the free edges overlapping.

[136]

Discovered by Leidy. For the most recent description of this group

see Grassi and Sandias in Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xxxix. (figures)
and xl. p. 1 (text), 1897.

[137]

Bezzenberger has given an analytical table of the eleven known

species of the genus Opalina in Arch. Protist. iii. 1903, p. 138.

[138]

Such movements, permissible by the perfectly flexible but firm

pellicle, are termed "metabolic" or "euglenoid" in contradistinction
to "amoeboid." They also occur in many Sporozoa.

[139]

Within which is often harboured the Rotifer, Proales parasita, Vol.

II. p. 227.

[140]

In the Adinidae there is no groove; the two lashes arise close

together, and the one is coiled round the base of the other.

[141]

In Unt. Inst. Tübingen, i. 1883, p. 233.

[142]
Conjugation of adults has been observed by Zederbauer (Ber.
Deutsch. Ges. xxii. 1904). A short connecting tube is formed by
the meeting of outgrowths from either mate; their protoplasmic
contents meet and fuse herein to form a spherical resting-spore,
as in the Conjugate Algae.

[143]

According to Bergh, Polykrikos has as many nuclei as grooves,

each accompanied by one or more "micronuclei." Possibly these
latter bodies are merely blepharoplasts, in connexion with the
transverse flagella.

[144]

Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien, 1. Teil, Abt. 1, 1896.

[145]

The luminous genus, Pyrocystis (Fig. 47), regarded as a

Cystoflagellate by Wyville Thomson, has a cellulose wall, no
mouth, and in the zoospore state has the two flagella in
longitudinal and transverse grooves of the Dinoflagellata.

[146]

This process has the character of telolecithal segmentation in a

Metazoan egg.

[147]

See Doflein, in Zool. Jahrb. Anat. xiv. 1900, p. 1.

[148]

London, 1753, 402-403.

[149]

On this account Hickson has termed the group "Heterokaryota" in

Lankester's Treat. Zool. i. fasc. 1, 1903.