L2.

2 The laminar boundary layer equations

Recommended reading: -

At the completion of this lecture you should be able to…

• Describe the important characteristics of a laminar boundary layer (see the

summary mid-way through this section).
• Define what separation is and state under what conditions it may occur.
• Determine the shear stress and drag acting on a surface beneath a laminar
boundary layer.

Consider a uniform mean flow impinging on a flat plate. Upstream of the flat plate, the flow
has velocity U in the x 1 direction. The situation is shown in figure A below. A boundary layer
of thickness 𝛿𝛿(𝑥𝑥1 ) grows on the flat plate. Within this boundary layer, viscous stresses are very
important. Outside the boundary layer, the effects of viscosity may be neglected.

U δ(x)
x2
x1

Boundary layer

Figure 2.2.A. Boundary layer growing on a flat plate immersed in a flow of speed U.

The boundary layer thickness, 𝛿𝛿, is defined as the distance from the surface of the flat plate in
the 𝑥𝑥2 direction at which the velocity, 𝑢𝑢1 , reaches 99% of its free stream value i.e.
𝑢𝑢1 (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝛿𝛿) = 0.99𝑈𝑈

A laminar boundary layer is a boundary layer in which the fluid moves in parallel layers with
no disruption between the layers as opposed to a turbulent boundary layer in which the flow is
chaotic and unpredictible (turbulent). We will discuss turbulence and turbulent boundary layers
in a later lecture.

Experiments have shown that the laminar boundary layer on a thin flat plate grows according
to the following equation

𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥1
𝛿𝛿(𝑥𝑥1 ) ≈ 4.9𝑥𝑥1 Re1−0.5 , Re1 = .
𝜈𝜈
You will note that provided Re1 ≫ 1, the boundary layer thickness is much smaller than 𝑥𝑥1 .

Example The wing of a commercial aeroplane has a chord at the centre span of approximately
5m. Estimate the thickness of the boundary layer near the trailing edge at centre span when the
plane is flying at 𝑈𝑈 = 200m.s-1 through air with kinematic viscosity 𝜈𝜈 = 1.5 × 10−5 m2.s-1.
Note : assume that the flow within the boundary layer is laminar and approximate the wing as
a flat plate.

200 m.s-1
5m

Figure 2.2.B. Boundary layer growing on a wing.

Solution: Re1 = 6.67 × 107 . The laminar boundary layer thickness is 3mm! Note that in
reality, the boundary layer will become turbulent at some point on the wing and therefore the
actual boundary layer thickness will be somewhat larger than what we have calculated here.
The purpose of this exercise was to demonstrate that a boundary layer is very thin.

Let’s once again consider a laminar boundary layer on a thin flat plate. We will assume that
the flow is steady (independent of time), incompressible and has constant viscosity. The flow
is assumed to be independent of the 𝑥𝑥3 -coordinate and 𝑢𝑢3 = 0. The parameters which we are
interested in solving for and their dependences are thus

𝑢𝑢1 (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ), 𝑢𝑢2 (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ), 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ).

We have three unknowns and therefore we require three equations to solve our system. These
equations are the incompressible version of the conservation of mass equation (assuming 𝑢𝑢3 =
0)

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢2

= + = 0,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2

the 𝑖𝑖 = 1 component of the incompressible, constant viscosity Navier-Stokes equation

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢1 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢1

𝑢𝑢1 + 𝑢𝑢2 =− + 𝜈𝜈 � 2 + �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥22

and the 𝑖𝑖 = 2 component of the incompressible, constant viscosity Navier-Stokes equation

 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢2 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢2 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢2 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢2
𝑢𝑢1 + 𝑢𝑢2 =− + 𝜈𝜈 � 2 + �.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥22

We will now attempt to non-dimensionalise these equations and by considering what happens
when Re1 ≫ 1 , we will simplify these equations to derive an approximate expression
governing the flow in a boundary layer.

At the surface of the flat plate we have 𝑢𝑢1 = 0, whereas at 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝛿𝛿, 𝑢𝑢1 = 0.99𝑈𝑈. Thus, 𝑢𝑢1
varies between 0 and approximately 𝑈𝑈 between 𝑥𝑥2 = 0 and 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝛿𝛿 . The average velocity
gradient 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢1 /𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 within the boundary layer is thus,
𝛿𝛿
1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢1 1 𝑥𝑥 =𝛿𝛿 1 𝑈𝑈
� 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 = [𝑢𝑢1 ]𝑥𝑥22=0 = (0.99𝑈𝑈 − 0) ≈
𝛿𝛿 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝛿𝛿 𝛿𝛿 𝛿𝛿
0

We therefore non-dimensionalise 𝑢𝑢1 and 𝑥𝑥2 as follows

𝑢𝑢1 = 𝑈𝑈𝑢𝑢�1 , 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑥𝑥̅2 𝛿𝛿.

Which gives

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢1 𝑈𝑈 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢�1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢1 𝑈𝑈 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢�1

= , = 2 .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝛿𝛿 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥22 𝛿𝛿 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅22

Note that we now expect that the average values of 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢�1 /𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅ 2 and 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢�1 /𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅22 are O(1).

We know that in the boundary layer, 𝑢𝑢1 changes rapidly over a short distance in the 𝑥𝑥2
direction. However, because the boundary layer only grows slowly in the 𝑥𝑥1 -direction, the rate
of change of 𝑢𝑢1 with respect to 𝑥𝑥1 is much smaller. Just above the surface of the flat-plate at
the leading edge (𝑥𝑥1 = 0), the velocity has a magnitude of 𝑈𝑈 whereas at a point on the flat-
plate at which we are interested in analysing the flow within the boundary layer (say at 𝑥𝑥1 =
𝐿𝐿), the velocity is very small. Therefore, we can say that

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢1 𝑈𝑈
~ .
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝐿𝐿

We therefore non-dimensionalise 𝑥𝑥1 by 𝐿𝐿.

We don’t yet know how to non-dimensionalise 𝑢𝑢2 , so we will set 𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑢�2 𝑉𝑉 where 𝑉𝑉 is yet to
be determined but has a value which is representative of the 𝑢𝑢2 component of velocity within
the boundary layer. We can solve for 𝑉𝑉 by rewriting the conservation of mass equation in non-
dimensional form as

𝑈𝑈 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢�1 𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢�2
+ =0
𝐿𝐿 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅1 𝛿𝛿 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅2

Assuming the derivatives are both of O(1) then we have

 𝛿𝛿
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑈𝑈 .
𝐿𝐿
From the equation at the start of the lecture we have

𝛿𝛿 1 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈
~ 0.5 , Re1 = .
𝐿𝐿 Re1 𝜈𝜈

Thus we have

𝛿𝛿 1
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑈𝑈 = 𝑈𝑈 0.5
𝐿𝐿 Re1

This is our first important result –because the boundary layer thickness, 𝛿𝛿, is much less than 𝐿𝐿,
when Re1 ≫ 1, we expect the 𝑢𝑢2 component of velocity will also be much less than the 𝑢𝑢1
component of velocity.

Now let’s consider the 𝑖𝑖 = 2 component of the incompressible, constant viscosity Navier-
Stokes equation. Non-dimensionalising using the above assumptions and rearranging yields the
following expression

1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢�2 1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢�2 𝑝𝑝0 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝̅ 1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢�2 1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢�2

𝑢𝑢�1 + 𝑢𝑢�2 =− 2 + 2 + .
Re1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅1 Re1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅2 𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅2 Re1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅12 Re1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅ 22

Hopefully you can see that as Re1 gets very large, our equation becomes

𝑝𝑝0 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝̅
0≈− .
𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈 2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅2

This is our second important result. It tells us that (to a good approximation) the pressure does
not vary in the 𝑥𝑥2 direction with the boundary layer. Thus means that for fixed 𝑥𝑥1 , the pressure
at the surface of the flat plate is the same as the pressure at the edge of the boundary layer.
Outside the boundary layer, we can regard the flow as being inviscid. In this region fluctuations
in pressure may be modelled using Bernoulli’s equation. Therefore, we can set 𝑝𝑝0 = 𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈 2.

Finally, we consider the 𝑖𝑖 = 1 component of the incompressible, constant viscosity Navier-

Stokes equation. Non-dimensionalising using the above assumptions and rearranging yields the
following expression

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢�1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢�1 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝̅ 1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢�1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢�1

𝑢𝑢�1 + 𝑢𝑢�2 =− + + .
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅1 Re1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅12 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅22

For large Re1 this equation becomes the boundary layer approximation to the Navier-Stokes
equation:

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢�1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢�1 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝̅ 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢�1

𝑢𝑢�1 + 𝑢𝑢�2 ≈− + .
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥̅1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅ 22
This equation, along with the conservation of mass equation and appropriate boundary
conditions can be solved in a relatively straightforward manner to yield the velocity profile
within a boundary layer.

Summary: We have shown that for flow over a surface for which the local Reynolds number
Re1 is large, there will exist a very thin layer of fluid, known as a boundary layer, in which the
effects of viscosity are important. Exterior to the boundary layer (and any wake which exists
behind our object) the flow can usually be regarded as inviscid. The boundary layer cannot
support a pressure difference, so the pressure at the edge of the boundary layer can be assumed
to be equal to the pressure on the surface of the flat-plate. The boundary layer grows very
slowly and the component of velocity normal to the wall is much smaller than the component
of velocity parallel to the wall.

There is no closed form solution to the laminar boundary layer equations. However, a
reasonably good approximation is given by the Pohlhausen velocity profile

𝑢𝑢�1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥̅ 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥̅2 2 + 𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥̅2 3 + 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥̅2 4 , 𝑥𝑥̅2 ≤ 1

𝑢𝑢�1 = 1, 𝑥𝑥̅2 ≥ 1

where a, b, c, and d are constants determined from the boundary conditions and from the
requirement that 𝑢𝑢�1 , 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢�1 /𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥̅2 and 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢�12 /𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥̅22 are continuous at 𝑥𝑥̅2 = 1 . Note that this is an
approximate solution which assumes that it is acceptable to set 𝑢𝑢�1 = 1 (𝑢𝑢1 = 𝑈𝑈), rather than
𝑢𝑢�1 = 0.99 at 𝑥𝑥̅2 = 1 (𝑥𝑥2 = 𝛿𝛿).

Example Determine the values for a, b, c, and d for a boundary layer on a flat plate which
satisfies 𝑢𝑢�1 = 𝑢𝑢�2 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥̅2 = 0 , and 𝑢𝑢�1 = 1 , 𝑢𝑢�2 = 0 , at 𝑥𝑥̅2 = 1 . You may assume that
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝̅ /𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 = 0 within the boundary layer.

Solution: The boundary layer equation for zero pressure gradient is

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢�1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢�1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢�1

𝑢𝑢�1 + 𝑢𝑢�2 =
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅22

Because 𝑢𝑢�1 = 𝑢𝑢�2 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥̅2 = 0 our equation reduces to

𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢�1
= 0 at 𝑥𝑥̅2 = 0.
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅22

The Pohlhausen velocity profile automatically satisfies the requirement that 𝑢𝑢�1 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥̅2 = 0.
We have also used this boundary condition along with 𝑢𝑢�2 = 0 at 𝑥𝑥̅2 = 0 to derive the above
equation. Substituting the Pohlhausen velocity profile into this equation yields

𝑏𝑏 = 0.

Requiring continuity in 𝑢𝑢�1 , 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢�1 /𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥̅2 and 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢�12 /𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥̅22 at 𝑥𝑥̅2 = 1 yields the following three
equations
 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑 = 1, 𝑎𝑎 + 3𝑐𝑐 + 4𝑑𝑑 = 0, 6𝑐𝑐 + 12𝑑𝑑 = 0.

Solving this system of equations yields

𝑢𝑢�1 = 2𝑥𝑥̅ 2 − 2𝑥𝑥̅2 3 + 𝑥𝑥̅2 4 , 𝑥𝑥̅2 ≤ 1

𝑢𝑢�1 = 1, 𝑥𝑥̅2 ≥ 1.

Although the boundary layer equations have been derived for flow over a flat plate, they can
also be used to calculate the velocity profile within a boundary layer on a surface which is
slightly curved. For example, it is common practise to calculate the flow over an aerofoil
(airplane wing) by solving the boundary layer equations in the boundary layer and using an
inviscid solver to calculate the flow exterior to the boundary layer and wake (see figure C
below). For this case, we replace 𝑥𝑥1 by a coordinate parallel to the aerofoil surface and 𝑥𝑥2 by
a coordinate perpendicular to the aerofoil surface. Note that this approach also requires
methods to deal with the wake and the turbulent boundary layers (which we will cover in a
future lecture). This approach will also not work if the boundary layer separates.

Flow outside the boundary

layer can be regarded as
U Flow in the boundary layer
inviscid
governed by the boundary
layer equations

Figure 2.2.C. Laminar flow over an aerofoil can be calculated using the boundary layer
equations and an inviscid flow solver.

Boundary layers are very sensitive to pressure gradients in the external flow.

• If the flow accelerates (flows from high pressure to low pressure) the boundary layer
becomes thinner and more closely confined to the wall.
• If the flow decelerates (flowing from low pressure to high pressure) the boundary layer
becomes thicker.
• If the adverse pressure gradient (flow from low pressure to high pressure) is large
enough, the flow close to the boundary reverses i.e. the flow separates.

These three flow profiles are shown in figure D below. Note that the accelerating flow is typical
of the flow in the boundary layer towards the front of the aerofoil section shown in figure C.
In this region the boundary layer is small and unlikely to separate. The decelerating flow is
typical of the flow towards the rear of the aerofoil section. In this region the boundary layer
can grow quickly and, if the aerofoil is poorly designed, it can separate. The long thin tail
behind an aerofoil is to minimise the pressure gradient exerted on the boundary layer in order
to minimise the chance of the boundary layer separating. If separation occurs, then a large wake
will form behind the aerofoil creating drag and some loss of lift. If separation occurs close to
the leading edge then the flow is said to be stalled and will no longer produce a significant
amount of lift.

𝛿𝛿
𝛿𝛿
𝛿𝛿
𝛿𝛿

Accelerating flow Decelerating flow

Figure 2.2.D. Boundary layers grow quickly and are prone to separation if there is an adverse
pressure gradient.

Questions

2.2.1. Calculate the shear-stress on a flat-plate beneath a laminar boundary layer described by
the Pohlhausen velocity profile. Note that the boundary layer approximation allows you to
assume that 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢2 /𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 = 0.

2.2.2. A hydrofoil 0.1m long and 1m wide is completely submerged in a water flow of 3m.s-1
with 𝜌𝜌 = 1000kg.m-3 and 𝜈𝜈 = 10−6m2 . s-1. You may assume that the hydrofoil can be modelled
as a flat-plate. The boundary layer will remain laminar provided that Re1 < 5 × 105 . (a) Check
whether the boundary layer remains laminar. (b) Assuming that the boundary layer does remain
laminar, use your answer from Q1 to estimate the drag force on the hydrofoil.

2.2.3. An alternative velocity profile to the Pohlhausen profile for the velocity in a laminar
boundary layer on a flat-plate is given by

𝑢𝑢�1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥̅ 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥̅2 2 , 𝑥𝑥̅2 ≤ 1

𝑢𝑢�1 = 1, 𝑥𝑥̅2 ≥ 1

Determine appropriate values for 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏. Check whether your solution behaves as expected.
Calculate the predicted shear-stress on the flat-plate. How does this value compare with that
which you calculated in Q1?